English-only movement

Political movement in the U.S.

Sticker sold in Colorado demanding immigrants speak English

The English-only movement, also known as the Official English movement, is a political movement that advocates for the exclusive use of the English language in official United States government communication through the establishment of English as the only official language in the United States. An executive order issued on March 1, 2025 declared English to be the official language of the United States.[1] Historically, in various locations throughout the United States, there have been various moves to promote or require the use of English, such as in Native American boarding schools.[2]

Support for the English-only movement began in 1907, under US President Theodore Roosevelt, and continues today as studies prove high percentage in approval ratings. Republican candidates have supported this movement during elections.

The English-only movement has received criticism and rejection within societies and educational systems. The American Civil Liberties Union (ACLU) has stated that English-only laws are inconsistent with both the First Amendment right to communicate with or petition the government, as well as free speech and the right to equality, because they bar government employees from providing non-English language assistance and services.

## Early efforts

[edit]

Disputes between citizens and immigrants over English have been waged since the 1750s, when street signs were changed in Pennsylvania to include both English and German languages to accommodate the many German immigrants.[3] The German-English debate continued until World War I when international hostility resulted in the rejection of all things German, including the prohibition of the German language and German-language materials, particularly books.[4]

In 1803, as a result of the Louisiana Purchase, the United States acquired French-speaking populations in Louisiana. As a condition to admittance to the Union, Louisiana included in its constitution a provision, which was later repealed, that required all official documents be published in the language "in which the Constitution of the United States is written". Today, Louisiana has no law stating that English is the official language of the State.[5]

After the Mexican–American War (1846–1848), the United States acquired about 75,000 Spanish speakers in addition to several indigenous language-speaking populations.

An 1847 law authorized Anglo-French instruction in public schools in Louisiana. In 1849, the California constitution recognized Spanish language rights. French language rights were abolished after the American Civil War.[6] In 1868, the Indian Peace Commission recommended English-only schooling for the Native Americans. In 1878–79, the California constitution was rewritten to state that "[a]ll laws of the State of California, and all official writings, and the executive, legislative, and judicial proceedings shall be conducted, preserved, and published in no other than the English language."[6]

In the late 1880s, Wisconsin and Illinois passed English-only instruction laws for both public and parochial schools.

In 1896, under the Republic of Hawaii government, English became the primary medium of public schooling for Hawaiian children. After the Spanish–American War, English was declared "the official language of the school room" in Puerto Rico.[7] In the same way, English was declared the official language in the Philippines, after the Philippine–American War.

In 1907, US President Theodore Roosevelt wrote, "We have room for but one language in this country, and that is the English language, for we intend to see that the crucible turns our people out as Americans, of American nationality, and not as dwellers in a polyglot boarding house."[8]

During World War I, there was a widespread campaign against the use of the German language in the US; this included removing books in the German language from libraries.[4] (A related action took place in South Australia as well with the Nomenclature Act of 1917. The legislation renamed 69 towns, suburbs, or areas that had German names.)[9]

In 1923, a bill drafted by Congressman Washington J. McCormick became the first proposed legislation regarding the United States' national language that would have made "American" the national language in order to differentiate American English from British English.[3]

## Support

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U.S. English is an organization that advocates for Official English, founded in the 1980s by former United States Senator S. I. Hayakawa and John Tanton.[10][11] ProEnglish is another group founded by Tanton that advocates Official English.[12]

In 2018, a Rasmussen poll found that 81% of American adults thought that English should be the official language of the United States, while 12% did not.[13]

In 2021, a Rasmussen poll found that 73% of Americans thought that English should be the official language, only 18% disagreed.[14]

## Modern

[edit]

In 1980, Dade County, Florida voters approved an "anti-bilingual ordinance".[15] However, this was repealed by the county commission in 1993, after "racially orientated redistricting"[16] led to a change in government.[17]

In 1981, English was declared the official language in the commonwealth of Virginia.[18]

In 1983, John Tanton and U.S. Senator S. I. Hayakawa founded a political lobbying organization, U.S. English. (Tanton was a former head of the Sierra Club's population committee and of Zero Population Growth, and founder of the Federation for American Immigration Reform (FAIR), an immigration reductionist group.) In 1986, Tanton wrote a memo containing remarks about Hispanics claimed by critics to be derogatory, which appeared in the Arizona Republic newspaper, leading to the resignations from U.S. English board member Walter Cronkite and executive director Linda Chavez; Tanton would also sever his ties to the organization as a result. That same year, 1986, Larry Pratt founded English First, while Lou Zaeske, an engineer from Bryan, Texas, established the American Ethnic Coalition. Mauro Mujica, a Chilean immigrant, was later named Chairman and CEO in 1993.

In 1994, John Tanton and other former U.S. English associates founded ProEnglish specifically to defend Arizona's English-only law. ProEnglish rejects the term "English-only movement" and asks its supporters to refer to the movement instead as "Official English".[19]

The U.S. Senate voted on two separate changes to an immigration bill in May 2006.[20][21] The amended bill recognized English as a "common and unifying language" and gave contradictory instructions to government agencies on their obligations for non-English publications.[22]

In what was essentially a replay of the 2006 actions, on June 6, 2007 the US Senate again voted on two separate amendments to a subsequent immigration reform bill that closely resembled the amendments to the 2006 Senate bill.[23][24] Ultimately, neither the 2006 nor 2007 immigration reform bill has become law.

On January 22, 2009, voters in Nashville, Tennessee rejected a proposal under a referendum election to make "Nashville the largest city in the United States to prohibit the government from using languages other than English, with exceptions allowed for issues of health and safety." The initiative failed by a vote of 57% to 43%.[25]

In March 2012, Republican presidential candidate Rick Santorum was criticized by some Republican delegates from Puerto Rico when he publicly took the position that Puerto Rico, a Spanish-speaking territory, should be required to make English its primary language as a condition of statehood.[26]

In 2015 during a debate, then Republican presidential candidate Donald Trump said, "This is a country where we speak English, not Spanish."[27]

On February 6, 2019, the 116th Congress introduced a bill in House establishing English as the official language of the United States. The House of Representatives named it the English Language Unity Act of 2019. Within this bill, there is a framework for implementation. They strive to enforce English as the only language by testing it during the naturalization process.[28] This bill has yet to be passed.

In 2023 then U.S. senator and current U.S. Vice President JD Vance introduced a bill that would have established English as the official language of the United States.[29]

## Criticism

[edit]

The modern English-only movement has met with rejection from the Linguistic Society of America, which passed a resolution in 1986–87 opposing "'English only' measures on the grounds that they are based on misconceptions about the role of a common language in establishing political unity, and that they are inconsistent with basic American traditions of linguistic tolerance."[30]

Linguist Geoffrey Pullum, in an essay entitled "Here come the linguistic fascists", charges English First with "hatred and suspicion of aliens and immigrants" and points out that English is far from under threat in the United States, saying "making English the official language of the United States of America is about as urgently called for as making hotdogs the official food at baseball games."[31] Rachele Lawton, applying critical discourse analysis, argues that English-only's rhetoric suggests that the "real motivation is discrimination and disenfranchisement."[32]

The American Civil Liberties Union (ACLU) has stated that English-only laws are inconsistent with both the First Amendment right to communicate with or petition the government, as well as free speech and the right to equality, because they bar government employees from providing non-English language assistance and services.[33] On August 11, 2000, President Bill Clinton signed Executive Order 13166, "Improving Access to Services for Persons with Limited English Proficiency." The Executive Order requires Federal agencies to examine the services they provide, identify any need for services to those with limited English proficiency (LEP), and develop and implement a system to provide those services so LEP persons can have meaningful access to them.[34]

While the judicial system has noted that state English-only laws are largely symbolic and non-prohibitive, supervisors and managers often interpret them to mean English is the mandatory language of daily life.[35] In one instance, an elementary school bus driver prohibited students from speaking Spanish on their way to school after Colorado passed its legislation.[35] In 2004 in Scottsdale, a teacher claimed to be enforcing English immersion policies when she allegedly slapped students for speaking Spanish in class.[36] In 2005 in Kansas City, a student was suspended for speaking Spanish in the school hallways. The written discipline referral explaining the decision of the school to suspend the student for one and a half days, noted: "This is not the first time we have [asked the student] and others to not speak Spanish at school."[37]

One study both of laws requiring English as the language of instruction and compulsory schooling laws during the Americanization period (1910–1930) found that the policies moderately increased the literacy of some foreign-born children but had no impact on immigrants' eventual labor market outcomes or measures of social integration. The authors concluded that the "very moderate impacts" of the laws were probably because foreign languages were declining naturally, without the help of English-only laws.[38]

## Current law

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Map of US official language status by state before 2016. Blue: English declared the official language; light-blue: English declared a co-official language; gray: no official language specified.  Place | English official | Other official language(s) | Note

|
|
|

Alabama | Yes | None | since 1990[39]
Alaska | Yes | Inupiaq,
Siberian Yupik,
Central Alaskan Yup'ik,
Alutiiq,
Unangax,
Dena'ina,
Deg Xinag,
Holikachuk,
Koyukon,
Upper Kuskokwim,
Gwich'in,
Tanana,
Upper Tanana,
Tanacross,
Hän,
Ahtna,
Eyak,
Tlingit,
Haida,
Tsimshian[40] | since 2015[40]
Arizona | Yes | None | since 2006, 1988 law ruled unconstitutional[41]
Arkansas | Yes | None | since 1987[39]
California | Yes | None | since 1986 with Proposition 63.[39] Proposition 63 is unenforceable due to the lack of appropriate legislation,[42] and the Bilingual Services Act provides for the use of other languages in public outreach.[43]
Colorado | Yes | None | since 1988;[39] from 1876–1990 the Colorado Constitution required laws to be published in English, Spanish, and German[44]
Connecticut | No | None[39] |
Delaware | No | None[39] |
Florida | Yes | None | since 1988[39]
Georgia | Yes | None | since 1996[39]
Hawaii | Yes | Hawaiian | since 1978[39]
Idaho | Yes | None | since 2007[39]
Illinois | Yes | None | since 1969; "American" was the official language 1923–1969.[39]
Indiana | Yes | None | since 1984[39]
Iowa | Yes | None | since 2002[39]
Kansas | Yes | None | since 2007[39]
Kentucky | Yes | None | since 1984[39]
Louisiana | No | None | French has had special status since 1968 founding of CODOFIL.[39][45]
Maine | No | None[39] |
Maryland | No | None[39] |
Massachusetts | Yes | None[39] | A 1975 state supreme court case, Commonwealth v. Olivo, underscored official status of English;[46] in 2002, English was declared the "common public language."[47]
Michigan | No | None[39] |
Minnesota | No | None[39] |
Mississippi | Yes | None | since 1987[39]
Missouri | Yes | None[39] | since 1998; state constitution amended accordingly in 2008[48]
Montana | Yes | None | since 1995[39]
Nebraska | Yes | None | since 1920[49]
Nevada | No | None[39] |
New Hampshire | Yes | None | since 1995[39]
New Jersey | No | None[39] |
New Mexico | No | None | Spanish has had special recognition since 1912 passage of state constitution. See article. English Plus since 1989[39]
New York | No | None[39] |
North Carolina | Yes | None | since 1987[39]
North Dakota | Yes | None | since 1987[39]
Ohio | No | None[39] |
Oklahoma | Yes | None | since 2010. The Choctaw language is official within the Choctaw Nation; the Cherokee language has been official among the Cherokee and the UKB since 1991.[50][51][52][53]
Oregon | No | None | English Plus since 1989[39]
Pennsylvania | No | None[39] |
Rhode Island | No | None | English Plus since 1992[39]
South Carolina | Yes | None | since 1987[39]
South Dakota | Yes | Sioux | since 1995,[39] since 2019[54]
Tennessee | Yes | None | since 1984[39]
Texas | No | None[39] |
Utah | Yes | None | English only from 2000–2021;[39] since 2021, the Utah code has been amended to be English official but not English only.[55][56][57]
Vermont | No | None[39] |
Virginia | Yes | None | since 1996[39]
Washington | No | None | English Plus since 1989[39]
West Virginia | Yes | None[39] | since 2016[58]
Wisconsin | No | None[39] |
Wyoming | Yes | None | since 1996[39]
District of Columbia | No | None[59][60] | The Language Access Act of 2004 guarantees equal access and participation in public services, programs, and activities for residents of the District of Columbia who cannot (or have limited capacity to) speak, read, or write English. Speakers of Amharic, French, Chinese, Spanish, Vietnamese and Korean receive additional accommodations.[61][62]
American Samoa | Yes | Samoan[63] |
Guam | Yes | Chamorro[64] |
Northern Mariana Islands | Yes | Chamorro, Carolinian[65] |
Puerto Rico | Yes | Spanish[66] |
U.S. Virgin Islands | Yes | None[67] |

The United States federal government has not specified an official language; however, all official documents in the U.S. are written in English, though some are also published in other languages.[68][69]

## See also

[edit]

* United States portal
* Languages portal

* Executive Order 14224 (2025)
* Bilingual education
* Conservatism in the United States
* Council for the Development of French in Louisiana
* English language learning and teaching
* Languages in the United States
* List of countries where English is an official language
* Spanish in the United States
* "Speak White"
* English-medium education
* English Plus

## References

[edit]

1. ^ "Designating English as the Official Language of The United States". The White House. March 2, 2025. Retrieved March 18, 2025.
2. ^

* • Dolan, Susan; Wytsalucy, Reagan; Lyons, Keith (2022). "How a Navajo Scientist Is Helping to Restore Traditional Peach Horticulture". Features. Park Science. Vol. 36, no. 1, Summer 2022. U.S. National Park Service. Retrieved July 7, 2022.
* • Wytsalucy, Reagan C. (2019). Explorations and Collaborations on Two Under-Recognized Native American Food Crops: Southwest Peach (Prunus Persica) and Navajo Spinach (Cleome Serrulata) (master). Utah State University. pp. xii+183. doi:10.26076/593D-61C2. S2CID 202844899.

3. ^ a b Rich, Alex; Vance, Noelle (March 1, 2016). "English As A National Language: An Overview". Points of View: English As National Language.
4. ^ a b Martin, James J (1988), An American Adventure in Bookburning in the Style of 1918, Ralph Myles Publisher
5. ^ "Current Document for Louisiana, Constitution-1812". Rutgers, the State University of New Jersey. Retrieved June 30, 2024.
6. ^ a b "Codes: Codes Tree - * California Constitution - CONS". leginfo.legislature.ca.gov. Retrieved March 21, 2022.
7. ^ Crawford, James (2000). At War With Diversity: U.S. Language Policy in an Age of Anxiety. Multilingual Matters. p. 17. ISBN 978-1-85359-505-9.
8. ^ Roosevelt, Theodore, Works (Memorial ed., 1926), vol. XXIV, p. 554 (New York: Charles Scribner's 11 Sons).
9. ^ Leadbeater, Maureen M. "German Place Names in South Australia". Retrieved December 29, 2007.[permanent dead link]
10. ^ Schudel, Matt (July 21, 2019). "John Tanton, architect of anti-immigration and English-only efforts, dies at 85". The Washington Post. Retrieved February 3, 2023.
11. ^ Portes, Alejandro (Spring 2002). "English-only triumphs, but the costs are high". Contexts: 10–15. Retrieved February 3, 2023.
12. ^ Piggott, Stephen (January 26, 2018). "Anti-immigrant hate group ProEnglish visits White House". Southern Poverty Law Center. Retrieved February 3, 2023.
13. ^ "Americans Strongly Favor English as Official Language".
14. ^ "Americans Still Support English as Official Language".
15. ^ "The Language Battle: Speaking the Truth" (PDF), Inter-American Law Review, University of Miami Law School, p. 2, February 9, 2007, archived from the original (PDF) on September 27, 2011, retrieved February 17, 2008
16. ^ "'English only' law may be repealed in Florida county". Observer-Reporter. May 3, 1993. p. A8. "The racially orientated redistricting of the Dade County commission may accomplish what a long campaign by Hispanics has failed to do – repeal the local "English only" law."
17. ^ "The power of language". St. Petersburg Times. May 23, 1993. p. 1D.
18. ^ Official English Laws: Code of Virginia, Chapter 829, languagepolicy.net, accessed February 22, 2015/
19. ^ Official English Is Not "English Only", proenglish.org, archived from the original on January 21, 2008, retrieved February 17, 2008
20. ^ Roll call vote on the Amendment (Inhofe Amdt. No. 4064), US Senate, May 18, 2006, retrieved April 9, 2009
21. ^ Roll call vote on the Amendment (Salazar Amdt. No. 4073 As Modified), US Senate, May 18, 2006, retrieved April 9, 2009
22. ^ "Snopes on the English-only amendments". Retrieved August 25, 2008.
23. ^ Roll call vote on the Amendment (Inhofe Amdt. No. 1151), US Senate, June 6, 2007, retrieved April 9, 2009
24. ^ Roll call vote on the Amendment (Salazar Amdt. No. 1384), US Senate, June 6, 2007, retrieved April 9, 2009
25. ^ "English-only fails; lopsided vote ends heated campaign"[permanent dead link], The Tennessean, January 23, 2009. Retrieved on January 23, 2009.
26. ^ Seelye, Katherine Q.; Parker, Jr., Ashley (March 15, 2012). "For Santorum, Trying to Tamp Down a Firestorm Over Puerto Rico Remarks". New York Times. Retrieved October 10, 2012.
27. ^ Goldmacher, Shane (September 23, 2016). "Trump's English-only campaign". Politico. Retrieved January 27, 2020.
28. ^ King, Steve (March 22, 2019). "Text - H.R.997 - 116th Congress (2019-2020): English Language Unity Act of 2019". www.congress.gov. Retrieved April 13, 2022.
29. ^ Sabrina Eaton, cleveland com (March 30, 2023). "U.S. Sen. JD Vance wants to declare English the U.S. official language". cleveland. Retrieved November 11, 2024.
30. ^ Nunberg, Geoff (December 28, 1986), Resolution: English Only, Linguistic Society of America, archived from the original on April 21, 2008, retrieved February 17, 2008
31. ^ Pullum, Geoffrey K. (1987), "Here come the linguistic fascists.", Natural Language and Linguistic Theory, 5 (4): 603–9, doi:10.1007/BF00138990, S2CID 171070339. Reprinted in Geoffrey K. Pullum. (1991), The Great Eskimo Vocabulary Hoax and Other Irreverent Essays on the Study of Language, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, pp. 111–19, ISBN 0-226-68534-9
32. ^ Lawton, Rachele (2013), "Speak English or Go Home: The Anti-Immigrant Discourse of the American 'English Only' Movement", Critical Approaches to Discourse Analysis Across Disciplines, 7 (1): 100–122
33. ^ The Rights of Immigrants -ACLU Position Paper (9/8/2000). Retrieved on 2008-12-11
34. ^ Executive Order 13166. Retrieved on 2008-12-11 Archived January 5, 2009, at the Wayback Machine
35. ^ a b Gibson, Kari. English only court cases involving the U.S workplace. University of Hawai'i. Retrieved on 2008-12-11
36. ^ Anne Ryman and Ofelia Madrid, Hispanics upset by teacher's discipline, The Arizona Republic, January 17, 2004.
37. ^ T.R. Reid, Spanish At School Translates to Suspension, The Washington Post, December 9, 2005.
38. ^ Lleras-Muney, Adriana; Shertzer, Allison (2015). "Did the Americanization Movement Succeed? An Evaluation of the Effect of English-Only and Compulsory Schooling Laws on Immigrants †". American Economic Journal: Economic Policy. 7 (3): 258–290\. doi:10.1257/pol.20120219.
39. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z aa ab ac ad ae af ag ah ai aj ak al am an ao ap aq ar as at Crawford, James (June 24, 2008). "Language Legislation in the U.S.A." languagepolicy.net. Retrieved April 27, 2011.
40. ^ a b "Alaska State Legislature". www.akleg.gov.
41. ^ "Arizona makes English official". Washington Times. November 8, 2006. Retrieved April 28, 2011.
42. ^ Dillow, Gordon (May 21, 2006). "English-only law likely would go unenforced". The Orange County Register. Retrieved September 24, 2023.
43. ^ "Language Access Laws and Legal Issues: A Local Official's Guide" (PDF). Institute for Local Government. Institute for Local Government. Retrieved September 23, 2023.
44. ^ Constitution of the State of Colorado (PDF). p. 132. Retrieved February 2, 2024.
45. ^ Crawford, James. "Language Policy -- Louisiana". Language Legislation in the U.S.A. Retrieved October 10, 2016.
46. ^ https://www.cga.ct.gov/2004/rpt/2004-R-0544.htm
47. ^ https://malegislature.gov/Laws/SessionLaws/Acts/2002/Chapter386
48. ^ IT, Missouri Secretary of State - (March 3, 2020). "2008 Ballot Measures". Missouri Secretary of State. Retrieved March 10, 2022.
49. ^ "Section I-27, English language to be official". Justia Law. January 24, 2022. Retrieved March 10, 2022.
50. ^ "Keetoowah Cherokee is the Official Language of the UKB" (PDF). keetoowahcherokee.org/. Keetoowah Cherokee News: Official Publication of the United Keetoowah Band of Cherokee Indians in Oklahoma. April 2009. Retrieved June 1, 2014.
51. ^ "UKB Constitution and By-Laws in the Keetoowah Cherokee Language (PDF)" (PDF). www.keetoowahcherokee.org/. United Keetoowah Band of Cherokee Indians. Retrieved June 2, 2014.
52. ^ "The Cherokee Nation & its Language" (PDF). University of Minnesota: Center for Advanced Research on Language Acquisition. 2008. Retrieved May 22, 2014.
53. ^ Slipke, Darla (November 3, 2010). "Oklahoma elections: Republican-backed measures win approval". NewsOK. The Oklahoman. Retrieved April 28, 2011.
54. ^ "Amendment For Printed Bill". South Dakota Legislature.
55. ^ §63G-1-201 Official state language (Code). Utah Legislature. May 5, 2021.
56. ^ §58-11a-302(28) Qualifications for licensure (Code). Utah Legislature. May 1, 2024.
57. ^ §58-1-311 Required examinations in languages in addition to English (Code). Utah Legislature. May 5, 2021.
58. ^ "U.S. English Efforts Lead West Virginia to Become 32nd State to Recognize English as Official Language". U.S. English. March 5, 2016. Retrieved March 22, 2016.
59. ^ "(Un)Constitutionality of English as the Official Language of the US". Daily Kos.
60. ^ Zavodny, Madeline (July 2000). "The Effects of Official English Laws on Limited‐English‐Proficient Workers". Journal of Labor Economics. 18 (3). The University of Chicago Press: 427–452\. doi:10.1086/209965.
61. ^ "Know Your Rights: Language Access | ohr". ohr.dc.gov.
62. ^ ""I Speak" Cards for Language Assistance | ohr". ohr.dc.gov.
63. ^ "Samoa now an official language of instruction in American Samoa". Radio New Zealand International. October 3, 2008. Retrieved April 28, 2011.
64. ^ Guam at the Encyclopædia Britannica
65. ^ Northern Mariana Islands at the Encyclopædia Britannica
66. ^ Crawford, James. "Puerto Rico and Official English". languagepolicy.net. Retrieved April 27, 2011.
67. ^ "Frequently Asked Questions". visitusvi.com. United States Virgin Islands. Retrieved April 27, 2011.
68. ^ "Spanish language website for the FDA". US Food and Drug Administration. Retrieved July 5, 2008.[dead link]
69. ^ https://www.whitehouse.gov/presidential-actions/2025/03/designating-english-as-the-official-language-of-the-united-states/

## Further reading

[edit]

* Lynch, William. "A Nation Established by Immigrants Sanctions Employers for Requiring English to be Spoken at Work: English-Only Work Rules and National Origin Discrimination," 16 Temple Political and Civil Rights Law Review 65 (2006).
* Olson, Wendy. "The Shame of Spanish: Cultural Bias in English First Legislation," Chicano-Latino Law Review 11 (1991).

## External links

[edit]

* U.S. English (advocates for Official English)
* Anatomy of the English-Only Movement, by James Crawford
* Institute for Language and Education Policy
* Lingo Jingo: English Only and the New Nativism, by Geoffrey Nunberg
* English-Only Movement: Its Consequences on the Education of Language Minority Children Archived November 27, 2020, at the Wayback Machine
* Language Legislation in the U.S.A.
* Statements and legal actions against English-only law by the American Civil Liberties Union
* English as the Official Language of the United States: Legal background and Analysis of Legislation in the 110th Congress
* Linguistic Society of American Statement on Language Rights