Environment of China

This article's lead section may be too short to adequately summarize the key points. Please consider expanding the lead to provide an accessible overview of all important aspects of the article. (April 2022)

|

Satellite image of China.

The environment of China (Chinese: 中国的环境) comprises diverse geology, rich biota, and varied climates, ranging from arid deserts to subtropical forests. However, Rapid industrialization, population growth, and lax environmental oversight have caused many environmental issues and large-scale pollution, including severe air pollution.[1] China faces critical issues such as some of the highest levels of air pollution globally, with fine particulate matter (PM2.5 and PM10) linked to adverse health effects and increased mortality. Additionally, climate change has intensified extreme weather events, rising temperatures, further impacting ecosystems and human populations. In response, the Chinese government has implemented extensive environmental policies, such as the Air Pollution Prevention and Control Action Plan and the Ecological Civilization Initiative, along with carbon neutrality goal to combat climate change.[2]

## Geology

[edit]

This section is an excerpt from Geology of China.[edit]

Clockwise from upper left: Li River karst, Mount Everest's north face, loess landscape in Datong and Zhangye National Geopark.

The geology of China (or the geological structure of the People's Republic of China) consists of three Precambrian cratons surrounded by a number of orogenic belts. The modern tectonic environment is dominated by the continued collision of India with the rest of Asia starting 40–50 million years ago. This has formed the Himalayas and continues to deform most of China.[3] China has vast mineral reserves,[4] a significant earthquake risk in its western regions and rare isolated active volcanoes throughout the country.[5]

Many geological concepts were discovered very early in China's history. However, it was not until the adoption of European natural science in the late 19th century that geology became a science in China.[6]

## Biota

[edit]

### Wildlife

[edit]

This section is an excerpt from Wildlife of China.[edit]

The giant panda is endemic to China, where it is an endangered and protected species. The snub-nosed monkey, another endangered and endemic species

China's vast and diverse landscape is home to a profound variety and abundance of wildlife. As of one of 17 megadiverse countries in the world,[7] China has, according to one measure, 7,516 species of vertebrates including 4,936 fish, 1,269 bird, 562 mammal, 403 reptile and 346 amphibian species.[8] In terms of the number of species, China ranks third in the world in mammals,[9] eighth in birds,[10] seventh in reptiles[11] and seventh in amphibians.[12]

Many species of animals are endemic to China, including the country's most famous wildlife species, the giant panda. In all, about one-sixth of mammal species and two-thirds of amphibian species in China are endemic to the country.[9][12]

Wildlife in China share habitat with and bear acute pressure from the world's largest population of humans. At least 840 species are threatened, vulnerable or in danger of local extinction in China, due mainly to human activity such as habitat destruction, pollution and poaching for food, fur and ingredients for traditional Chinese medicine.[13] Endangered wildlife is protected by law, and as of 2005, the country has over 2,349 nature reserves, covering a total area of 149.95 million hectares (578,960 square miles), about 15 percent of China's total land area.[14]

Panda in Sichuan.

### Flora

[edit]

This section is an excerpt from Flora of China.[edit]

Overlooking Lake Ximencuo on the Tibetan Plateau Xishuangbanna Primeval Forest Park The flora of China consists of a diverse range of plant species including over 39,000 vascular plants, 27,000 species of fungi and 3000 species of bryophytes.[15][16][17] More than 30,000 plant species are native to China, representing nearly one-eighth of the world's total plant species, including thousands found nowhere else on Earth. China's land, extending over 9.6 million km, contains a variety of ecosystems and climates for plants to grow in. Some of the main climates include shores, tropical and subtropical forests, deserts, elevated plateaus and mountains. The events of the continental drift and early Paleozoic Caledonian movement also play a part in creating climatic and geographical diversity resulting in high levels of endemic vascular flora.[18] These landscapes provide different ecosystems and climates for plants to grow in, creating a wide variety of different flora spanning over not just China, but different parts of the world.[19]

## Climate

[edit]

This section is an excerpt from Geography of China § Climate.[edit]

Köppen climate types of China

Owing to tremendous differences in latitude, longitude, and altitude, the climate of China is extremely diverse, ranging from tropical in the far south to subarctic in the far north and alpine in the higher elevations of the Tibetan Plateau. Monsoon winds, caused by differences in the heat-absorbing capacity of the continent and the ocean, dominate the climate. During the summer, the East Asian Monsoon carries warm and moist air from the south and delivers the vast majority of the annual precipitation in much of the country. Conversely, the Siberian anticyclone dominates during winter, bringing cold and comparatively dry conditions. The advance and retreat of the monsoons account in large degree for the timing of the rainy season throughout the country. Although most of the country lies in the temperate belt, its climatic patterns are complex.

The northern extremities of both Heilongjiang and Inner Mongolia have a subarctic climate; in contrast, most of Hainan Island and parts of the extreme southern fringes of Yunnan have a tropical climate. Temperature differences in winter are considerable, but in summer the variance is considerably less. For example, Mohe County, Heilongjiang has a 24-hour average temperature in January approaching −30 °C (−22 °F), while the corresponding figure in July exceeds 18 °C (64 °F). By contrast, most of Hainan has a January mean in excess of 17 °C (63 °F), while the July mean there is generally above 28 °C (82 °F).

Precipitation is almost invariably concentrated in the warmer months, though annual totals range from less than 20 millimetres (0.8 in) in northwestern Qinghai and the Turpan Depression of Xinjiang to easily exceeding 2,000 millimetres (79 in) in Guangdong, Guangxi, and Hainan. Only in some pockets of the Dzungaria region of Xinjiang is the conspicuous seasonal variation in precipitation that defines Chinese (and, to a large extent, East Asian) climate absent.

Annual sunshine duration ranges from less than 1,100 hours in parts of Sichuan and Chongqing to over 3,400 hours in northwestern Qinghai. Seasonal patterns in sunshine vary considerably by region, but overall, the north and the Tibetan Plateau are sunnier than the south of the country.

* The average annual precipitation in China and Taiwan

* Early-season snow covering part of the North China Plain near Shijiazhuang, Hebei

* Snow encircling the area around the Bo Hai

* The first day of spring 2010 brought a massive sandstorm blowing from Inner Mongolia

* On November 11, 2010, a wall of sand blew across northern China, covering much of the North China Plain and Shandong Peninsula.

* Smog from Eastern China spread over neighboring areas in February 2004.

* Haze over the North China Plain and the Lüliang Mountains of Shanxi

* Natural color satellite image of a smog event in the heart of northern China

* Dense smog settled over the North China Plain on February 20, 2011.

### Climate change

[edit]

This section is an excerpt from Climate change in China.[edit]

Climate change is having major effects on the Chinese economy, society and the environment.[20][21] China is the world's largest emitter of carbon dioxide, through an energy infrastructure heavily focused on coal. China's per capita emissions are greater than the world and European Union averages but less than Australia, Canada, and the U.S.[22] China recorded its hottest year on record in 2023, with an average temperature of 10.7 °C.[23] On the basis of cumulative CO2 emissions measured from 1751 through to 2017, China is responsible for 13% of global and about half of the United States' cumulative emissions.[24][25]

A burgeoning construction industry and industrial manufacturing contribute heavily to carbon emissions. It has also been noted that higher-income countries have outsourced emissions-intensive industries to China.[26][27]

China is suffering from the negative effects of global warming in agriculture, forestry and water resources, and is expected to continue to see increased impacts. China's government is taking some measures to increase renewable energy, and other decarbonization efforts, vowing to hit peak emissions before 2030 and be carbon neutral by 2060 by adopting "more vigorous policies and measures."[28] China's GHG emissions will likely peak in 2025 and return to 2022 levels by 2030. However, such pathway will still lead to a 3 degrees Celsius temperature rise.[29]

In 2024, China yet again recorded its hottest year on record, with an average temperature of 10.92 °C, or 51.66 degrees Fahrenheit.[30]

## Protected areas of China

[edit]

This section is an excerpt from List of protected areas of China.[edit]

This is a list of the nationally designated protected areas of China. There are many forms of protected areas in China. Based on their relative importance, each type of protected area can be further graded into two to three levels (national, provincial and prefectural/county level). Nevertheless, the highest rank for "pocket nature preserve" (social and mass-based), "no-hunting area", "no-fishing area", "no-logging area", "wild medicinal material resources conservation area", "crop germplasm resources conservation area", "forest tree germplasm resources conservation area" or "source water protection area" is practically restricted to provincial level. The local government at county level is also responsible for the delimitation and declaration of "basic farmland protection area" and "basic grassland".

Take note that many protected areas in China have multiple official designations, and the statutory boundaries of these multi-designated PAs may be identical or may vary one from the other. For instance, the boundaries of Huangshan NSHA coincide with those of the Huangshan NGP, whereas Fujian province's Wuyi Mountains NNR, NSHA and NFP are adjacent to each other. In Heilongjiang, 27,642.14 hectares out of 115,340.27 hectares of Huzhong NFP are intersected with the experiment zone of Huzhong NNR.

### UNESCO World Heritage Sites

[edit]

Within China’s protected areas are some United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) World Heritage sites. According to the UNESCO World Heritage website, these sites are “designation for places on Earth that are of outstanding universal value to humanity and as such, have been inscribed on the World Heritage List to be protected for future generations to appreciate and enjoy.”[31]

China alone has 59 sites, including, but not limited to: The Great Wall of China, The Imperial Palace, and The Temple of Heaven. These are cultural sites, and are protected because of their significant contributions to China’s culture. Fifteen of these fifty nine sites, or 23.7% of these sites are categorized as “natural” sites, as opposed to “cultural” or “mixed” sites.These natural sites include famous rivers (Three Parallel Rivers of Yunnan), animal sanctuaries (Sichuan Giant Panda Sanctuary), and “historic and interest areas” (Jiuzhaigou Valley Scenic and Historic Interest Area). Fujian’s Wuyi Mountains, as listed above, are categorized as “mixed.” [32]

The UNESCO World Heritage Site list is always being updated, as countries can nominate additional sites to be included as a UNESCO World Heritage Site. As per the UNESCO page dedicated to the nominations process, the process requires countries to be signatories on the “World Heritage Convention, pledging to protect their natural and cultural heritage.” [33] China has 59 additional sites that are on the “tentative list” as of March 2025. These sites include the natural reserves like the Dongzhai Port National Reserve and the Alligator Sinensis Nature Reserve, scenic zones like the Lijiang River Scenic Zone at Guilin, and historically relevant cultural relics like the City Walls of the Ming and Qing Dynasties.

UNESCO World Heritage also offers a “State of Conservation” section, in which any threats to these environments can be reported and monitored. More specifically: “The Information System offers you a trove of reliable data on the state of conservation of World Heritage properties since 1979 and the threats they have faced in the past, or are currently facing.” [34] China has 28 properties that are listed under “concerned.” Many of the sites China has listed under “concerned” include threats of tourist impact, management systems, housing, and legal frameworks.[35]

## Environmental issues

[edit]

Main article: Environmental issues in China

A Factory in China at Yangtze River A large proportion of motor vehicles now sold in the cities of the Yangtze Delta are electric bicycles

Rapid industrialization, population growth, and lax environmental oversight have caused many environmental issues, such as large-scale pollution in China.[36]

According to Jared Diamond, the six main categories of environmental problems of China are: air pollution, water problems, soil problems, habitat destruction, biodiversity loss and mega projects.[37] Diamond also states that, "China is noted for the frequency, number, extent, and damage of its natural disasters".[37]

Studies show that particulate like PM10 and PM2.5 levels in China are among the highest in the world, which post significant public health risks.[38] By analyzing 16 cities, Research found that a 10 g/m³ increase in PM10 was associated with a 0.35% rise in total mortality, a 0.44% increase in cardiovascular mortality, and a 0.56% increase in respiratory mortality.[38] In January 2013, fine airborne particulates that pose the largest health risks, rose as high as 993 micrograms per cubic meter in Beijing, compared with World Health Organization guidelines of no more than 25. The World Bank estimates that 16 of the world's most-polluted cities are located in China.[39] As of 2013, Beijing, which lies in a topographic bowl, has significant industry, and heats with coal, is subject to air inversions resulting in extremely high levels of pollution in winter months.[40]

A study by Wenqi Wu use a difference-in-difference-in-difference model to analyze air pollution across 290 Chinese cities from 2007 to 2021. They found that joint regional pollution control measures significantly reduced PM2.5 and industrial sulfur dioxide emissions, particularly in the Yangtze River Delta and the Pearl River Delta.[41] However, the Beijing-Tianjin-Hebei region showed less improvement, possibly due to economic disparities and governance challenges.[41]

An effort made by the government aim to address this problem was the implementation of the Air Pollution Prevention and Control Action Plan (APPCAP), which was implement between 2014 and 2018. This policy led to significant improvements in Beijing’s air quality, reducing key pollutants such as PM2.5, PM10, NO2, SO2, and CO.[2] A study of 35 monitoring sites in Beijing found that PM2.5 levels declined significantly.[2] It contribute to a 5.6% decrease in pollution-related mortality. However, during the same period ozone (O3) levels increased.[2] Additional policy such as the Best Available Control Technologies (BACT) and Advanced Coal Gasification Technologies (ACGT) have been proposed. Research suggest that implementing these policy could reduce pollution related health damages by 20–50%.[42]

Public perception of air pollution in China remains a critical force in china Environmental policy. Many Chinese citizens have expressed concerns over whether air pollution is responsible for increasing lung cancer. This question began to rise because the citizens in China must constantly wear face masks to avoid breathing in the hazardous particles from their polluted skies. Some experts agree that it is the reason, but others say there isn't enough evidence. Wang Ning, deputy director of the Beijing Office for Prevention and Control, says he has seen a rise in a certain cancer called adenicarcinoma, which is a mucus that is seen as a side effect from pollution. China's lung cancer rate is 32% of the entire world's lung cancer patients. Meanwhile, as lung cancer increases, gastric, esophageal, and cervical cancer have all decreased in China.[43] In particular, elderly, women, and individuals with lower education levels, are disproportionately affected.[44] Regional disparities also highlight inequalities in environmental health as cities with higher baseline pollution levels tend to exhibit lower per-unit health impacts, possibly due to physiological adaptation, while cities with lower pollution levels with greater health effects per unit increase in pollution. A survey of Nanchang residents found that 69% believed air quality had deteriorated. They identify that motor vehicles, waste burning, and industrial facilities are the main contributors.[45] The survey also suggested strong public demand for stricter regulations, with 96.8% of respondents supporting increased government investment in air pollution control.[45]

## See also

[edit]

* Environmental policy in China
* Environmentalism in China
* Geographic Information Systems in China
* Hot summer cold winter zone
* Land use in China

## References

[edit]

1. ^ Edward Wong (21 March 2013). "As Pollution Worsens in China, Solutions Succumb to Infighting". The New York Times. Retrieved 22 March 2013.
2. ^ a b c d Wu, Wenqi (16 November 2023). "Is air pollution joint prevention and control effective in China—evidence from "Air Pollution Prevention and Control Action Plan"". Environmental Science and Pollution Research. 30 (58): 122405–122419\. doi:10.1007/s11356-023-30982-y. ISSN 1614-7499.122405-122419&rft.date=2023-11-16&rft_id=info:doi/10.1007/s11356-023-30982-y&rft.issn=1614-7499&rft.aulast=Wu&rft.aufirst=Wenqi&rft_id=https://link.springer.com/10.1007/s11356-023-30982-y&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:Environment+of+China" class="Z3988">
3. ^ "Asia - Geologic history". Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved 8 April 2019.
4. ^ "Land and Mineral Resources". www.china.org.cn. Retrieved 11 April 2019.
5. ^ Weller, J. Marvin (1944). "Outline of Chinese Geology". AAPG Bulletin. 28. doi:10.1306/3D9336BA-16B1-11D7-8645000102C1865D.
6. ^ Zhang, Dazheng; Faul, Carol (1988). "A history of geology and geological education in China (to 1949)". Earth Sciences History. 7 (1): 27–32\. Bibcode:1988ESHis...7...27Z. doi:10.17704/eshi.7.1.e6337776367421x4. ISSN 0736-623X. JSTOR 24136865.27-32&rft.date=1988&rft_id=info:doi/10.17704/eshi.7.1.e6337776367421x4&rft.issn=0736-623X&rft_id=https://www.jstor.org/stable/24136865#id-name=JSTOR&rft_id=info:bibcode/1988ESHis...7...27Z&rft.aulast=Zhang&rft.aufirst=Dazheng&rft.au=Faul,+Carol&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:Environment+of+China" class="Z3988">
7. ^ "Biodiversity Theme Report". Environment.gov.au. 2009. Archived from the original on 8 December 2008. Retrieved 27 April 2010.
8. ^ "China: vertebrate species by type 2015 - Statistic". Statista.com. Archived from the original on 8 December 2023. Retrieved 6 January 2018.
9. ^ a b IUCN Initiatives – Mammals – Analysis of Data – Geographic Patterns 2012 Archived 12 May 2013 at the Wayback Machine. IUCN. Retrieved 24 April 2013. Data does not include species in Taiwan.
10. ^ Countries with the most bird species Archived 16 February 2013 at the Wayback Machine. Mongabay.com. 2004 data. Retrieved 24 April 2013.
11. ^ Countries with the most reptile species Archived 16 February 2013 at the Wayback Machine. Mongabay.com. 2004 data. Retrieved 24 April 2013.
12. ^ a b IUCN Initiatives – Amphibians – Analysis of Data – Geographic Patterns 2012 Archived 12 May 2013 at the Wayback Machine. IUCN. Retrieved 24 April 2013. Data does not include species in Taiwan.
13. ^ Top 20 countries with most endangered species IUCN Red List Archived 24 April 2013 at the Wayback Machine. 5 March 2010. Retrieved 24 April 2013.
14. ^ "Nature Reserves". China.org.cn. Archived from the original on 10 October 2017. Retrieved 2 December 2013.
15. ^ Wu, Z. Y., P. H. Raven & D. Y. Hong, eds. 2006. Flora of China. Vol. 22 (Poaceae). Science Press, Beijing, and Missouri Botanical Garden Press, St. Louis - http://www.efloras.org/volume_page.aspx?volume_id=2022&flora_id=2
16. ^ Fang, R., et al. (2018). Country focus: China. In: K. J. Willis (ed.), State of the World's Fungi. Report. Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. pp. 48–55
17. ^ Hu, R (1990). Distribution of Bryophytes in China (PDF).
18. ^ Huang J, Ma K, Huang J (2017). Species Diversity Distribution Patterns of Chinese Endemic Seed Plants Based on Geographical Regions. PLoS ONE 12(1): e0170276 https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0170276
19. ^ Hong, D. Y., & Blackmore, S. (Eds.). (2015). Plants of China: A companion to the flora of China. Cambridge University Press
20. ^ World Bank. "China Country Climate and Development Report" (PDF).
21. ^ "China National communication 3: Part III Impacts of Climate Change and Adaptation". unfccc.int. Archived from the original on 14 November 2019. Retrieved 26 September 2019.
22. ^ Ritchie, Hannah; Roser, Max; Rosado, Pablo (11 May 2020). "CO₂ and Greenhouse Gas Emissions". Our World in Data. Archived from the original on 16 August 2024. Retrieved 9 September 2024.
23. ^ Regan, Helen (5 January 2024). "2023 was China's hottest year on record, marked by multiple deadly extreme weather events". CNN. Retrieved 7 January 2024.
24. ^ "Who has contributed most to global CO2 emissions?". Our World in Data. Archived from the original on 25 October 2021. Retrieved 28 October 2021.2+emissions?&rft_id=https://ourworldindata.org/contributed-most-global-co2&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:Environment+of+China" class="Z3988">
25. ^ "The hard truths of climate change — by the numbers". www.nature.com. 18 September 2019. Archived from the original on 26 August 2022. Retrieved 28 October 2021.
26. ^ Malik, Arunima; Lan, Jun (2 April 2016). "The role of outsourcing in driving global carbon emissions". Economic Systems Research. 28 (2): 168–182\. doi:10.1080/09535314.2016.1172475. ISSN 0953-5314. S2CID 156212231. Archived from the original on 24 July 2021. Retrieved 24 July 2021. "high-income resource-poor nations such as the United Kingdom, Germany and France (...) outsource carbon-intensive production to China"168-182&rft.date=2016-04-02&rft_id=https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:156212231#id-name=S2CID&rft.issn=0953-5314&rft_id=info:doi/10.1080/09535314.2016.1172475&rft.aulast=Malik&rft.aufirst=Arunima&rft.au=Lan,+Jun&rft_id=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/09535314.2016.1172475&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:Environment+of+China" class="Z3988">
27. ^ Plumer, Brad (4 September 2018). "You've Heard of Outsourced Jobs, but Outsourced Pollution? It's Real, and Tough to Tally Up". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Archived from the original on 25 July 2021. Retrieved 24 July 2021.
28. ^ "Climate change: China aims for 'carbon neutrality by 2060'". BBC News. 22 September 2020. Archived from the original on 26 January 2021. Retrieved 22 September 2020.
29. ^ Lui, Swithin (19 May 2022). "Guest post: Why China is set to significantly overachieve its 2030 climate goals". Carbon Brief. Archived from the original on 23 May 2022. Retrieved 24 May 2022.
30. ^ Davies, Sam; Shanghai, with Jing Xuan Teng in. "China says 2024 was its hottest year on record". phys.org. Retrieved 9 March 2025.
31. ^ Centre, UNESCO World Heritage. "What is World Heritage? - Questions and Answers". UNESCO World Heritage Centre. Retrieved 9 March 2025.
32. ^ UNESCO World Heritage Centre. "China - UNESCO World Heritage Convention". whc.unesco.org. Retrieved 9 March 2025.
33. ^ Centre, UNESCO World Heritage. "UNESCO World Heritage Centre - World Heritage List Nominations". UNESCO World Heritage Centre. Retrieved 9 March 2025.
34. ^ Centre, UNESCO World Heritage. "UNESCO World Heritage Centre - State of Conservation (SOC)". UNESCO World Heritage Centre. Retrieved 9 March 2025.
35. ^ Centre, UNESCO World Heritage. "UNESCO World Heritage Centre - State of Conservation (SOC) Search". UNESCO World Heritage Centre. Retrieved 9 March 2025.
36. ^ Edward Wong (29 March 2013). "Cost of Environmental Damage in China Growing Rapidly Amid Industrialization". The New York Times. Retrieved 30 March 2013.
37. ^ a b Jared Diamond, Collapse: How Societies Choose to Fail or Succeed, Penguin Books, 2005 and 2011 (ISBN 9780241958681). See chapter 12 entitled "China, Lurching Giant" (pages 258-377).
38. ^ a b "AISI 9262". Alloy Digest. 17 (3). 1 March 1968. doi:10.31399/asm.ad.sa0223. ISSN 0002-614X.
39. ^ Bloomberg News (14 January 2013). "Beijing Orders Official Cars Off Roads to Curb Pollution". Bloomberg. Retrieved 27 July 2013.
40. ^ "2 Major Air Pollutants Increase in Beijing". The New York Times. 3 April 2013. Retrieved 4 April 2013.
41. ^ a b Wang, Y. J.; Gurd, J. W.; Mahler, H. R. (1 September 1975). "Topography of synaptosomal high affinity uptake systems". Life Sciences. 17 (5): 725–733\. doi:10.1016/0024-3205(75)90527-5. ISSN 0024-3205. PMID 1614.725-733&rft.date=1975-09-01&rft.issn=0024-3205&rft_id=info:pmid/1614&rft_id=info:doi/10.1016/0024-3205(75)90527-5&rft.aulast=Wang&rft.aufirst=Y.+J.&rft.au=Gurd,+J.+W.&rft.au=Mahler,+H.+R.&rft_id=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/1614&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:Environment+of+China" class="Z3988">
42. ^ Wang, Xiaoping; Mauzerall, Denise L. (March 2006). "Evaluating impacts of air pollution in China on public health: Implications for future air pollution and energy policies". Atmospheric Environment. 40 (9): 1706–1721\. doi:10.1016/j.atmosenv.2005.10.066.1706-1721&rft.date=2006-03&rft_id=info:doi/10.1016/j.atmosenv.2005.10.066&rft.aulast=Wang&rft.aufirst=Xiaoping&rft.au=Mauzerall,+Denise+L.&rft_id=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1352231005010447&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:Environment+of+China" class="Z3988">
43. ^ Burkitt, Laurie (10 March 2014). "Pollution: Causing Lung Cancer in China?". WSJ. Retrieved 5 May 2017.
44. ^ Haiti: Addressing the increased needs of vulnerable populations affected by escalating violence (Report). FAO. 31 May 2024.
45. ^ a b Liao, Xiong; Tu, Hong; Maddock, Jay E.; Fan, Si; Lan, Guilin; Wu, Yanyan; Yuan, Zhao Kang; Lu, Yuanan (September 2015). "Residents' perception of air quality, pollution sources, and air pollution control in Nanchang, China". Atmospheric Pollution Research. 6 (5): 835–841\. doi:10.5094/APR.2015.092.835-841&rft.date=2015-09&rft_id=info:doi/10.5094/APR.2015.092&rft.aulast=Liao&rft.aufirst=Xiong&rft.au=Tu,+Hong&rft.au=Maddock,+Jay+E.&rft.au=Fan,+Si&rft.au=Lan,+Guilin&rft.au=Wu,+Yanyan&rft.au=Yuan,+Zhao+Kang&rft.au=Lu,+Yuanan&rft_id=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1309104215301768&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:Environment+of+China" class="Z3988">

## Further reading

[edit]

* Elvin, Mark. The retreat of the elephants: an environmental history of China (Yale University Press, 2004). excerpt
* Heijdra, Martin. "Texts, Space and Time: New Insights into Chinese Environmental History." Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient 42.4 (1999): 549-565.
* Maohong, Bao. "Environmental history in China." Environment and History (2004): 475-499. online
* Marks, Robert B. China: An environmental history (Rowman & Littlefield, 2017). excerpt

* v
* t
* e

Health in China

Healthcare|

* Health
* Disease surveillance
* Healthcare system reform
* Women's health
* Health informatics
* Barefoot doctor
* Patriotic Health Campaign
* China Welfare Institute
* Hospitals in China
* Classification
* Medical schools
* Organ transplantation

Medicine|

* Medicine in China
* Traditional Chinese medicine
* Pharmacy
* Pharmaceutical industry
* Biotechnology

Diseases|

* Avian influenza
* Blue-ear disease
* Cardiovascular disease
* Chronic diseases
* Enterovirus 71 (EV71)
* Fujian flu
* Hepatitis B
* HIV/AIDS
* Plasma Economy
* Iodine deficiency
* lead poisoning scandal
* Leprosy
* Mental health
* Obesity
* Opium
* Pneumonic plague
* Stroke
* Tuberculosis
* Disease-related deaths
* Swine influenza outbreak
* SARS pandemic (2003)
* SARS-CoV-2
* COVID-19 pandemic (2020)
* Delta variant (2021)
* Omicron variant (2022)

Government|

* National Health Commission
* National Administration of Traditional Chinese Medicine
* National Administration of Disease Control and Prevention
* Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention
* National Medical Products Administration
* Hong Kong Department of Health *
* Macau Secretariat for Social Affairs and Culture *
* General Administration of Customs
* National Healthcare Security Administration

Related|

* Demographics
* Dust storms
* Environment
* Food safety
* Illegal drug trade
* Pollution
* Population history
* Poverty
* Prostitution
* Smoking
* Vegetarianism
* Violence against doctors in China
* Water supply and sanitation

Studies|

* China–Cornell–Oxford Project (The China Study)
* China Family Panel Studies
* China Health and Retirement Longitudinal Study

* only in special administrative regions

* v
* t
* e

China articles

History|

| Overviews|

* History
* Timeline
* Historiography
* Military history
* Language
* Economic
* before 1912
* 1912–1949
* 1949–present
* Ethnic groups
* Foreign relations
* Dynasties
* Monarchs

|

Prehistoric|

* Paleolithic
* Neolithic
* Yellow River
* Yangtze
* Liao

Ancient|

* Xia
* Shang
* Late
* Zhou
* Western Zhou
* Spring and Autumn
* Warring States

Imperial|

* Qin
* Han
* Three Kingdoms
* Wei
* Han
* Wu
* Jin (266–420)
* Sixteen Kingdoms
* Northern and Southern dynasties
* Sui
* Tang
* Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms
* Liao
* Song
* Jin (1115–1234)
* Yuan
* Ming
* Qing
* High Qing
* Century of humiliation
* Taiping Rebellion
* Eunuch

Modern|

* 1911 Revolution
* Republic of China
* Chinese Civil War
* Chinese Communist Revolution
* People's Republic of China
* Cultural Revolution
* Reform and opening up
* Tiananmen Square
* COVID-19
* persecution of Uyghurs
* List of massacres in China

Geography|

* Borders
* Extreme points
* Geology
* Natural disasters

| Regions|

* East
* Northeast
* North
* South Central
* Central
* South
* Western
* Northwestern
* Southwestern

|

Terrain|

* Bays
* Canyons
* Caves
* Deserts
* Grasslands
* Hills
* Islands
* Mountains
* ranges
* passes
* Peninsulas
* Northeast / North / Central Plains
* Valleys
* Volcanoes

Water|

* Canals
* Lakes
* Rivers
* Waterfalls
* Wetlands
* Water resources
* Seas
* Bohai
* Yellow
* East China
* South China

Environment|

* Climate change
* Climate policy
* Environmental issues
* Environmental policy
* Protected areas
* National parks
* Nature reserves
* UNESCO Biosphere Reserves
* Wildlife
* Fauna
* Flora

Subdivisions|

* Baseline islands
* Border crossings
* Cities
* Province-level subdivisions

Politics|

| Law|

* Judicial system
* Human rights
* LGBT
* in Tibet
* Law enforcement
* Penal system
* Naming laws
* Nationality law
* Terrorism

|

Government|

* Civil service
* Constitution
* Democracy
* Pro-democratisation
* Elections
* Environmental policy
* Foreign relations
* Laogai
* National People's Congress
* Standing Committee
* National security
* Political parties and movements
* Chinese Communist Party
* General Secretary
* Politburo
* United front
* Political Consultative Conference
* Socialism with Chinese characteristics
* Primary stage of socialism
* President
* Vice President
* State Council
* Premier
* Vice Premier
* One country, two systems

Military|

* Outline of military history
* Central Military Commission
* Cyberwarfare by China
* Ministry of National Defense
* People's Liberation Army
* Ground
* Navy
* Air
* Rocket
* Strategic Support
* People's Armed Police
* Coast Guard
* Militia
* Maritime Militia

Economy|

* Agriculture
* Aquaculture
* Banking
* Central bank
* Chinese property sector crisis (2020–present)
* Currency
* Economic history
* Reform and opening up
* Special economic zones
* E-commerce
* Online advertising
* Economic inequality in China
* Energy
* Coal
* Petroleum
* Renewable
* Forced evictions
* Foreign aid received
* Foreign aid program
* Historical GDP
* Housing
* Income inequality in China
* Industry
* Chemical
* Gold mining
* Semiconductors
* Steel
* Textiles
* Labor relations
* Poverty
* Real estate
* Standard of living
* Taxation
* Tourism
* Trade
* Underoccupied developments
* Unemployment

Infrastructure|

* Architecture
* Housing
* Telecommunications
* Internet
* Water supply and sanitation

Transport|

* Automotive industry
* Civil aviation
* Rail
* Shipping industry
* Space program

Society|

* Abortion
* Censorship
* Chinese Dream
* Chinese language
* Standard Chinese
* Written Chinese
* Crime
* Corruption
* Prostitution
* Sex trafficking
* Education
* Literacy
* Freedom of the press
* Harmonious Society
* Health
* Food safety
* incidents
* HIV/AIDS
* Intellectualism
* Internment camps
* Martyrdom
* Surveillance
* Propaganda
* Protest
* ”Mass incidents”
* Public holidays
* Rural society
* Science and technology
* history
* Sexuality
* Social issues
* Patriarchy
* Racism
* Regional discrimination
* Suicide
* Social relations
* Structure
* Tang ping
* Time
* Urban society
* Welfare

Culture|

* Archaeology
* Archives
* Art
* Calligraphy
* Cinema
* Cuisine
* Dance
* Libraries
* Literature
* Poetry
* Martial arts
* Mass media
* Music
* Names
* Philosophy
* Smoking
* Sport
* Tea culture
* Variety art
* Major Historical and Cultural Sites
* World Heritage Sites

| Fours of China|

* Four Treasures of the Study
* Four Great Inventions
* Four Gentlemen
* Flowers of the Four Seasons
* Four Beauties
* Four Classic Novels
* Four arts
* Four Symbols
* Four Holy Beasts
* Four Pillars of Destiny
* Four Paragons of the Early Tang
* Four Masters of the Ming dynasty
* Four Masters of the Yuan dynasty
* Four Wangs
* Gang of Four
* Four Olds
* Four Pests campaign

|

Demographics|

* Emigration
* Ethnic groups
* Eunuchs
* Internal migration
* Languages
* Life expectancy
* Statistics
* Population history
* "Post-80s"
* "Post-90s"
* Urbanization
* Women

Religion|

* Buddhism
* Chinese Buddhism
* Tibetan Buddhism
* Confucianism
* Folk religion
* Christianity
* Catholic Church in China
* Protestantism
* Freedom of religion
* History of religion
* Irreligion
* Islam
* Taoism

Symbols|

* Anthem
* Emblem
* Flag

* Outline
* Index

* Category
* Portal

* v
* t
* e

Environment of Asia

Sovereign states|

* Afghanistan
* Armenia
* Azerbaijan
* Bahrain
* Bangladesh
* Bhutan
* Brunei
* Cambodia
* China
* Cyprus
* Egypt
* Georgia
* India
* Indonesia
* Iran
* Iraq
* Israel
* Japan
* Jordan
* Kazakhstan
* North Korea
* South Korea
* Kuwait
* Kyrgyzstan
* Laos
* Lebanon
* Malaysia
* Maldives
* Mongolia
* Myanmar
* Nepal
* Oman
* Pakistan
* Philippines
* Qatar
* Russia
* Saudi Arabia
* Singapore
* Sri Lanka
* Syria
* Tajikistan
* Thailand
* Timor-Leste (East Timor)
* Turkey
* Turkmenistan
* United Arab Emirates
* Uzbekistan
* Vietnam
* Yemen

States with
limited recognition|

* Abkhazia
* Northern Cyprus
* Palestine
* South Ossetia
* Taiwan

Dependencies and
other territories|

* British Indian Ocean Territory
* Christmas Island
* Cocos (Keeling) Islands
* Hong Kong
* Macau

* Category
* Asia portal

Portals:

* Environment
* China

*[v]: View this template
*[t]: Discuss this template
*[e]: Edit this template