Electoral fraud in the United States

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* https://www.propublica.org/article/kris-kobach-voter-fraud-kansas-trial (refs: 19, 336, 352)

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* https://thehill.com/policy/national-security/4657038-mike-johnson-illegal-voting-voter-fraud/ (refs: 89, 124)

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Electoral fraud in the United States, also known as voter fraud,[1] involves illegal voting in or manipulation of United States elections. Types of fraud include voter impersonation or in-person voter fraud, mail-in or absentee ballot fraud, illegal voting by noncitizens and double voting.

Electoral fraud is considered by most experts to be extremely rare in the United States, with some experts stating that mail-in voting is more vulnerable to fraud than voting in-person.[2][3][4][5] In the last half-century, there have been occasional examples of electoral fraud affecting United States elections, mostly on the local level.[6] Electoral fraud was significantly more prevalent in earlier United States history, particularly in the 19th and early 20th centuries,[7] and has long been a significant topic in American political discourse. In recent years, false accusations of electoral fraud have often been linked to the election denial movement in the United States.[8]

## Frequency

[edit]

Electoral fraud is considered by most experts to be extremely rare in the United States,[16] and often accidental when it occurs.[17][18] Fraud is more likely to occur in and affect the outcome of local elections, where the potential impact of a small number of votes can be greater.[6][19][20][21]

### Databases

[edit]

In 2012, News21, an Arizona State University journalism project, published a database of 2,068 alleged electoral fraud cases reported between 2000–2012.[22] This represented about 0.000003 cases for every vote cast, and 344 cases per national general election. 46 percent of cases also resulted in acquittals, dropped charges or decisions not to bring charges.[23] News21 gathered the information by sending public records requests to elections officials and prosecutors, and was not able to obtain data from all jurisdictions in the United States.[22]

The conservative Heritage Foundation publishes an incomplete database of electoral fraud cases brought by prosecutors since 1979.[24][25][26] As of November 2023, there were 1,465 proven cases of election fraud listed. This represents a tiny fraction of total votes; in Texas, for example, Heritage found 103 cases of confirmed election fraud between 2005 to 2022, in a period where 107 million ballots were cast.[27]

### Voter impersonation

[edit]

Voter impersonation, or in-person voter fraud, is described by experts as extremely rare.[37] Between 1978–2018, no elections were overturned by courts due to voter impersonation fraud.[38] Cases of voter impersonation are often difficult to prove.[39][40]

Rutgers professor Lorraine Minnite has maintained that voter impersonation is illogical from the perspective of the perpetrator due to the high risk and limited upside of casting one vote.[41] If caught, perpetrators of voter impersonation can face up to 5 years in prison and a fine of up to $10,000 for citizens and deportation for immigrants.[41] Proponents of voter identification laws have argued that it can be difficult to detect voter impersonation if voter ID is not required.[42][43][44] University of Virginia law professor Michael D. Gilbert agreed with Minnite in 2014 that theory and evidence suggest voter impersonation "rarely occurs", though agreed with voter ID proponents that "the failure to observe fraud does not mean that no fraud takes place". Gilbert noted that it is difficult for someone to coordinate widespread voter impersonation to steal an election, as even if they paid people to vote in-person for their preferred candidate, they could not confirm whether these people voted the way they were paid to.[45]

ABC News reported in 2012 that only four cases of voter impersonation had led to convictions in Texas over the previous decade.[41] News21 identified a total of 10 cases of alleged voter impersonation in the United States between 2000 and 2012.[46][47] Another 2012 study found no evidence that voter impersonation (in the form of people voting under the auspices of a dead voter) occurred in the 2006 Georgia general elections.[48]

In a 2013 study, the New York City Department of Investigation (DOI) sent investigators to vote under the names of 63 ineligible voters, who were either deceased, felons or had moved outside New York City. 61 of those investigators were allowed to illegally vote under their assumed identities. One of the two who was not allowed to vote was recognized by the mother of the felon they were impersonating, who worked at the polling place. In five instances, investigators in their 20s or 30s successfully posed as voters age 82 to 94. The DOI report stated that this result, while not large enough to be statistically significant, "indicates vulnerability in the system".[49][50]

In April 2014, Federal District Court Judge Lynn Adelman ruled in Frank v. Walker that Wisconsin's voter ID law was unconstitutional because "virtually no voter impersonation occurs in Wisconsin ...".[51] In August 2014, Loyola Law School professor Justin Levitt reported in the Washington Post's Wonkblog that he had identified only 31 credible cases of voter impersonation since 2000.[52][53] The most serious incident identified involved as many as 24 people trying to vote under assumed names in Brooklyn, which would still not have made a significant difference in most American elections.[52] A 2014 study in the Election Law Journal found that when surveyed, about the same percentage of Americans indicated they had been abducted by extraterrestrials as having committed voter impersonation.[54][55][relevant? - discuss] In 2016, News21 reviewed cases of possible voter impersonation in five states where politicians had expressed concerns about it. They found 38 successful state prosecutions for voter fraud, none of which were for voter impersonation.[56]

### Mail-in ballot fraud

[edit]

See also: Postal voting in the United States § Reliability of postal ballots

Mail-in ballot fraud is considered quite rare, though some experts consider it more likely to occur than in-person voter fraud.[2][3][57][58] Between 1978–2018, at least fourteen elections were invalidated or overturned by courts due to absentee ballot fraud.[38][needs context]

Postal ballots have been the source of "most significant vote-counting disputes in recent decades", according to Edward Foley, director of the Election Law program at Ohio State University.[4] The New York Times wrote in 2012 that according to election administrators, fraud in voting by mail was "far less common than innocent errors" but "vastly more prevalent" than in-person voting fraud.[5] University of Chicago political scientist Anthony Fowler said in 2020 that with mail-in ballots, "it could be easier for someone to fraudulently vote on behalf of someone else or for someone to tamper with ballots" and "one might be more concerned about coercion or vote buying", but that in practice, "voter fraud is very rare, and the risk of widespread fraud is probably very minimal, even with all-mail elections".[3]

Justin Levitt, a law professor at Loyola Marymount, has stated "misconduct in the mail voting process is meaningfully more prevalent than misconduct in the process of voting in person", but that misconduct "still amounts to only a tiny fraction of the ballots cast by mail".[2] Lonna Atkeson, an expert in election administration, said about mail-in voting fraud, "It's really hard to find ... The fact is, we really don't know how much fraud there is ... There aren't millions of fraudulent votes, but there are some."[2] Lorraine Minnite, a professor at Rutgers University says “my sense is that it is not much more frequent than in-person voter fraud, which rarely occurs.”[2] Richard Hasen, a professor at University of California, Irvine School of Law, said in 2020 that "problems are extremely rare in the five states that rely primarily on vote-by-mail."[2]

An analysis by News21 found 491 known cases of absentee ballot fraud between 2000 and 2012.[2][59][60][61] In April 2020, a voter fraud study covering 20 years by the Massachusetts Institute of Technology found the level of mail-in ballot fraud "exceedingly rare" since it occurs only in "0.00006 percent" of individual votes nationally, and, in one state, "0.000004 percent — about five times less likely than getting hit by lightning in the United States."[57] A 2020 Washington Post analysis of data from three vote-by-mail states (Colorado, Oregon and Washington), with help from the Electronic Registration Information Center (ERIC), found that officials had identified just 372 possible cases of double voting or voting on behalf of deceased people out of about 14.6 million mail votes cast in 2016 and 2018.[62]

Ballot harvesting, or third parties collecting and delivering absentee ballots for voters, is legal in some states but illegal or restricted in others.[63][64] Other types of fraud have included ballot stuffing in absentee drop boxes;[65] coercion of voters, since the ballot is not always cast in secret;[66][67] requesting absentee ballots on behalf of other voters;[68][69] and collection of ballots by dishonest collectors who mark votes or fail to deliver ballots.[70] In many cases, ballot drop boxes are placed in locations where they can be monitored by security cameras or election staff.[71]

### Noncitizen voting

[edit]

See also: Non-citizen suffrage in the United States § 21st century

Illegal noncitizen voting is considered by experts to be extremely rare.[86] This is due in part to the more severe penalties associated with the practice including deportation, up to five years of incarceration or fines, as well as the jeopardizing of naturalization efforts.[87][88][89]

The federal form to register a voter requires a unique identification number such as a Social Security or driver's license number, but it does not require proof of citizenship. New voters must check a box attesting that they are a citizen.[90][82] The process of verifying the citizenship of voters varies by state, and not all states conduct verification as of 2020,[90][needs update] though states typically have safeguards that prevent noncitizen voting.[91] When noncitizens are added to voter rolls, it is usually by mistake, as the result of a federal law that requires states to offer people voter registration when they visit a motor vehicle office.[92] Sometimes it also appears that more noncitizens are on voter rolls than there are because they became naturalized citizens but have not yet been back to the DMV to update their citizenship status in the DMV database.[93]

States that have examined their voter rolls have found very few noncitizen voters.[94] As of July 2024, The Heritage Foundation database includes only 24 noncitizen voting cases from between 2003 and 2023.[95][96][97][25] In an audit of the 2016 elections, the North Carolina State Board of Elections found that 41 out of 4.8 million total votes were by noncitizens.[98][needs context] In 2018, CNN reported that in the past three years, Kansas Secretary of State Kris Kobach had convicted three noncitizens of voting out of 1.8 million voters.[99] A Brennan Center for Justice study of 2016 data from 42 jurisdictions found an estimated 30 incidents of suspected noncitizen voting out of 23.5 million votes cast (or .0001% of total votes cast).[88][100] A 2022 citizenship review in Georgia found that there were 1,634 attempted voter registrations between 1997 and 2022 where citizenship was not able to be verified, but all of these were prevented from registering.[74][73][76]

Some prominent Republicans such as House Speaker Mike Johnson have argued that noncitizen voting is a threat, though claims of widespread noncitizen voting have been unsupported by evidence.[73][101][102] Several Republican-led states have flagged and removed small numbers of purported noncitizens from voter rolls, ranging in the hundreds or thousands.[83] These figures have been criticized by voting rights organizations for erroneously including legal voters, particularly naturalized citizens.[103][104][105] In 2014, Old Dominion University Jesse Richman and David Earnest published a study that claimed to have found evidence of non-citizen voting, which was criticized by numerous academics and has been described as discredited or debunked.[106][107][108] Donald Trump and others used the study to justify false claims that noncitizen voting was widespread.[109][110][111] A 2015 study that checked the survey data found no evidence of non-citizen voting.[112][113] In 2020 and 2024, the Cato Institute, a libertarian think tank, said that there was no detectable amount of noncitizen voting.[114][115][116][117] Noncitizens who can vote in the few local elections where it is legal rarely cast ballots.[118]

Richard Hasen, in 2020, said "noncitizen voting and voter impersonation fraud weren't icebergs ... they were puddles that evaporated in the sunlight of public inspection and legal examination." He also said "spurious claims more likely serve as a pretext for passing laws aimed at making it harder for people likely to vote for Democrats to register and vote."[119] San Francisco State University professor and noncitizen voting expert Ron Hayduk referred to noncitizen voting as a "problem that doesn't exist".[82][120] Glenn Kessler in The Washington Post stated there was "scattered evidence" of noncitizen voting and little to support the idea that it ever affected the outcome of a major election, but that the scarcity of evidence "does not necessarily prove that the phenomenon does not happen". He wrote that "if a noncitizen casts a ballot, there is no obvious victim to make a complaint and little public documentation to prove that a voter is not a citizen".[25]

### Double voting

[edit]

Double voting is considered extremely rare.[123] When someone votes twice within the same state, it is often inadvertent, for example if a voter thinks their absentee ballot will not be delivered in time.[124] As of 2023, the only system that can detect double voting across states is the Electronic Registration Information Center (ERIC), which close to half of states participate in.[125]

A 2008 Election Law Journal article found that a number of claims from the early 2000s purporting to have found double voters were due largely to the 'Birthday problem', or the statistical probability of people sharing the same name and birthday across multiple states.[126] It noted that substantiated instances of double voting are 'notable mostly for their rarity.'[126] In 2007, the Secretary of State of Washington checked voter signatures to verify whether or not double-voting occurred among people with the same name and birthday, and the check exonerated all but one person.[126]

An American Political Science Review study of voter data from the 2012 presidential election estimated that at most 1 in 4,000 voters illegally cast two ballots, though it noted accounting errors could account for most if not all of those numbers.[127] The study found that many apparent double-voters were the result of incorrectly marking someone as having voted.[121] It also concluded that when two voter records share the same name and birthdate, removing the earlier registration could impede approximately 300 legitimate votes for each double vote prevented.[127]

Being registered to vote in multiple states without voting in more than one is allowed.[128] The legal definition of double voting varies between states, but voting more than once in a given election is illegal under the Voting Rights Act and comes with a fine of up to $10,000 and up to five years in prison.[129]

### Felony voting

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See also: Felony disenfranchisement in the United States

In the United States, depending on the state, a person may have their voting rights suspended or withdrawn due to the conviction of a criminal offense, usually a felony. Felons who cast a ballot in those states often do not know that they were ineligible to vote.[130]

A North Carolina State Board of Elections audit of the 2016 elections found that 441 felons had voted before their right to vote had been restored.[131] Out of 12 people on probation for a felony who were charged with illegal voting in Alamance County, North Carolina in 2016, five stated in separate interviews with The New York Times that they had thought they were allowed to vote.[132] At least seven pled down to misdemeanors.[133][134]

### Other types

[edit]

A type of fraud that sometimes occurs is falsification of signatures on nominating petitions. Experts say that as the cost of gathering paid signatures goes up, there is a greater incentive for fraud.[135]

There have been isolated cases of election workers changing or destroying ballots after they arrive.[136][137][improper synthesis?]

Between 2000 and 2012, News21 found 400 cases of alleged voter registration fraud across 34 states, many of which were linked to third-party voter registration groups such as ACORN. This fraud can include registering fake names to vote.[138]

It is illegal to pay people to vote in the United States.[139]

Courts have historically considered the practice of busing voters to polling stations legally permissible.[139]

### Outdated voter registration

[edit]

Outdated voter registration has not been linked to voter fraud despite allegations connecting the two.[140]

A 2012 report by the Pew Center on the States based on data collected in 2008, found that over 1.8 million dead people were registered to vote nationwide and over 3 million voters were registered in multiple states.[141][140] According to PolitiFact, the study investigated "outdated voter rolls, not fraudulent votes", and made "no mention of noncitizens voting or registering to vote".[140] In an October 2016 Associated Press fact-check, the author noted these voter registration irregularities left some people concerned that the electoral system was vulnerable to the impersonation of dead voters. However, voter rolls with dead voters are usually due to the states being slow to eliminate dead voters. By 2016, most states had addressed concerns raised by the Pew 2012 report.[142]

Ballots being cast for dead people is very rare. In 2020, the Arizona Attorney General investigated 282 claims of dead people voting and found one which was substantiated. The same year, Republican legislators in Michigan found two dead voters in Wayne County out of a list of 200 supposed cases.[143]

## Notable cases

[edit]

According to University of Kentucky professor Tracy Campbell, author of the 2005 book Deliver the Vote: A History of Election Fraud, an American Political Tradition—1742-2004, electoral fraud has historically been "deeply embedded" in American political culture.[144][145][146]

In the 1996 book Dirty Little Secrets: The Persistence of Corruption in American Politics, Larry Sabato and Glenn R. Simpson noted that Democrats "feature prominently in almost all of the instances" of fraud discussed in the book, though that Republicans were also fully capable of fraud "when circumstances permit". Sabato and Simpson posited that Democrats have had more opportunities to commit fraud due to control of state legislatures, and a greater percentage of their voter base being available or more vulnerable to participation.[147]

### 19th century

[edit]

A glass ballot box, patented in 1858 to prevent electoral fraud.[148]

Electoral fraud was prevalent in the United States during the 19th century, when safeguards against fraud and electioneering were considerably weaker, and political machines wielded significantly more power. Political parties would produce their own ballots, and as of the mid-19th century, seven states still conducted elections by voice voting. States only began to adopt the secret ballot in the 1880s and 1890s.[7]

Voter fraud was so common that it developed its own vocabulary. "Colonizers" were groups of bought voters who moved en masse between wards. "Floaters" cast ballots for multiple parties, and "repeaters" voted multiple times, sometimes in disguise.[149][150] Cooping was a form of fraud where people were kidnapped, drugged and forced to repeatedly vote, and is thought to have contributed to the 1849 death of Edgar Allan Poe.[151][152]

Cities such as New York City, Chicago, San Francisco and Pittsburgh had elections influenced by political machines.[153] The Tammany Hall machine in New York City, for example, encouraged residents to vote multiple times by shaving their beards, registered voters under fake names, physically intimidated voters and granted citizenship to newly arrived immigrants.[7] Cheating also regularly occurred in suburban and rural areas. Voter fraud and suppression against African-Americans was common in the Jim Crow South.[7]

1872 depiction of electoral fraud in Philadelphia.

In the 1850s Kansas Territory elections, pro-slavery forces seeking to ratify the Lecompton Constitution carried out voter fraud on multiple occasions by importing pro-slavery people from Missouri to cast ballots.[154][155]

In the 1876 United States presidential election between Republican Rutherford B. Hayes and Democrat Samuel J. Tilden, voter fraud was widespread, with South Carolina reporting an impossible 101 percent turnout. Violence and intimidation against Black Republican voters also occurred. In four contested states, Republicans and Democrats filed separate tallies favoring their respective candidates. The election was ultimately decided by the Congress-appointed Electoral Commission in favor of Hayes.[156]

In the 1888 United States presidential election, there was evidence of voter fraud in some states that favored Republican Benjamin Harrison, particularly in his home state of Indiana.[157] Public backlash contributed to the nationwide implementation of secret ballots.[149] Two races in the 1888 United States House of Representatives elections were also overturned due to fraud. In Arkansas, John M. Clayton lost to Clifton R. Breckinridge after a ballot box with a large majority of Clayton votes was stolen. Clayton was assassinated the following year while challenging the election, but was posthumously declared the winner.[158] In Maryland, Barnes Compton was initially elected, but his opponent Sydney E. Mudd successfully contested the election the following year.[159]

Evidence suggests that the 1892 Alabama gubernatorial election, where Reuben Kolb lost to incumbent Thomas Goode Jones, was decided by fraud. This included ballot boxes being stolen, votes being swayed by bribery or threats, and counties in the Black Belt announcing results before later changing them. Kolb was not allowed by law to contest the results, and lost the gubernatorial race in 1894 under similar circumstances.[160]

### 20th century

[edit]

Electoral fraud caused some notable United States elections in the 20th century to be affected or annulled. Since 1913, four United States Senate races were overturned by the Senate after the losing candidate challenged the outcome.[161]

In the early 20th century, electoral fraud was similar in nature to the 19th century.[7] Alabama ratified its 1901 constitution, which remained in effect until 2022, due to widespread electoral fraud in the referendum.[162][163] In the 1905 New York City mayoral election, there was fraud against William Randolph Hearst linked to the Tammany Hall machine. Hearst lost to George McClellan by 3,472 votes.[164] In the 1918 United States House of Representatives elections in Pennsylvania, Patrick McLane was declared the winner in the 10th district, but a congressional committee determined in 1921 that "wholesale fraud" had cheated John R. Farr out of the election, and McLane was unseated.[165]

In the 1930s, Huey Long ran a political machine throughout Louisiana with significant voter fraud.[166] Indications of electoral fraud in the in the 1930 United States Senate election in Louisiana, which Long won, were ubiquitous. According to Long biographer Richard White, "the official record indicated that voters marched to the polls in alphabetical order".[167] In the 1932 U.S. Senate race, Long’s lieutenants allegedly promised the families of inmates that their loved ones would be freed if they voted for Long’s endorsed candidate.[166]

1948 Texas U.S. Senate Democratic primary runoff results, with Johnson counties in blue, and Stevenson counties in green.[168]

In the 1948 United States Senate election in Texas, according to a 1990 book by historian Robert A. Caro, Democrat Lyndon B. Johnson won his primary against Coke R. Stevenson due to electoral fraud, which included county officials casting ballots for absent voters and changing vote tally numbers. Johnson won the primary by 87 votes, and the Texas Democratic Party executive committee upheld his victory by a vote of 29 to 28. The event became known as the Box 13 scandal, as six days after polls had closed, 202 additional votes were added to the totals for Precinct 13 of Jim Wells County: 200 for Johnson and two for Stevenson.[25][169][170]

Some historians believe the 1960 United States presidential election in Illinois, which John F. Kennedy won over Richard Nixon, was decided by fraud. Multiple judges and one independent prosecutor determined that the election was fair, though historian Robert Dallek, who wrote biographies on both candidates, concluded the Chicago machine run by mayor Richard J. Daley "probably stole Illinois from Nixon". According to Politico in 2016, "over a half century after the fact, it’s impossible to judge what really happened". Nixon lost the Electoral College and conceded the election the following morning, though he encouraged recount efforts in Illinois and other states, which were shut down after setbacks in several key court hearings.[171][172]

Between 1968 and 1984, eight Democratic primary elections in Brooklyn, New York were marked by repeated fraud according to the findings of a grand jury. The fraud included multiple voting by teams of political workers with fake voter registration cards.[173][174]

U.S. Attorney Dan K. Webb prosecuted voter fraud in the 1982 Illinois elections.

In the 1982 Illinois elections, there were 62 indictments and 58 convictions for election fraud, many involving precinct captains and election officials. A grand jury concluded that 100,000 fraudulent votes had been cast in Chicago. Authorities found fraud involving vote buying and ballots cast by others in the names of registered voters.[175] The case was prosecuted in November 1982 by U.S. Attorney Dan K. Webb.[176][177] In the 1987 Chicago mayoral election, two reviews conducted by the Chicago Board of Election Commissioners and an election watchdog group headed by Webb found that tens of thousands of ballots were fraudulently cast in the Democratic primary.[178][179][180]

In the 1994 Pennsylvania State Senate election, a federal judge invalidated a race in Philadelphia after finding that the Democratic candidate, William G. Stinson, had stolen the election through absentee ballot fraud. Republicans took control of the State Senate as a result of the ruling.[181]

In the 1996 United States House of Representatives elections in California, the Republican majority on the House Oversight Committee claimed to have found 748 illegal votes cast in the 46th district race between Republican Bob Dornan and Democrat Loretta Sanchez, including 624 by noncitizens. Sanchez won by 979 votes, so it would not have affected the outcome,[182][183][184] and the House voted to dismiss Dornan's challenge in February 1998.[185] The findings were highly contested[186] and disputed by the Democratic minority on the committee, who pointed out that about half of those who registered as noncitizens were citizens by the time they cast their ballots.[185] No indictments were brought by a grand jury after a yearslong criminal investigation into Hermandad, an immigrant rights group at the center of fraud allegations.[185] The California Secretary of State did not press charges, concluding in April 1998 that the noncitizens identified had registered in error and not from criminal intent.[185]

The 1997 Miami mayoral election is known for being one of the worst examples of electoral fraud in recent history, with a judge invalidating the result for "a pattern of fraudulent, intentional and criminal conduct" in the casting of absentee ballots.[187][188] The neighboring city of Hialeah, Florida had its own mayoral contest overturned in 1993, when a judge ruled that so many ballots had been cast from a retirement home housing schizophrenics and drug addicts that the election had to be re-run.[189]

### 21st century

[edit]

A vacant name plate in the U.S. House of Representatives during the 2018 North Carolina's 9th congressional district election fraud investigation.

In the 21st century, there have been scattered examples of electoral fraud affecting the outcome of elections, and attempts at widespread electoral fraud are notable when they occur at all.[25][190] Fraud was alleged[relevant?] by losing candidates in several major close elections, including the 2004 Washington gubernatorial election,[191] the 2008 United States Senate election in Minnesota[192][193] and most notably, the 2020 United States presidential election,[194] but nothing that would account for the margin of victory was proven in court.

In the 2003 East Chicago, Indiana mayoral election, the Indiana Supreme Court invalidated the Democratic primary citing "a widespread and pervasive pattern" of absentee ballot fraud. Forty-six people, mainly city workers, were found guilty in a wide-ranging conspiracy to purchase votes through the use of absentee ballots, which included the coercion of sick people and people with limited English skills.[6][195][196]

In the 2012 United States House of Representatives elections in Florida, Jeffrey Garcia, chief of staff to 26th district incumbent Joe Garcia, was charged with orchestrating a scheme to illegally request nearly 2,000 absentee ballots. Garcia pled guilty to a misdemeanor.[189] In the 2012 Massachusetts House of Representatives elections, Republican candidate Enrico "Jack" Villamaino and his wife forged more than 280 voters' names on absentee ballot requests.[68] Also in 2012, Cincinnati, Ohio poll worker Melowese Richardson made national headlines for using her position to vote twice.[197][198]

In the 2014 and 2016 Philadelphia elections, former congressman Michael "Ozzie" Myers was found to have bribed election workers to stuff ballot boxes in local races. Myers pled guilty in 2022 and was sentenced to 2 1/2 years in prison.[199]

Bridgeport, Connecticut mayor Joe Ganim won re-election in 2024 after a primary invalidated for ballot stuffing.

One of the most notable recent cases of fraud occurred in the 2018 United States House of Representatives elections in North Carolina, where Mark Harris won the 9th district Republican primary by 900 votes, but allegations of absentee ballot tampering related to a Harris campaign consultant stopped the North Carolina State Board of Elections from certifying the result. A new election was held in 2019, in which Harris did not run.[200]

In 2020, Kim Phuong Taylor, wife of Republican Iowa congressional candidate Jeremy Taylor, was convicted of 52 counts of voter fraud for illegally filling out or submitting voter registrations and absentee ballots.[201][202] In 2022, Southfield, Michigan poll worker Sherikia Hawkins pled no contest to misconduct after she was accused of covering up a failure to count 193 absentee ballots in 2018.[203][204]

In the 2023–24 Bridgeport, Connecticut mayoral election, a judge ordered the Democratic primary to be re-run after ruling that there was enough evidence of ballot stuffing to throw the results into doubt. According to the New York Times, illegal ballot manipulation is not uncommon in Bridgeport elections, and has included apartment residents being pressured to apply for absentee ballots they were not entitled to.[17] Incumbent mayor Joseph Ganim, who had won the initial primary, also won the do-over primary and the general election.[205]

## Public perception

[edit]

A 2016 nationwide poll published in the Washington Post found that 84% of Republicans, 75% of independents and 52% of Democrats believed that a "meaningful amount" of fraud occurred in United States elections.[206] A 2022 poll by the Institute of Governmental Studies at UC Berkeley found that 39% of California voters thought illegal voting was a "major threat" to state elections, and 21% thought it was a "minor threat".[207] A series of Monmouth polls conducted between 2020 and 2023 found that 29%–32% of Americans believed the 2020 presidential election was fraudulent.[208]

A June 2021 poll by the Texas Tribune and University of Texas found that 19% of Texas voters think that ineligible people frequently cast ballots.[209] A July 2021 poll published by NPR found that more Americans were concerned about ensuring everyone who wants to vote can cast a ballot (56%) versus ensuring that nobody who is ineligible votes (41%).[210] 90% of Democrats said access was more important versus 75% of Republicans who said stopping ineligible voting was more important.[210]

A January 2021 study by the Harvard Kennedy School Misinformation Review found that a majority of Donald Trump supporters, particularly those who were more politically knowledgeable and more closely following election news, believed that electoral fraud was widespread.[211]

A 2016 study published in State Politics & Policy Quarterly found that Republicans living in states with voter identification laws were on average more confident in their state's elections than Republicans who did not. However Democrats in states with voter identification laws were less confident in their elections than other Democrats. The study found that this dynamic "was polarized and conditioned by party identification".[212] October 2020 polling by University of Miami professor Joseph Uscinski found that 70% of Republicans believed the 2020 presidential election would be rigged with mail-in ballots, but nearly the same number of Democrats believed the election would be rigged by their mail-in ballots not being delivered.[213]

According to Politico, many figures in the 2004 vote-fraud conspiracy movement, which claimed that the 2004 presidential election had been stolen from Democrat John Kerry, later believed the 2020 presidential election was stolen from Donald Trump, despite the two being ideological opposites.[213]

### Perception gap

[edit]

See also: Election denial movement in the United States § Analysis, and Foreign interference in the 2024 United States elections

Flawed research is one factor that can widen a gap in perception that significant voter fraud has occurred between supporters of the candidate that lost an election and the supporters of a candidate that won.[214] The New York Times cites the loosening of content moderation on Meta, YouTube and X in 2023, with YouTube saying it would stop removing false voter fraud narratives by the summer of 2024, as significant developments.[215] The Stanford Internet Observatory's work investigating election misinformation and disinformation shut down in 2024 as a result of lawsuits, subpoenas, document requests from right-wing politicians and nonnprofits that cost millions to defend even when found innocent by the US Supreme Court, in addition to threats and online harassment as a result of the spread of disinformation about its work.[216][217][218]

Sciences Po academic Jérôme Viala-Gaudefroy suggests that political elites, right-wing media organizations and well-funded nonprofits promote the narrative of electoral fraud out of political or financial self-interest that taps into political paranoia that he traces to McCarthyism, the great replacement and the deep state.[219][220] Jon Schwarz of The Intercept lists examples of false voter fraud claims from Republicans going back decades.[221] Mindy Romero of USC said the concern of noncitizens voting is fueled by misinformation, fear and demonization of immigrants.[222] Some claims of voter fraud are described as a dog whistle.[223][224][225][226][227] As of September 2024, according to the New York Times, the Heritage Foundation, among other groups, were spreading election misinformation about noncitizen voting, with one debunked video getting over 56 million views on X.[116]

#### Foreign disinformation

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Russian operatives have promoted false claims of voter fraud hoping to "further sow doubt in election integrity"[228] in the United States and democracies around the world.[229] According to a US intelligence report in September 2020, Russian intelligence operatives were trying to amplify concers of US election integrity such as the reliability of mail-in voting.[230] According to the New York Times, disinformation efforts by autocratic countries led by Russia and China "push narratives undermining democratic governance" designed to "accelerate the recent rise in authoritarian-minded leaders."[231] Russia's Internet Research Agency focused voter fraud memes at right-wing groups, with its most-shared Facebook post of the 2016 United States elections reading "Like if you think only US citizens should be allowed vote" while showing a photo of Latinos waiting in line.[232]

### Consequences

[edit]

See also: Democratic backsliding in the United States

"Major threats" for US elections in 2022 according to voters in California[207]

#### Confidence in elections

[edit]

False claims of fraud have lowered overall levels of trust in elections.[233] According to the New York Times, "baseless claims of electoral fraud have battered trust in democracy".[231] A nationwide study conducted after the 2018 United States elections and published in the Journal of Experimental Political Science found that exposure to claims of voter fraud reduces confidence in electoral integrity, though does not reduce support for democracy itself. Corrective messages from mainstream sources did not measurably reduce this distrust.[234]

#### Political violence and threats

[edit]

See also: Stochastic terrorism and Brooks Brothers riot

The combination of false claims about electoral fraud and violent, warlike rhetoric has been noted to raise the likelihood of election workers receiving threats, as well as political violence such as the January 6 attacks.[235][236][237] Some election experts worry that Trump's voters would resort to violence again in 2024 if he lost the election.[238][85] In September, Trump threatened to jail people "involved in unscrupulous behavior" in the 2024 election, prompting widespread condemnation from election officials that it could provoke violence, including against election workers.[239][240]

A 2024 Brennan Center survey found 4 in 10 election workers had experienced threats, harassment or abuse.[241] In some cases where poll workers were intimidated by poll watchers in 2020,[242] they were given additional protections for subsequent elections, including the electronic screening of poll watchers and a greater distance from them,[242] panic buttons,[243] bulletproof glass and now get extensive training on de-escalation and active shooter scenarios.[244] Election offices between September 2023 and 2024 have also received white powder in envelopes and one in Ohio had its window shot.[244] The mailroom in Durham, North Carolina has been retrofitted with a separate exhaust to protect against hazardous substances sent in the mail.[244] Election officials in Georgia, Maine, Michigan and Missouri have also been swatted at their homes with bogus 911 calls.[244]

#### Voter intimidation

[edit]

See also: Electoral fraud § Intimidation

While voter intimidation has been relatively rare, it has increased since 2020 with the false claims of fraud and concerted efforts to recruit poll watchers.[245] In 2020 Donald Trump encouraged his supporters to go to the polls and "watch very carefully".[13] CNBC cited voter intimidation as a bigger concern for analysts than voter fraud ahead of the 2020 elections.[13] According to The Washington Post, voting rights advocates worry that the rhetoric about noncitizen voting could have a 'chilling effect' on Latino citizens and naturalized immigrants exercising their right to vote.[246] In Arizona in 2022, there were instances of people surveilling drop boxes and taking photos of people's license plates.[245]

#### Attempts to overturn election results

[edit]

See also: Independent state legislature theory

In some cases, the spreading of fraud claims is done to lay the groundwork for overturning election results.[241][247][248] The 2020 presidential election saw a number of failed attempts to overturn the results based on unfounded claims of voter fraud.[237][249] The 2024 presidential election has seen similar claims, which some experts have warned could be seeds planted in case Trump loses and tries to overturn the result.[250][251][95] The New York Times cited Georgia as the most likely state for this to occur in due to recent changes in election laws.[251][243]

#### Voter turnout

[edit]

Democrats and voting rights advocates argue that the Republican rhetoric around illegal voting is not a sincere effort to address voter fraud, but is designed to increase turnout of the Republican base.[246]

## Donald Trump fraud claims

[edit]

See also: False or misleading statements by Donald Trump

### 2016 presidential election

[edit]

Main article: Donald Trump 2016 presidential campaign § Uncertainty over accepting the election results

President Donald Trump claimed without evidence that between 3 and 5 million people cost him the popular vote to Hillary Clinton by voting illegally.[252] He claimed that he narrowly lost to Hillary Clinton in 2016 in New Hampshire (and that Senator Kelly Ayotte also lost her bid for re-election in New Hampshire) because thousands of people were illegally bused there from Massachusetts.[253] There is no evidence to support Trump's claims, which the New Hampshire Attorney General's Office determined were unfounded.[254][255]

CNN reported in January of 2017 that Trump had based his fraud voter claims on a tweet from Gregg Phillips.[256][257] While members of Trump's cabinet and family were registered to vote in multiple states, this was considered to be oversight, not fraud.[258] On February 10, Ellen L. Weintraub, the Federal Election Commission (FEC) Commissioner, requested that Trump provide evidence.[259] On February 12, his adviser Stephen Miller was unable at that time to support claims of voter fraud as evidence.[260][253] There has been no evidence to support Trump's assertion that there was substantial voter fraud in the 2016 election.

#### Voter fraud commission (2017)

[edit]

Main article: Presidential Advisory Commission on Election Integrity

President Trump signing the Executive Order establishing the Voter Fraud Commission [undue weight? - discuss]

On May 11, 2017, Trump signed an executive order to establish a voter fraud commission to conduct an investigation into voter fraud.[261] The commission's chairman was Vice President Mike Pence with Kansas Secretary of State Kris Kobach as vice chairman.[261][262][263] Kobach and the commission failed to provide evidence for claims of voter fraud by Trump and others on the commission.[264] Trump's creation of the commission was criticized by voting rights advocates, scholars and experts, and newspaper editorial boards as a pretext for, and prelude to, voter suppression.[265][266][267][268][264] Matt Dunlap, a Democrat on the commission, called it a sham designed to gin up anti-immigrant sentiment.[9]

In January 2018, Trump abruptly disbanded the commission,[269] which met only twice.[270] The commission found no evidence of widespread voter fraud in the United States.[269][270] Richard Hasen said the commission was supposed to give Trump cover to pass a national documentary proof of citizenship law.[119]

### 2020 presidential election

[edit]

See also: Attempts to overturn the 2020 United States presidential election, Post-election lawsuits related to the 2020 United States presidential election, and Republican efforts to restrict voting following the 2020 presidential election

During the 2020 presidential campaign, Trump indicated in Twitter posts, interviews and speeches that he might refuse to recognize the outcome of the election if he were defeated; Trump falsely suggested that the election would be rigged against him.[271][272][273] Trump repeatedly claimed that "the only way" he could lose would be if the election was "rigged" and repeatedly refused to commit to a peaceful transition of power after the election.[274][275] Trump also attacked mail-in voting throughout the campaign, falsely claiming that the practice contained high rates of fraud.[276][277][278] In September 2020, FBI Director Christopher A. Wray, a Trump appointee, testified under oath that the FBI has "not seen, historically, any kind of coordinated national voter fraud effort in a major election, whether it's by mail or otherwise."[279]

In the lead-up to the election, citing fraud concerns, Republicans filed lawsuits in several states seeking to limit the use of mail-in voting,[280] and prepared to challenge individual mail-in ballots.[281] Republican election lawyer Benjamin Ginsberg criticized his party for this in a November 1, 2020 Washington Post op-ed, writing that over the last four decades, "Republicans found only isolated instances of fraud", and that "Proof of systematic fraud has become the Loch Ness Monster of the Republican Party. People have spent a lot of time looking for it, but it doesn’t exist".[15]

Trump claims of electoral fraud in the run-up to elections.[282]

After most of the major news organizations declared Biden the President-elect on November 7,[283][284][285][286] Trump refused to accept his loss, declaring "this election is far from over" and alleging election fraud without providing evidence.[287] Multiple lawsuits alleging electoral fraud were filed by the Trump campaign, all of which were dismissed as having no merit.[288] Republican officials questioned the legitimacy of the election and aired conspiracy theories regarding various types of alleged fraud.[289][290] In early 2021 along with other elections laws though to give Republicans an advantage, Trump loyalists in a number of states initiated a push to make voting laws more restrictive.[291]

In December of 2021, the Associated Press released a detailed fact-check which found fewer than 475 instances of voter fraud out of an estimated 25 million votes cast in the six battleground states.[292] They involved both Democrats and Republicans and were almost always caught before the votes were counted.[293][294][295][296] While some seemed intentional, others involved involved clerical error or voter confusion.[293]

### 2024 presidential election

[edit]

Trump's claims of fraud have continued into the 2024 presidential campaign. [240] Richard Hasen wrote that in January of 2024 that, "Trump has been able to manufacture doubt out of absolutely nothing; fraud claims untethered to reality still captivate millions of people looking for an excuse as to why their adored candidate may have lost."[297] Walter Olson of the Cato Institute said that Trump's agitations about election security and noncitizen voting are due to "his need to keep up the illusion that he somehow won."[298]

In the 2024 Republican New Hampshire primary, Trump repeated false claims that from other states voted in the primary.[236] According to the New York Times, Trump escalated use of "rigged election" and "election interference" statements in advance of the 2024 election compared to the previous two elections. The statements were described as part of a "heads I win; tails you cheated" rhetorical strategy.[282] The escalating rhetoric worries experts concerned about another attempt to overturn the results of the election, as well as threats and violence.[95][299]

An August 2024 poll found that 17% of Americans are not prepared to accept the outcome of the 2024 election and that two-thirds of Americans do not believe Trump is prepared to accept the outcome.[300] 34% of survey respondents lack confidence that votes will be tallied correctly.[300] Matt Gertz of Media Matters argues that this level of support is due to the bifurcated media environment, which makes his plans to overturn an election possible.[95]

The Economist believes that if he loses, Trump is "all but certain" to challenge the outcome again.[243] Chris LaCivita, an adviser to Trump, said in July "'It’s not over on Election Day, it’s over on Inauguration Day.'"[243]

In 2024, the Republican National Committee launched a swing state initiative to mobilize thousands of poll watchers, poll workers and attorneys to act as "election integrity" watchdogs. The party plans to deploy monitors to observe the election process, create hotlines for poll watchers to report perceived problems and escalate issues through legal action.[301] Critics have argued that these efforts could undermine trust in elections and are targeted on polling places where more Democrats cast their ballots.[242]

The 2024 election also saw an increase in volunteers recruited by nonpartisan voter advocacy groups to assist poll workers and voters.[242] The 'Democracy Defense Project' launched a bipartisan effort to counter narratives of voter fraud in swing states and Ohio.[302]

## Prevention

[edit]

### Voter ID laws

[edit]

Main article: Voter identification laws in the United States

In the United States, voter ID laws (laws requiring identification to vote) have been enacted in 36 states as of 2024 with the stated aim of preventing voter impersonation.[303] They have mostly been introduced by Republican legislators since 2011.[304][41][45] Specific forms of ID required vary between states, with some requiring photo identification.[305] Some laws have been struck down in court as an undue burden.[303]

Voter ID requirements are generally popular among Americans, though they are also a divisive issue.[306][307] Critics of voter ID laws have argued that they depress turnout by lawful voters under the pretense of addressing voter impersonation, which is quite rare.[303][45] Americans who have lower incomes, are younger or transgender are less likely to have an updated ID.[303][308]

#### Proof of citizenship laws

[edit]

Main article: Voter identification laws in the United States § Proof of citizenship laws

Proof of citizenship laws require people who vote or register to vote to present documentary proof of citizenship. Proponents have argued that they are necessary to prevent illegal noncitizen voting, while critics have said that noncitizen voting essentially does not occur and the laws would disenfranchise eligible voters who lack easy access to such documents, such as college students and tribal voters.[309][310][311] A June 2024 Brennan Center study estimates that 21.3 million citizens (9% of voters) do not have easy access to documentary proof of citizenship, and that 3.8 million citizens lack access to any form, often because their documents were lost, destroyed or stolen.[311][312][313][314][315]

The legality of proof of citizenship laws has been disputed. In the 2013 Arizona v. Inter Tribal Council of Arizona, Inc., the U.S. Supreme Court ruled that Arizona's proof of citizenship law violated the 1993 National Voter Registration Act for federal elections.[316] In August 2024, in Republican National Committee v. Mi Familia Vota the Supreme Court allowed Arizona to enforce a law requiring proof of citizenship to register to vote using the state's regsitration forms (federal forms do not require documentation), pending appeal.[317][318] In July 2024, the United States House of Representatives passed the Safeguard American Voter Eligibility (SAVE) Act, which would mandate that Americans show proof of citizenship when registering to vote and make it easier to sue election workers who register a noncitizen.[319][320]

Investigations into the prevalence of noncitizen voting have impacted court cases regarding proof of citizenship laws. In the 2018 Fish v. Kobach case, U.S. District Court Judge Julie Robinson ruled that Kansas' proof of citizenship law was unconstitutional, in part because the state did not demonstrate that any meaningful illegal noncitizen voting occurred.[32][321][322][323][324] In 2023, U.S. District Judge Susan R. Bolton upheld some provisions of a similar 2022 Arizona law. The judge found testimony by Jesse Richman credible that a tiny fraction of noncitizens had voted in 2022, though this estimate has since been disputed by Justin Levitt[25] and Brian Schaffner,[325] who are among the many critics of Richman's earlier research.

### Citizenship verification

[edit]

Citizenship verification process in North Carolina as of 2017[326]

It is best practice for states to check registrations against DMV or Social Security files to check for noncitizens.[74]

According to the North Carolina State Board of Elections in 2017, DMV data indicating noncitizenship is just the first step in determining someone's citizenship status because, "voters who appear to be non-citizens based on DMV data were confirmed to be U.S. citizens in the SAVE database 97.6 percent of the time."[326] If the status was then also listed as noncitizen in the Systematic Alien Verifications for Entitlements database, the Board asked for more proof in mailings and interviews since 3/4 of those who had been able to provide proof of citizenship, remained listed in the SAVE database as noncitizens.[326] Georgia compares voter rolls to Social Security Administration and its Department of Driver Services, while Colorado uses the SAVE database as-needed.[327]

In Georgia, if someone's citizenship cannot be verified who registers to vote, they are put into a 'pending citizenship' status and prevented them from registering.[74] Fair Fight Action sued Georgia over this practice arguing it put undue burdens on recently naturalized citizens to register to vote.[328][relevant?]

### Signature verification

[edit]

Further information: Postal voting in the United States § Signature verification process

Signature verification is carried out by a majority of states in order to prevent forged paper ballots. According to the Election Administration and Voting Survey, 27.5% of rejected absentee ballots in 2016[329] and 15.8% of rejected mail-in ballots in 2018[330] were due to signature mismatches. Tossing ballots due to signature mismatches can depend on the method of signature verification used.[331] As of 2024, 31 states conduct signature verification on returned absentee or mail-in ballots. Nine states do not conduct signature verification, but require the signature of either a witness, two witnesses, or a notary. Ten states and Washington, D.C. neither conduct signature verification nor require a witness signature.[332]

Mississippi is the only state to both conduct signature verification and require a witness signature (in this case, a notary).[332] Four states (Arkansas, Georgia, Minnesota and Ohio) additionally require either a copy of the voter’s ID or a voter identification number.[332]

Researchers at Protect Democracy found that "an explosion of misinformation" about how much cheating occurs among voters using mail-in ballots caused a spike in rejected signatures during the 2021 Georgia Senate runoffs compared to the 2020 presidential election.[247]

### Election audits

[edit]

Further information: Election audit § Current practices in election results auditing in the United States

As of 2024, 48 states conduct some type of post-election audit, which check if the equipment and procedures used to count votes worked properly, and detect discrepancies using a hand count of paper records. The two exceptions are Alabama and New Hampshire, both of which nonetheless piloted different audit types in 2022. The type and scope of audit significantly varies between states.[333]

### Voter roll management

[edit]

#### Voter roll purges

[edit]

See also: Voter suppression in the United States § Purging of eligible voters from the rolls

Voter caging is the process of challenging the voter registration status of someone who is registered to vote. It often involves sending that person a postcard to the address on file and removing the voter if they do not respond within a certain time period.[334] The practice can be controversial with some civil rights groups successfully suing some states that target voters of a particular political party or race in such a way as to make it meaningfully impact election outcomes and voter's rights.[335]

#### Interstate databases

[edit]

The Interstate Voter Registration Crosscheck Program was a database established in 2005 and run by Kansas that compared voting records across multiple states to prevent double voting. At least 28 states opted into the program, but academics and several states found that it returned high rates of false positives that would disenfranchise legal voters. Some states left as a result.[336] In 2017, the program was put on hold after the Department of Homeland Security discovered security vulnerabilities. In 2019, the program was indefinitely suspended as part of a settlement of a class-action lawsuit filed by the American Civil Liberties Union.[337]

In 2012, the Electronic Registration Information Center (ERIC) was established with a goal of improving the accuracy of voter rolls through comparisons between states.[338] At its peak, 33 states and the District of Columbia were members.[339] Beginning in 2022, nine Republican-led states left ERIC. States cited complaints about governance issues, including that ERIC mailed newly eligible voters who had not yet registered ahead of federal elections, and that it had become subject to alleged partisan influence.[340][341] ERIC was the subject of repeated false claims from allies of Donald Trump that it was a voter registration vehicle for Democrats. Several states that left ERIC subsequently created their own partnerships.[338][340][341]

### Prosecution

[edit]

In most states, a prosecutor must prove that an individual committed voter fraud intentionally or knowingly. In some states, however, any mistake on the part of a voter that leads to voting illegally can be grounds for prosecution.[342]

According to the New York Times, prosecutions of voter fraud can lead to significantly varied outcomes depending on socioeconomic status and the state in which someone is being tried. Most violations "draw wrist-slaps", while some high-profile prosecutions have produced multiple-year jail terms.[130] Often, prosecutions net people who did not realize they were breaking the law.[130] Lorraine Minnite has argued that almost all cases of illegal voting are due to misunderstandings or administrative error,[18] which does not constitute fraud in states where intent is required.[343]

Prosecutions are exceedingly rare – as of 2022, an average of one and a half people per state per year were charged with voter fraud.[130] Voter fraud can be difficult to prove or prosecute,[344][345][346] depending on the type of fraud alleged.[347][39][40][348] Voter fraud is largely ignored unless an election is questioned, someone complains or a voter is investigated on other charges.[349][outdated statistic][additional citation(s) needed]

Wisconsin Watch evaluated voter fraud cases from 2012-2022 and found about 0.0006% of votes cast were challenged by a district attorney, with a voter's probation status as the most common reason.[350] A 2022 investigation by KING-TV found that the likelihood of being charged for voter fraud in Washington state varied depending on the county; King County, with a voting population of 1.3 million, had charged 9 cases of voter fraud since 2007, while the much smaller Lewis County had charged 8 (at least 3 of which were dismissed).[351] King County tended to write warning letters for isolated cases, and focus prosecutions on cases where repeat offense was more likely.[351]

The Justice Department publishes Federal Prosecution of Election Offenses, a handbook for district election officers. The 2017 edition warns against launching public investigations, without approval granted for extraordinary cases, into alleged fraud before an election is over so as not to tip the election with the publicity generated by an unfinished investigation.[352][353]

## References

[edit]

1. ^ "Voter fraud, voter suppression, and other election crimes". USAGov. March 19, 2024. Retrieved September 8, 2024.
2. ^ a b c d e f g Farley, Robert (April 10, 2020). "Trump's Latest Voter Fraud Misinformation". FactCheck.org. Retrieved June 12, 2020.
3. ^ a b c Morgan, Billy (July 6, 2020). "Why fears about voting by mail are unfounded". University of Chicago News. Retrieved July 21, 2024.
4. ^ a b Foley, Edward B. "Why Vote-by-Mail Could be a Legal Nightmare in November". Retrieved June 12, 2020.
5. ^ a b Liptak, Adam (October 7, 2012). "As More Vote by Mail, Faulty Ballots Could Impact Elections". The New York Times. Archived from the original on January 23, 2024. Retrieved July 20, 2024.
6. ^ a b c Kessler, Glenn (November 1, 2022). "Opinion: The truth about election fraud: It's rare". Washington Post. Archived from the original on December 3, 2023. Retrieved July 19, 2024. "In the last half-century, there are only scattered examples of where election fraud appeared to have made a difference in the outcome. They often take place in races that attract relatively few voters and thus the impact of fraud could be greater."
7. ^ a b c d e f Blakemore, Erin (November 11, 2020). "Voter fraud used to be rampant. Now it's an anomaly". National Geographic. Retrieved July 19, 2024.
8. ^ Edlin, Ruby; Norden, Lawrence; Garber, Andrew; Hasan, Shanze; Clapman, Alice; Panditharatne, Mekela (May 3, 2023). "The Election Deniers' Playbook for 2024". Brennan Center for Justice. Retrieved July 19, 2024.
9. ^ a b c Sullivan, Andy; Ax, Joseph (September 9, 2020). "Despite Trump claims, voter fraud is extremely rare. Here is how U.S. states keep it that way". Reuters. "Experts say election fraud is vanishingly rare in the United States...Like other forms of voter fraud, double voting appears to be exceptionally rare, according to multiple studies."
10. ^ Gardner, Amy; Itkowitz, Colby; Alfaro, Mariana (September 9, 2024). "Trump pledges to jail opponents, baselessly suggests election will be stolen from him". Washington Post. ISSN 0190-8286. Retrieved September 9, 2024.
11. ^ "Re-examining how and why voter fraud is exceedingly rare in the U.S. ahead of the 2022 midterms". Reuters. June 2, 2022. Retrieved July 19, 2024. "This article aims to provide information and context on how voter fraud in the U.S. is not a 'widespread' issue, as some online commentators claim, but made exceedingly rare by existing safeguards."
12. ^ "G.O.P. Concocts Fake Threat: Voter Fraud by Undocumented Immigrants". The New York Times. April 28, 2022. "Voter fraud is exceptionally rare, and allegations that widespread numbers of undocumented immigrants are voting have been repeatedly discredited."
13. ^ a b c Baldwin, Shawn (October 28, 2020). "Half of registered voters expect to have some difficulty voting, according to the Pew Research Center". CNBC. Retrieved September 4, 2024. "While most experts agree voter fraud on a national scale is unlikely, a bigger concern for the 2020 elections, according to analysts, is voter intimidation."
14. ^ Walsh, Joe (September 30, 2020). "Trump Bizarrely Claimed West Virginia Mailmen Are 'Selling' Ballots. They're Not". Forbes. Retrieved September 4, 2024. "Most experts say there is almost no evidence of systemic voter fraud in the United States, even in states where most people vote by mail."
15. ^ a b Ginsberg, Benjamin L. "Opinion | My party is destroying itself on the altar of Trump". The Washington Post. "Proof of systematic fraud has become the Loch Ness Monster of the Republican Party. People have spent a lot of time looking for it, but it doesn't exist"
16. ^ An anomaly[7] Vanishingly rare[9] Exceedingly rare[10][11] Exceptionally rare[12] Unlikely, bigger concern voter intimidation[13] almost no evidence of systemic fraud, even by mail[14] doesn't exist[15]
17. ^ a b "Election Fraud Is Rare. Except, Maybe, in Bridgeport, Conn". New York Times. January 21, 2024. "...though experts say election fraud is rare in the United States and often accidental when it occurs."
18. ^ a b Huseman, Jessica (June 19, 2018). "How the Case for Voter Fraud Was Tested — and Utterly Failed". ProPublica. Retrieved September 8, 2024. "Late in the trial, the ACLU presented Lorraine Minnite, a professor at Rutgers who has written extensively about voter fraud, as a rebuttal witness. Her book, 'The Myth of Voter Fraud,' concluded that almost all instances of illegal votes can be chalked up to misunderstandings and administrative error."
19. ^ Fessler, Pam (May 15, 2020). "'It's Partly On Me': GOP Official Says Fraud Warnings Hamper Vote-By-Mail Push". NPR. Retrieved September 4, 2024. "As many experts have said for years, Adams said instances of voter fraud are rare and more likely to be found in small, local races than in a statewide or national election."
20. ^ "The Nonexistent Link Between Mailed Ballots and Voter Fraud". Governing. April 25, 2024. Retrieved September 4, 2024. "What the researchers did find, however, was that illegal voting was most prevalent in local races, where a small number of votes could alter the outcome. In other words, in the few instances where illegal voting happened, it was not in a presidential election — the contest that has been the focus of the attacks on mail voting by Trump's base."
21. ^ Fahrenthold, David A. (October 2, 2012). "Selling votes is common type of election fraud". Washington Post. Archived from the original on November 14, 2020. Retrieved September 4, 2024. "In the past three years, six legal cases have laid out, step by step, ways that elections can be stolen. All involved local races, for positions such as magistrate, county clerk, mayor and state representative."
22. ^ a b "News21 election fraud analysis: About the investigation". Washington Post. August 12, 2012. Retrieved September 16, 2024.
23. ^ Lopez, German (November 12, 2018). "The Florida voter fraud allegations, explained". Vox. Retrieved September 16, 2024.
24. ^ Beall, Pat (October 20, 2020). "We analyzed a conservative foundation's catalog of absentee ballot fraud: It's not a 2020 election threat". USA TODAY. Retrieved September 16, 2024.
25. ^ a b c d e f Kessler, Glenn (March 6, 2024). "The truth about noncitizen voting in federal elections". Washington Post. Archived from the original on April 13, 2024. Retrieved April 21, 2024. "There is scattered evidence of noncitizens voting in federal elections — sometime by mistake (such as erroneously thinking they were eligible while getting a driver's license) but also with nefarious intent ... Given the paucity of evidence of noncitizen voting, many election researchers have long said that there was little to support the idea that noncitizen voting had ever affected the outcome of a major election. But that does not necessarily prove that the phenomenon does not happen."
26. ^ "Voter Fraud Map: Election Fraud Database". The Heritage Foundation. December 12, 2023. Retrieved September 16, 2024.
27. ^ "Widespread election fraud claims by Republicans don't match the evidence". Brookings. November 22, 2023. Retrieved September 16, 2024.
28. ^ Specht, Paul. "Is voter ID necessary? Impersonation is rare". @politifact. Retrieved September 10, 2024. "However, those cases make up such a small fraction of the ballots cast that experts consider the problem to be 'virtually nonexistent.'"
29. ^ Millhiser, Ian (April 15, 2020). "Kentucky just made it harder to vote during a pandemic". Vox. Retrieved September 10, 2024. "Although voter ID's policy proponents often argue that the measure is necessary to combat voter fraud at the polls, such fraud is so rare that it is virtually nonexistent."
30. ^ Tomsic, Michael (September 7, 2016). "Despite Court Ruling, Voting Rights Fight Continues In North Carolina". NPR. Retrieved May 14, 2017. "Nationwide, voter fraud is also very rare. A law professor at the Loyola Law School in Los Angeles tracks claims of voter fraud. Of the more than 1 billion votes studied, he found only 31 credible cases of fraud. Despite the minimal risk, several other states have adopted stricter voting laws in recent years. A federal appeals court also struck down a voter ID requirement in Texas last month."
31. ^ Liptak, Adam (March 23, 2015). "Wisconsin Decides Not to Enforce Voter ID Law". The New York Times. Retrieved May 14, 2017. "The state said the law was needed to combat voter fraud. But cases of impersonation at the polls are very rare."
32. ^ a b Selby, W. Gardner (March 17, 2016). ""The fact is voter fraud is rampant.": Light a match to Greg Abbott's ridiculous claim about 'rampant voter fraud'". PolitiFact. Retrieved August 3, 2016. "Best we can tell, in-person voter fraud--the kind targeted by the ID law--remains extremely rare, which makes this claim incorrect and ridiculous."
33. ^ Farley, Robert (October 19, 2016). "Trump's Bogus Voter Fraud Claims". FactCheck.org. Retrieved May 14, 2017. "But is there? Many election experts say the kind of voter fraud Trump is talking about — voter impersonation — is extremely rare, and not enough to tip even a close presidential election. And there is plenty of research to back that up."
34. ^ Ali Vitali; Peter Alexander; Kelly O'Donnell (May 11, 2017). "Trump establishes vote fraud commission". CNBC. Retrieved May 14, 2017. "The evidence that does exist, however, shows that voter fraud is extremely rare and that three million undocumented immigrants didn't vote in the 2016 election."
35. ^ Jill Colvin (October 18, 2016). "Trump wrongly insists voter fraud is 'very, very common'; Donald Trump is insisting voter fraud does, indeed, pose a significant threat to the integrity of the U.S. electoral system". U.S. News & World Report. Associated Press. Retrieved April 6, 2020. "Most experts say voter fraud is extremely rare in the U.S., with one study by a Loyola Law School professor finding just 31 known cases of impersonation fraud out of 1 billion votes cast in U.S. elections between 2000 and 2014."
36. ^ "Debunking the Voter Fraud Myth" (PDF). Brennan Center. Retrieved June 22, 2021. "But putting rhetoric aside to look at the facts makes clear that fraud by voters at the polls is vanishingly rare, and does not happen on a scale even close to that necessary to "rig" an election."
37. ^ Virtually non-existant[28][29] Very rare[30][31] Extremely rare[32][33][34][35] Vanishingly rare[36]
38. ^ a b Spencer, Douglas M. (2023). "Response: Electoral Maintenance" (PDF). Boston University Law Review. 103 (7): 2209. Archived from the original (PDF) on August 20, 2024. Retrieved September 5, 2024. "Perhaps more damning, at least fourteen elections have been invalidated or overturned by a court between 1978-2018 due to absentee ballot fraud while not a single election has been overturned due to voter impersonation fraud."
39. ^ a b Kertscher, Tom (April 7, 2016). "Which happens more: People struck by lightning or people committing voter fraud by impersonation?". Politifact. Retrieved September 7, 2024. "It's fair to say, however, that impersonation cases can be hard to count in that they are hard to prove -- particularly when no photo ID requirement is in place and a voter can cast a ballot simply by stating the name of a registered voter."
40. ^ a b Winton, Richard (August 18, 2020). "L.A. County man accused of voting in three elections as his dead mother". Los Angeles Times. Retrieved September 8, 2024. "Such voter fraud charges are rarely filed in L.A. County and often are hard to prove, but officials said Abutin's repeated pattern of voting using a long-deceased relative's ID raised alarm bells."
41. ^ a b c d Bingham, Amy (September 12, 2012). "Voter Fraud: Non-Existent Problem or Election-Threatening Epidemic?". ABC News. Retrieved December 9, 2015.
42. ^ Ahlquist, John S.; Mayer, Kenneth R.; Jackman, Simon (December 1, 2014). "Alien Abduction and Voter Impersonation in the 2012 U.S. General Election: Evidence from a Survey List Experiment". Election Law Journal: Rules, Politics, and Policy. 13 (4): 460–475. doi:10.1089/elj.2013.0231. "Existing studies, relying mainly on documented criminal prosecutions and investigations of apparent irregularities, turn up very little evidence of fraud. Critics argue that this is unsurprising because casting fraudulent votes is easy and largely undetectable without strict photo ID requirements."
43. ^ Chatelain, Ryan (July 15, 2021). "Debate over photo voter ID laws is enduring – and complex". Spectrum News NY1. Retrieved September 1, 2024.
44. ^ Rousu, Matthew (September 3, 2014). "Opinion: Voter ID Would Protect Voter's Rights, Not Inhibit Them". Forbes. Archived from the original on September 7, 2014. Retrieved September 1, 2024.
45. ^ a b c Gilbert, Michael D. (September 5, 2014). "The Problem of Voter Fraud". Columbia Law Review. 115 (3): 739–75.Virginia Public Law and Legal Theory Research Paper No. 2014-56; Virginia Law and Economics Research Paper No. 2014-15.
46. ^ "Report: Voter impersonation a rarity". UPI. August 12, 2012. Retrieved December 9, 2015.
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48. ^ Hood, M. V.; Gillespie, William (March 2012). "They Just Do Not Vote Like They Used To: A Methodology to Empirically Assess Election Fraud". Social Science Quarterly. 93 (1): 76–94. doi:10.1111/j.1540-6237.2011.00837.x. "After examining approximately 2.1 million votes cast during the 2006 general election in Georgia, we find no evidence that election fraud was committed under the auspices of deceased registrants."
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55. ^ Farrell, Henry (May 11, 2017). "Trump's commission should investigate alien abductions, not voter fraud. There's as much survey evidence for both". Washington Post. Retrieved September 6, 2024. "More simply put – if you rely on survey evidence to 'prove' the existence of voter fraud, you should also believe that large numbers of Americans are kidnapped by space aliens. About the same number of people – 2.5 percent of the population – say that they have been involved in both."
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67. ^ Bender, William. "Nursing home resident's son: 'That's voter fraud'". Philadelphia Inquirer. Archived from the original on June 13, 2020. Retrieved June 12, 2020.
68. ^ a b "Ex-selectman pleads guilty to 2012 election fraud". AP News. August 6, 2013. Retrieved July 19, 2024.
69. ^ Mazzei, Patricia (October 20, 2013). "Ex-aide to Miami Rep. Joe Garcia to head to jail in absentee-ballot case". Miami Herald. Retrieved September 12, 2024.
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71. ^ "Drop boxes have become key to election conspiracy theories. Two Democrats just fueled those claims". AP News. October 7, 2023. Retrieved September 9, 2024.
72. ^ Kessler, Glenn (June 9, 2021). "Brooks's claim that counting the votes of 'eligible American citizens' would have reelected Trump". Washington Post. "Most reputable studies have found that in virtually all cases, any vote fraud by noncitizens is infinitesimal."
73. ^ a b c Swenson, Ali (May 18, 2024). "Noncitizen voting, already illegal in federal elections, becomes a centerpiece of 2024 GOP messaging". AP News. Retrieved September 6, 2024. "Republicans who have been vocal about voting by those who are not citizens have demurred when asked for evidence that it's a problem. Last week, during a news conference on his federal legislation to require proof of citizenship during voter registration, House Speaker Mike Johnson couldn't provide examples of the crime happening.

'The answer is that it's unanswerable,' the Louisiana Republican said in response to a question about whether such people were illegally voting. 'We all know, intuitively, that a lot of illegals are voting in federal elections, but it's not been something that is easily provable.'

Election administration experts say it's not only provable, but it's been demonstrated that the number of noncitizens voting in federal elections is infinitesimal."
74. ^ a b c d Wolf, Zachary B. (September 12, 2024). "Analysis: What the data actually shows about whether undocumented immigrants vote in US elections | CNN Politics". CNN. Retrieved September 13, 2024.
75. ^ "Fact checking Trump and Johnson's election integrity announcement". CNN. April 12, 2024. Retrieved September 3, 2024. "Despite Johnson's focus on this topic, it is extremely rare, according to decades of voting data and nonpartisan experts. It's so uncommon that voting experts don't see it as a problem plaguing US elections."
76. ^ a b Lieb, David (September 2, 2024). "Noncitizen voting is extremely rare, yet Republicans are making it a major election concern". PBS News. Retrieved September 3, 2024.
77. ^ "Rigging An Election? It's Not So Easy, Voting Law Expert Says". WVTF. October 25, 2016. Retrieved September 9, 2024. "'And what we know about non-citizen voting is that it's also extremely rare. It does happen occasionally. Sometimes it happens because non-citizens are registered to vote and don't know they're not allowed to vote. There are very few cases of this.'"
78. ^ Morse, Clara Ence (May 9, 2024). "Noncitizen voting is extremely rare. Republicans are focusing on it anyway". Washington Post. "But experts say the Republican spotlight on the issue glosses over two crucial facts: Noncitizen voting is exceedingly rare, and it is already banned in almost all places, including the ones with ballot measures in November. That hasn't stopped Republicans from making the issue a frequent talking point. The unfounded threat brings together two issues Republicans believe will drive turnout with their base: illegal immigration and election fraud claims. Critics warn that attempts to crack down on noncitizen voting could suppress the votes of Latino voters who fear being wrongly accused of illegally casting ballots. They say they could also lead to database mismatches that push legitimate voters off the rolls."
79. ^ "Here's Why Republicans Are Focusing on Voting by Noncitizens". New York Times. May 21, 2024. "House Republicans are pushing legislation to crack down on voting by noncitizens, which is allowed in some local elections but illegal — and exceedingly rare — at the federal level..."
80. ^ "House passes bill requiring proof of citizenship to vote, fanning a GOP election-year talking point". AP News. July 10, 2024. Retrieved September 3, 2024 - via PBS News. "The U.S. House of Representatives on Wednesday passed a proof-of-citizenship requirement for voter registration, a proposal Republicans have prioritized as an election-year talking point even as research shows noncitizens illegally registering and casting ballots in federal elections is exceptionally rare."
81. ^ Mathur-Ashton, Aneeta (May 24, 2024). "Sorting the Fiction From the Facts About Noncitizen Voting". US News & World Report. "While the bills echo a favorite claim from Republicans regarding election fraud, several years of research and data suggest that the problem they attempt to solve up to now has been so rare as to be insignificant."
82. ^ a b c Parks, Miles (April 12, 2024). "Republicans aim to stop noncitizen voting in federal elections. It's already illegal". NPR. Retrieved April 21, 2024. "Numerous studies have also confirmed that it almost never happens, but as more conservative voters say immigration is a key issue for them, it's become clearer that election misinformation in 2024 will center on the topic as well."
83. ^ a b Lieb, David A. (September 1, 2024). "Illegal voting by noncitizens is rare, yet Republicans are making it a major issue this election". AP News. Retrieved September 1, 2024. "Voting by noncitizens is rare."
84. ^ Sherman, Amy. "Do states verify citizenship of voters in federal elections?". PolitiFact. Retrieved September 1, 2024. "Cases of noncitizens voting are statistically rare. Some noncitizens accidentally end up on voter rolls when applying for drivers' licenses."
85. ^ a b Rogers, Kaleigh (May 29, 2024). "Republicans are ramping up election fraud claims ahead of November". ABC News. Retrieved September 3, 2024. "...election denialism continues to be the Republican tack as long as Trump remains the captain, and it could once again have very serious repercussions if he isn't victorious in November."
86. ^ infinitesimal[72][73][74] Extremely rare[75][76][77] Exceedingly rare[78][79] Exceptionally rare[80] So rare as to be insignificant[81] Almost never happens[82] Rare[83] Statistically rare[84] Very rare[85]
87. ^ Beitsch, Rebecca; Bernal, Rafael (May 12, 2024). "Speaker Johnson's 'intuition' on illegal voting clashes with data". The Hill. Retrieved September 9, 2024. "'The consequences are so severe that really this is not something that anybody would risk,' Sweren-Becker said. 'And that intuition actually bears out in the numbers.'"
88. ^ a b Waldman, Michael; Karson, Kendall; Waldman, Michael; Singh, Jasleen; Karson, Kendall (April 12, 2024). "Noncitizens Are Not Voting in Federal or State Elections — Here's Why". Brennan Center for Justice. Retrieved April 21, 2024. "The answer is: just about no one. Every legitimate study ever done on the question shows that voting by noncitizens in state and federal elections is vanishingly rare."
89. ^ "Fact checking Trump and Johnson's election integrity announcement | CNN Politics". CNN. April 12, 2024. Retrieved September 9, 2024. "'The penalties are high, and the payoff is low,' said Rick Hasen, an election law expert at the UCLA School of Law. 'If you aren't a citizen and you vote, and you're caught, you can face deportation and criminal penalties. And your chances of affecting an election outcome are small. It's very unlikely someone would purposely choose to vote as a noncitizen.'"
90. ^ a b Sherman, Amy (December 7, 2020). "Do states verify U.S. citizenship as a condition for voting?". Austin American-Statesman. Retrieved April 21, 2024.
91. ^ Millhiser, Ian (September 9, 2024). "Republicans threaten a government shutdown unless Congress makes it harder to vote". Vox. Retrieved September 10, 2024. "There is no evidence that noncitizens vote in US federal elections in any meaningful numbers, and states typically have safeguards in place to prevent them from doing so."
92. ^ Fessler, Pam (February 26, 2019). "Some Noncitizens Do Wind Up Registered To Vote, But Usually Not On Purpose". NPR. "While claims of massive illegal voting by noncitizens have routinely been disproved, some noncitizens have ended up on the rolls, usually by accident."
93. ^ Evans, Nick (July 12, 2024). "U.S. House Speaker cites unproven Ohio evidence in support of new proof-of-citizenship voting bill • Ohio Capital Journal". Ohio Capital Journal. Retrieved September 11, 2024.
94. ^ "Noncitizen voting isn't an issue in federal elections, regardless of conspiracy theories. Here's why". AP News. April 12, 2024. Retrieved September 9, 2024. "The theory involves two complicated subjects, immigration and voting, but it's actually very simple. There isn't any indication that noncitizens vote in significant numbers in federal elections or that they will in the future. It's already a crime for them to do so. And we know it's not a danger because various states have examined their rolls and found very few noncitizen voters."
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99. ^ Lah, Kyung; Gajilan, A. Chris (November 1, 2018). "The war on voting rights: Will your ballot count? | CNN Politics". CNN. Retrieved September 10, 2024. "In the three years Kobach has had the authority, 15 people have been charged with voter fraud. Of the 14 convicted, three have been non-citizens, including one in the process of becoming a naturalized citizen who had not been sworn in. That's three non-citizens over the course of several elections in a state with 1.8 million registered voters."
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Calls to pre-emptively stop voter fraud — which historically is statistically insignificant — recently trended on such platforms, according to Pyrra, a company that monitors threats and misinformation.

The 'prevalence and acceptance of these narratives is only gaining traction,' even directly influencing electoral policy and legislation, Pyrra found in a case study.

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In an unspecified European election in 2020, campaigners were allegedly intimidated. And in 2020 and 2021, Russian state media is said to have massively disseminated false allegations of electoral fraud in democratic elections around the world...

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Calls to pre-emptively stop voter fraud — which historically is statistically insignificant — recently trended on such platforms, according to Pyrra, a company that monitors threats and misinformation.

The 'prevalence and acceptance of these narratives is only gaining traction,' even directly influencing electoral policy and legislation, Pyrra found in a case study.

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296. ^ Amy B Wang (October 22, 2021). "Nevada Republican who claimed someone stole dead wife's ballot is charged with voter fraud". The Washington Post.
297. ^ Hasen, Richard L. (January 25, 2024). "Opinion | I'm an Election Law Expert. Here's What I Fear Most in 2024". Politico.
298. ^ Morgan, David; Layne, Nathan (May 9, 2024). "US Republicans target noncitizen voting, as Trump keeps up false voter fraud claims". Reuters.
299. ^ Kestler-D'Amours, Jillian (September 12, 2024). "Trump's false voter fraud claims set stage for turmoil — again". Al Jazeera. Retrieved September 12, 2024.
300. ^ a b Sparks, Steven (August 30, 2024). "Two-thirds of Americans say Trump unprepared to accept the election outcome: POLL". ABC News. Retrieved September 3, 2024.
301. ^ Cappelletti, Joey; Swenson, Ali (June 14, 2024). "The RNC is launching a massive effort to monitor voting. Critics say it threatens to undermine trust". AP News. Retrieved September 4, 2024.
302. ^ "Michigan leaders join national bipartisan effort to push back against attacks on the election system". AP News. September 12, 2024. Retrieved September 12, 2024.
303. ^ a b c d "Map: 29 million Americans live under new voter ID laws put in place since 2020". NBC News. March 12, 2024. Retrieved September 1, 2024.
304. ^ "7 voices sound off on NC's controversial voter ID law". PBS News. October 4, 2015. Retrieved September 4, 2024. "Since 2011, 15 states — mostly Republican-controlled — have passed laws requiring voters to present a government-issued photo ID at the polls in order to be able to vote."
305. ^ "Voter ID". National Conference of State Legislatures. Retrieved September 15, 2016.
306. ^ Cillizza, Chris (June 25, 2021). "Analysis: Voter ID requirements are really popular. So why are they so divisive?". CNN. Retrieved September 1, 2024.
307. ^ Rakich, Nathaniel (April 2, 2021). "Americans Oppose Many Voting Restrictions — But Not Voter ID Laws". FiveThirtyEight. Retrieved September 1, 2024. "Indeed, voter ID laws — which Republicans have pushed for years — are quite popular in general."
308. ^ Schouten, Fredreka; Shelton, Shania (May 2, 2023). "Republican-controlled states target college students' voting power ahead of high-stakes 2024 elections". CNN. Retrieved September 1, 2024.
309. ^ "House passes bill requiring proof of citizenship to vote, fanning a GOP election-year talking point". AP News. July 10, 2024. Retrieved September 3, 2024 - via PBS News. "The U.S. House of Representatives on Wednesday passed a proof-of-citizenship requirement for voter registration, a proposal Republicans have prioritized as an election-year talking point even as research shows noncitizens illegally registering and casting ballots in federal elections is exceptionally rare."
310. ^ Sievers, Caitlin (August 22, 2024). "SCOTUS: Arizona may require proof of citizenship on state voter forms, at least for now". Arizona Mirror. Retrieved September 9, 2024. ""Unlike voter ID laws, that often have not been shown to have a big effect on turnout, these documentary proof of citizenship laws matter a lot," Hasen wrote. "They stand to literally disenfranchise thousands of eligible voters for no good reason.""
311. ^ a b Levine, Sam (June 12, 2024). "Millions of US voters lack access to documents to prove citizenship". The Guardian. ISSN 0261-3077. Retrieved September 10, 2024.
312. ^ Morris, Kevin; Henry, Cora (June 11, 2024). "Millions of Americans Don't Have Documents Proving Their Citizenship Readily Available". Brennan Center For Justice. Retrieved September 9, 2024.
313. ^ Who Lacks ID in America Today? An Exploration of Voter ID Access, Barriers, and Knowledge (June 2024)
314. ^ Wang, Hansi Lo (June 11, 2024). "1 in 10 eligible U.S. voters say they can't easily show proof of their citizenship". NPR.
315. ^ Leingang, Rachel (July 10, 2024). "US House to vote on bill to require proof of citizenship to vote despite no evidence of non-citizen ballots". The Guardian. Retrieved September 1, 2024.
316. ^ Totenberg, Nina (June 17, 2013). "Supreme Court Strikes Down Arizona Voting Law". NPR.
317. ^ Wang, Hansi Lo (August 22, 2024). "Supreme Court grants GOP bid to require citizenship proof for some Arizona voters". NPR. Retrieved September 1, 2024.
318. ^ Millhiser, Ian (August 22, 2024). "The Supreme Court decides not to disenfranchise thousands of swing state voters". Vox. Retrieved September 13, 2024.
319. ^ Seariac, Hanna (August 28, 2024). "The SAVE Act explained". Deseret News. Retrieved September 11, 2024.
320. ^ Morin, Rebecca (July 11, 2024). "House pass bill to block noncitizens from voting". USA TODAY. Retrieved July 20, 2024.
321. ^ Parton, Jon (July 13, 2024). "Judge Strikes Down Kansas Voter ID Law, Sanctions Kris Kobach". Courthouse News Service. Retrieved July 20, 2024.
322. ^ Robinson, Julie A. (June 18, 2018). "Findings of fact and conclusions of law in Fish v. Kobach, Case No. 16-2105-JAR-JPO, and Bednasek and Kobach, Case No. 15-9300-JAR-JPO (published 2018-06-18 with corrections 2018-06-19)" (PDF). US District Court for the District of Kansas. Retrieved June 28, 2018.
323. ^ Huseman, Jessica (June 19, 2018). "How the Case for Voter Fraud Was Tested — and Utterly Failed". ProPublica. Retrieved September 8, 2024. "Dismissing the testimony by Kobach's witnesses as unpersuasive, Robinson drew what she called 'the more obvious conclusion that there is no iceberg; only an icicle largely created by confusion and administrative error.'...But the judge's opinion and expert interviews reveal that Kobach effectively put the concept of mass voter fraud to the test — and the evidence crumbled."
324. ^ "Court: Kansas can't require voters to show citizenship proof". AP News. April 29, 2020. Retrieved September 10, 2024.
325. ^ Kasprak, Alex (May 26, 2024). "'10 to 27%' of Noncitizens in US Are Illegally Registered to Vote?". Snopes. Retrieved September 13, 2024. "'[The CES] is not designed to be a sample of noncitizen adults and therefore it is not fit for the purpose of studying that subset of respondents...'There are much better ways to analyze whether noncitizens register to vote,' Schaffner told Snopes. These methods, some of which Richman used in his recent expert reports, involve looking voter rolls and other state records to identify any individuals who appear to be noncitizens. Studies like these, including the Richman expert reports, 'overwhelmingly resulted in finding very few noncitizens registered to vote,' Schaffner told Snopes."
326. ^ a b c "Post-Election Audit Report: General Election 2016" (PDF). North Carolina State Board of Elections. April 21, 2017. p. Appendix Pages 1-2. "Also, due to timing issues and the fact that DMV data is generally updated only when licenses are issued, DMV data alone is not reliable for this purpose either...

If SAVE indicates a voter is a non-citizen, NCSBE opens a case file and attempts to contact the voter to determine citizenship status through mailings and interviews. Because of the unreliability of citizenship data, voters who appear to be non-citizens — where both data sources indicate non-citizenship status — are not removed from the rolls, absent independent confirmation that they are not citizens. In fact, approximately three-quarters of those who subsequently provide proof of U.S. citizenship continued to appear as non-citizens in the SAVE database."
327. ^ Sherman, Amy. "Do states verify citizenship of voters in federal elections?". PolitiFact. Retrieved September 1, 2024. "Cases of noncitizens voting are statistically rare. Some noncitizens accidentally end up on voter rolls when applying for drivers' licenses."
328. ^ "Federal trial over Georgia election rules begins". NBC News. April 12, 2022. Retrieved September 17, 2024.
329. ^ "The Election Administration and Voting Survey (EAVS) 2016 Comprehensive Report" (PDF). Election Assistance Commission. June 28, 2017. Retrieved June 12, 2020.
330. ^ "Election Administration and Voting Survey (EAVS) 2018 Comprehensive report" (PDF). Election Assistance Commission. Retrieved June 12, 2020.
331. ^ Buchanan, Larry; Parlapiano, Alicia (October 7, 2020). "Two of These Mail Ballot Signatures Are by the Same Person. Which Ones?". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved August 31, 2024.
332. ^ a b c "Table 14: How States Verify Voted Absentee/Mail Ballots". National Conference of State Legislatures. January 22, 2024. Archived from the original on July 16, 2024. Retrieved July 21, 2024.
333. ^ "Post-Election Audits". National Conference of State Legislatures. March 26, 2024. Archived from the original on July 18, 2024. Retrieved July 22, 2024.
334. ^ "States removed 17 million voters from rolls in two years, government agency says". NBC News. June 27, 2019. Retrieved September 3, 2024.
335. ^ "The Caged Ballot". The New Republic. ISSN 0028-6583. Retrieved September 3, 2024.
336. ^ Ingraham, Christopher (July 20, 2017). "This anti-voter-fraud program gets it wrong over 99 percent of the time. The GOP wants to take it nationwide". Washington Post. Archived from the original on June 9, 2023. Retrieved August 28, 2024.
337. ^ Hegeman, Roxana (December 10, 2019). "Multistate voter database suspended in lawsuit settlement". Associated Press. Retrieved August 28, 2024.
338. ^ a b Moomaw, Graham (September 20, 2023). "After ERIC withdrawal, Virginia strikes deals with 6 states to share voter data". Virginia Mercury. Retrieved August 28, 2024.
339. ^ Underhill, Wendy (June 20, 2023). "More Withdrawals From Voter Data Group ERIC Likely". NCSL. Retrieved August 28, 2024.
340. ^ a b Vigdor, Neil (March 7, 2023). "G.O.P. States Abandon Group That Helps Fight Voter Fraud". The New York Times. Retrieved August 28, 2024.
341. ^ a b Parks, Miles (October 20, 2023). "Republican states swore off a voting tool. Now they're scrambling to recreate it". NPR. Retrieved August 28, 2024.
342. ^ Pirius, Rebecca (September 11, 2020). "Voter Fraud and Election Fraud Explained". CriminalDefenseLawyer (NOLO). Retrieved September 8, 2024.
343. ^ Huseman, Jessica (June 19, 2018). "How the Case for Voter Fraud Was Tested — and Utterly Failed". ProPublica. Retrieved September 8, 2024. "Minnite stopped him. 'The word 'fraud' has meaning, and that meaning is that there's intent behind it. And that's actually what Kansas laws are with respect to illegal voting,'"
344. ^ Cantú, Francisco; Saiegh, Sebastian M. (November 6, 2015). "Was Argentina's election stolen? Here's how you can tell". Washington Post. Retrieved September 8, 2024. "Unfortunately, uncovering fraudulent elections is quite difficult. How do you prove or disprove possible wrongdoing? If votes were falsified, the wrongdoers have no motive to say so; if they were not, there's no proving a negative. Thus it is very difficult to establish a suspect election's legitimacy or illegitimacy."
345. ^ Udani, Adriano; Kimball, David C.; Fogarty, Brian (2018). "How Local Media Coverage of Voter Fraud Influences Partisan Perceptions in the United States" (PDF). State Politics & Policy Quarterly. 18 (2): 193–210. doi:10.1177/1532440018766907. ISSN 1532-4400. "Extant findings show that voter fraud is extremely rare and difficult to prove in the United States."
346. ^ Fessler, Pam (March 15, 2007). "Voter Fraud: A Tough Crime to Prove". NPR. Retrieved September 7, 2024. "Allegations of voter fraud are not only difficult to prove, they're likely to prompt bipartisan debate."
347. ^ "Dead people don't vote: Study points to an 'extremely rare' fraud". Stanford Institute for Economic Policy Research (SIEPR). October 28, 2020. Retrieved September 7, 2024. "While election chicanery can be hard to prove, instances of impersonating a dead person are easier to catch, Hall says."
348. ^ Siegelbaum, Max (September 23, 2016). "Colorado investigating potential fraud after news report of "dead voters"". The Denver Post. Retrieved September 8, 2024. "The El Paso County District Attorney is currently investigating the Sosa cases, but these kinds of cases are difficult to prosecute."
349. ^ "Vote illegally, get caught: What happens? Very little". Tampa Bay Times. August 28, 2005. Retrieved September 8, 2024. "Voter fraud is largely ignored unless an election is questioned, someone complains or a voter is investigated on other charges."
350. ^ Watch, Matt Mencarini / Wisconsin (March 9, 2023). "Election fraud in Wisconsin: The most common reason for charges". Wisconsin Watch. Retrieved September 10, 2024.
351. ^ a b Ingalls, Chris (November 22, 2022). "Criminal charges for vote fraud? That depends on where you live in Washington state". king5.com. Retrieved September 8, 2024.
352. ^ Elliott, Justin; Faturechi, Robert (October 7, 2020). "DOJ Frees Federal Prosecutors to Take Steps That Could Interfere With Elections, Weakening Long-standing Policy". ProPublica. Retrieved September 12, 2024.
353. ^ Pilger, Richard C. (December 2017). "Federal Prosecution of Election Offenses Eighth Edition". United States Department of Justice. Retrieved September 12, 2024. "[A public investigation] runs the obvious risk of chilling legitimate voting and campaign activities. It also runs the significant risk of interjecting the investigation itself as an issue, both in the campaign and in the adjudication of any ensuing election contest."

## Further reading

[edit]

* Campbell, Tracy (2005). Deliver the Vote: A History of Election Fraud, an American Political Tradition, 1742-2004. Carroll & Graf. ISBN 978-0-7867-1591-6.
* Sabato, Larry; Simpson, Glenn R. (1996). Dirty Little Secrets: The Persistence of Corruption in American Politics. New York: Times Books. ISBN 0-8129-2499-1.

## External links

[edit]

* Electoral fraud on Ballotpedia
* "Explainer: Refuting the Myth of Voter Fraud Yet Again" by the Brennan Center for Justice (January 6, 2021)
* "Fact Check: Re-examining how and why voter fraud is exceedingly rare in the U.S. ahead of the 2022 midterms" by Reuters (June 2, 2022)

* v
* t
* e

Voting rights in the United States

Constitutional
provisions|

* Article I
* House Electors Qualifications Clause
* Congressional Elections Clause
* 1st Amendment
* 14th Amendment
* Equal Protection Clause
* Privileges or Immunities Clause
* 15th Amendment
* 17th Amendment
* 19th Amendment
* 23rd Amendment
* 24th Amendment
* 26th Amendment

Federal laws
and agencies|

* U.S. Department of Justice
* Enforcement Acts
* Enforcement Act of 1870
* Second Enforcement Act
* Ku Klux Klan Act
* Civil Rights Act of 1957
* U.S. Commission on Civil Rights
* U.S. Department of Justice Civil Rights Division
* Civil Rights Act of 1960
* Title I of the Civil Rights Act of 1964
* Voting Rights Act of 1965
* amendments
* covered jurisdictions
* Voting Accessibility for the Elderly and Handicapped Act
* Uniformed and Overseas Citizens Absentee Voting Act
* Federal Voting Assistance Program
* Military and Overseas Voter Empowerment Act
* National Voter Registration Act of 1993
* Illegal Immigration Reform and Immigrant Responsibility Act of 1996
* Help America Vote Act of 2002
* Election Assistance Commission

State laws|

| Voter access|

* Absentee ballot
* Early voting
* Initiatives and referendums
* Postal voting
* Provisional ballot
* Recall election
* Voter registration in the U.S.
* Voting in space

|

Vote denial|

* Electoral fraud
* Grandfather clause
* Literacy test
* Poll tax
* Voter caging
* Voter ID laws
* Voter suppression

Vote dilution|

* First-past-the-post voting
* Gerrymandering
* Multiple non-transferable vote
* One man, one vote

By group|

* Men
* Women
* Felons
* Foreigners
* Transgender people
* Young adults
* African Americans
* Native Americans
* American Samoa residents
* District of Columbia residents
* Guam residents
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History|

* Timeline
* Disfranchisement after the Reconstruction era
* Timeline of women's suffrage
* Suffrage Hikes
* Woman Suffrage Procession
* Silent Sentinels
* U.S. suffragists
* Publications
* "Give Us the Ballot"
* Freedom Summer
* Selma to Montgomery marches
* Women's poll tax repeal movement
* History of direct democracy

Related|

* Ballot access
* Campaign finance
* Citizenship
* Native Americans
* Democratic backsliding in the United States
* Disfranchisement
* Election
* Election law
* Elections in the U.S.
* Electoral College
* Electoral reform
* Electoral system
* Ranked-choice voting in the U.S.
* National Voting Rights Museum
* Redistricting
* Secret ballot
* Suffrage
* Voter registration
* Voting

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