Environmental impact of the Vietnam War

A United States Air Force craft spraying defoliant in Vietnam.

The Vietnam War had a major and long-lasting impact on the environment of the countries affected. The environment of Vietnam was severely degraded by the use of defoliants, bombing and other military activities.[1] North Vietnam utilized the geography and ecology of the region to conceal their activities and move resources, such as via the complex network of tunnels and paths in the Ho Chi Minh trail. In response, the United States developed and deployed technologies and campaigns to clear forests and destabilize soil, greatly impacting the environment.[2] Over time, the long-term agricultural productivity in parts of Vietnam was reduced by many herbicidal agents and bombing campaigns.[3] The war has also been linked to extensive deforestation and influenced the hydrology of the Mekong region.[4][5]

## Rainbow Herbicides and Agent Orange

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Further information: Impact of Agent Orange in Vietnam

The United States would begin their long-term military operation known as Operation Ranch Hand. The U.S. had the goal of eradicating the forests and vegetation of Vietnam to rid the Viet Cong of valuable resources such as food and to make it more difficult for the Viet Cong to stay hidden within the vast forests of Vietnam. The Operation, lasting from 1962 to 1971, largely involved the usage of Herbicides and Defoliants, such as the Rainbow Herbicides. The Rainbow Herbicides consisted of Agent Blue, Agent Green, Agent Purple, Agent Pink, Agent White, and the most infamous being Agent Orange which had several variations. Agent Blue and Purple were among the first that were used in the operation, followed by Green and Pink, and lastly White and Orange.[6]

Agent Orange made up for 61% of the herbicides that were used in the entire operation, and was introduced 3 years after the operation had begun. It was estimated that 90% of the Agent Orange usage was for forest defoliation, as it was the most effective of the 6 when it came to destroying the forests and vegetation. The forests of Vietnam especially were very vulnerable to a chemical such as Agent Orange, and by the end of the 9-year campaign, 11 million gallons of Agent Orange had been dropped on the region including Laos, Cambodia, and mostly Vietnam. These herbicides not only affected the landscape of Vietnam, but had disastrous effects on the human body. It is estimated that 3 million people were affected by Agent Orange alone and caused severe health problems, many of which were fatal. By 1970, there had been a severe drop in the usage of these herbicides due to controversy surrounding the use of chemical warfare by the United States. Many, including Americans, questioned the ethicality of using such dangerous chemicals especially on the citizens that were affected by the Agents. The chemical warfare the U.S. had been utilizing for nearly a decade had helped to contribute opposition against the war by American citizens.[citation needed]

## Vegetation and forests

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See also: Deforestation in Vietnam, Deforestation in Cambodia, and Deforestation in Laos

Many of the forests of Vietnam, especially mangrove forests, were immensely impacted by Agent Orange. It was partially the reason why Agent Orange was utilized so much, as a very minuscule amount of it would instantly kill a Mangrove tree. They were very common in that region of the world as well. Because they were so abundant, it made using Agent Orange that much more useful to the United States. Heavy bombing was used in the war as well, and the U.S. had dropped 13 million tons of bombs in Laos, Cambodia, and Vietnam in total. Defoliants had destroyed around 7,700 square miles of forests, estimating to be around 6% of the total land in Vietnam. The effects of Agent Orange persisted after the war, and lead to Vietnam's forest cover declining by 50% in the years during the war and after, reaching an all-time low for forest cover in the 80's and 90's.[7]

## See also

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* Impact of Agent Orange in Vietnam

## References

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1. ^ Orians, Gordon H.; Pfeiffer, E. W. (1970). "Ecological Effects of the War in Vietnam". Science. 168 (3931): 544–554\. doi:10.1126/science.168.3931.544. ISSN 0036-8075. JSTOR 1728609.
2. ^ "The Origins of Ecocide: Revisiting the Ho Chi Minh Trail in the Vietnam War". Environment & Society Portal. 2020-05-21. Retrieved 2024-01-27.
3. ^ Appau, Samuelson; Awaworyi Churchill, Sefa; Smyth, Russell; Trinh, Trong-Anh (2021-10-01). "The long-term impact of the Vietnam War on agricultural productivity". World Development. 146: 105613. doi:10.1016/j.worlddev.2021.105613. ISSN 0305-750X.
4. ^ Lacombe, Guillaume; Pierret, Alain (October 2013). "Hydrological impact of war-induced deforestation in the Mekong Basin". Ecohydrology. 6 (5): 901–903\. doi:10.1002/eco.1395. ISSN 1936-0584.
5. ^ "Environmental and migratory consequences of the Vietnam War | Environmental Migration Portal". environmentalmigration.iom.int. Retrieved 2024-01-27.
6. ^ Herbicides, Institute of Medicine (US) Committee to Review the Health Effects in Vietnam Veterans of Exposure to (1994), "The U.S. Military and the Herbicide Program in Vietnam", Veterans and Agent Orange: Health Effects of Herbicides Used in Vietnam, National Academies Press (US), retrieved 2024-06-02
7. ^ "In War-Scarred Landscape, Vietnam Replants Its Forests". Yale E360. Retrieved 2024-06-02.

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Vietnam War

Outline

Participants|

* North Vietnam (People's Army of Vietnam, Viet Cong, PRG)
* South Vietnam (Army of the Republic of Vietnam)
* International participants
* United States
* Thailand
* Philippines
* Australia
* People's Republic of China
* Republic of China
* South Korea
* New Zealand

Related conflicts|

* Laotian Civil War
* Cambodian Civil War
* Cold War (1962–1979)
* Cold War in Asia

Background|

* French Indochina
* Japanese occupation
* Viet Minh
* Civil conflicts (1945–49)
* State of Vietnam (1949–55)
* First Indochina War (Battle of Dien Bien Phu)
* 1954 Geneva Conference
* Vietnamese migration of 1954–55
* 1955 referendum
* North Vietnamese invasion of Laos
* 1960 South Vietnamese coup attempt

Events|

* 1962: Strategic Hamlet Program
* Independence Palace bombing
* 1963: Buddhist crisis
* Coup against Diem
* 1964: Coup against Minh
* Gulf of Tonkin incident / Resolution
* December coup
* 1965: U.S. escalation / "Americanization"
* 1965 South Vietnamese coup
* Bombing of North Vietnam
* 1966: Buddhist Uprising
* 1968: Tet Offensive (Khe Sanh, Hue)
* 1970: Cambodian campaign
* 1971: Vietnamization policy, ARVN campaign in Laos
* 1972: Easter Offensive
* Christmas bombings
* 1973: Paris Peace Accords
* 1974: Battle of Phước Long
* 1975: 1975 spring offensive
* Fall of Saigon

Conflict|

* Củ Chi tunnels
* Ho Chi Minh trail
* Sihanouk Trail
* Operation Popeye
* Weapons
* Agent Orange
* Land mines
* Rape
* United States prisoners of war
* War crimes (Huế, My Lai, Đắk Sơn)

Impacts|

* Casualties
* Body count controversy
* POW/MIA issue
* Impact of Agent Orange
* Environmental impact

Aftermath|

* Cambodian–Vietnamese War
* Indochina refugee crisis
* Vietnamese boat people
* Sino-Vietnamese War
* Veterans
* Normalization of US–Vietnam relations

Reactions|

* Draft evasion in the Vietnam War
* Opposition to United States involvement
* Protests
* United States news media
* In popular culture
* Film
* Games
* Songs

Other topics|

* Awards and decorations
* Canada and the Vietnam War
* CIA activities in Vietnam
* United Kingdom and the Vietnam War
* Henry Kissinger’s involvement
* Pentagon Papers
* SEATO
* Women in the Vietnam War

* Category
* Battles and operations

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