Environmental movement in South Africa

Organisations

* Earthlife Africa
* Cape Town Ecology Group
* Koeberg Alert
* Earthlife Africa
* GreenPeace Africa
* EThekwini ECOPEACE
* Endangered Wildlife Trust
* WESSA
* Groundwork South Africa
* Dolphin Action and Protection Group

Conferences

* South African National Conference on Environment and Development
* World Summit on Sustainable Development
* COP17

* v
* t
* e

South African youth climate activists in 2020.

The environmental movement in South Africa traces its history from the beginnings of conservation and preservation groups in the late 19th century, to the rise of radicalism amongst local ecologists and activists. The early environmental movement in South Africa was primarily made up of conservation groups whose membership was dominated by affluent whites.[1] Many of these groups advocated for forms of fortress conservation that were used to justify forcibly removing Black South Africans from their land. Throughout the mid to late 20th century, justice-centered environmental groups sprung up in connection with anti-apartheid movements advocating for change on issues that affected the environment as well as the rights of workers and rural peoples, showing how environmental issues in the country were "inextricably linked to issues of race and politics."[2]

## Issues

[edit]

Since the early days of the environmental movement, protection of wildlife and natural landscapes has been a major area of focus, however as the environmental movement has become more justice-focused, it has shifted from advocating for fortress conversation policies to endorsing community-based conservation strategies, which have been implemented in some areas with varying degrees of efficacy.[2] Historically, many key environmental issues in the country were not explicitly framed as environmental issues by social movements, but rather as issues of "service delivery," which encompass the provision of housing, water, sanitation, and electricity services by national and municipal governments.[3] Some environmental groups have addressed the intersections between the environment, urban living conditions, and occupational health and safety. Environmental movements in the country have also increasingly focused on combatting climate climate change and making decarbonization, sustainable development, and climate justice political priorities in the country.

### Mining

[edit]

Mining is one of the major industries in South Africa. The country is the world's largest producer of chrome, manganese, platinum, vanadium and vermiculite, and is the second largest producer of ilmenite, palladium, rutile and zirconium.[4] It is also the world's fifth largest coal exporter.[5] While Native South Africans had been mining gold and other minerals for centuries in the region, industrialized mining began in the late 19th century driven by colonial governments and companies.[6] These new mines employed a primarily Black workforce, shifting the Native population from relying on subsidence agriculture for their livelihoods to becoming dependent on wage labor. Working conditions in mines were dangerous with exposure to environmental hazards such as rock bursts and an extremely and hot poorly ventilated conditions. Tuberculosis was also able to spread easily among mine workers due to the poor ventilation. Asbestos mining caused severe lung damage to miners and surrounding communities. Sulfuric acid from mines also leads to pollution of surrounding groundwater, which for many communities is an important drinking water source.[3]

### Energy supply

[edit]

See also South African energy crisis

South Africa's energy supply crisis, or load shedding, is an ongoing period of widespread national blackouts of electricity supply. It began in the later months of 2007 towards the end of Thabo Mbeki's second term as president, and continues through the present. The South African government-owned national power utility and primary power generator, Eskom, and various parliamentarians attributed these rolling blackouts to insufficient generation capacity.[7]

The blackouts have had a wide range of impact on residents including limiting hospital services, increasing food insecurity and water scarcity, and increasing unemployment rates. The issue is connected to debates surrounding climate change and the country's transition to renewable energy since the majority of the nation's electricity currently comes from coal fire power plants. Bureaucratic delays and corruption have delayed the transition to renewables, worsening the power supply crisis.[8]

### Water access

[edit]

Inequitable water and sanitation access have long been issues in South Africa. Amid droughts exacerbated by climate change, the country currently faces a water crisis. The situation is especially dire for rural populations, 19% of whom lack consistent access to water and 33% of whom lack access to basic sanitation services.[9] Although the right to water is a guaranteed under the law, this often not the case on the ground. In 2000, water distribution was decentralized and is now controlled by municipal governments, which makes it more difficult for those outside larger municipalities to be connected to water infrastructure. This change did lead to a net increase in the number of people with access to water infrastructure, with the number increasing by 20.8 million between 1994 and 2020.[3] However significant problems remain with the water system including broken or failing infrastructure, a lack of upkeep, and corruption in municipal governments. A notable example occurred in Mothutlung, a township in the North West Province, in 2013 when water tanks were brought in to deal with disruption of water supplies to households. Residents continually complained to local officials, but no action was taken, before they eventually discovered that municipal officials were deliberately delaying the repairs because they were shareholders in the water tank company being paid by the municipality. Protests ensued, and 4 protesters were killed by police.[3]

## Key environmental justice organizations

[edit]

While the environmental movement in South Africa has long operated in decentralized manner, three environmental justice organizations: groundWork South Africa, Earthlife Africa, and the Coalition for Environmental Justice have served as important hubs for organizers and played a role in shaping the direction of the movement. Many environmental NGOs have had to compete with each other for funding, especially amid a scarcity in international funding, although in recent years there have been efforts among environmental organizations to pool their resources, financial and otherwise. The ideological gap has also begun to close between traditional environmental organizations and environmental justice organizations as a response to critiques that conservationist movements were too elitist and did not address issues of concern to the majority of the population.[2]

### Earthlife Africa

[edit]

Earthlife Africa (ELA) is a South African environmental and anti-nuclear organisation founded in August 1988, in Johannesburg. Drawing inspiration from Greenpeace International, they sought to politicize conservation and connect it to other social inequalities.[2] The group addressed environmental issues began by playing a radical, anti-apartheid, activist role. ELA is arguably now more of a reformist lobby or pressure group. As a key voice in the environmental justice movement, Earthlife Africa has been criticized for being too radical, and by others for "working with traditional conservation movements" in furthering the environmental struggle.

### Coalition for Environmental Justice (formerly the Environmental Justice Networking Forum)

[edit]

Born out of an ELA conference in 1992, the Environmental Justice Networking Forum (EJNF) quickly became a prominent force in the environmental justice movement, taking on initiatives such as fighting against hazardous waste facilities in poor communities,[3] While the EJNF had success mobilizing rural populations, especially during the late 1990s and early 2000s, the organization was criticized by some for ignoring the pressing environmental justice issues facing urban communities. In 2006, it reestablished as the Coalition for Environmental Justice.[2]

### groundWork South Africa

[edit]

As South Africa's local affiliate of Friends of the Earth, groundWork South Africa was established in 1995 by three former EJNF members.[10] Their primary areas of focus are renewable energy and environmental health. They aim to address environmentalism through the lens of social equality and the creation of a more egalitarian society, focusing on addressing the needs of vulnerable populations. They both partner with local community organizations and conduct legislative advocacy.[11]

## Environment + Politics

[edit]

During apartheid, while political parties were banned, environmental groups served as an outlet for activism and political expression. After the end of apartheid, many radical environmentalists were absorbed into the governing African National Congress (ANC), while some chose to continue pursuing activism or advocacy through non-governmental organizations. During Nelson Mandela's presidency (1994-1999) there were higher levels of cooperation between environmental non-governmental organizations and national government, but during the Thabo Mbeki presidency (1999-2008) tensions arose between environmental groups and the ANC. Mbeki favored non-governmental organizations that focused on delivering direct aid to struggling populations, whereas environmental movements were focused on pursuing social and political change.[2] Lack of transparency and public participation in government decision making remain a source of conflict between environmental organizations and political officials.

### Green parties

[edit]

Unlike many Global North countries which saw large movements for the establishment of green parties beginning in the 1970s, the movement to establish a green party in South Africa in the late 1980s and early 1990s never reached mainstream success. Several green parties were started in the country during that period, although none became influential in national politics. In 1989, the Ecology Party, the country's first green party was established, but it disbanded shortly thereafter.[12] In 1992, activists in Capetown launched the Green Party, but it too disbanded after a disastrous election campaign in 1994.[12] Judy Sole, a nature resort developer, then founded the Government of the People Green Party in 1999.[13] ECOPEACE, a socialist environmentalist party founded in 1995 won a seat on the eThekwini Municipal Council in 2000, and its sister organization, Operation Khanyisa Movement (OKM) won a seat on the Johannesburg City Council in 2006.[14]

### National legislation

[edit]

See South African Environmental Law

South Africa's Constitution, ratified in 1996, enshrines the right to a safe and healthy environment, and the right of future generations to have a protected environment though conservation and the curbing of pollution. It also committed to more equitable distribution of land.[15]

Two pieces of landmark environmental legislation, the Environmental Management Act and the National Water Act, both passed in 1998. The Reconstruction and Development Programme (RDP), which passed in 1994 promised increased service delivery that would meet the needs of all people. However, in a few short years, the RDP would be replaced with Growth, Employment, and Redistribution (GEAR) which was more focused on economic growth than addressing social issues.[3]

### International agreements

[edit]

In 2002, South Africa hosted the Rio+10 World Summit on Sustainable Development which was held in Johannesburg, the main outcome of which was the Johannesburg declaration. In the lead up to the event, there was conflict among environmental organizations about whether hosting the summit was a valuable endeavor or whether it was a distraction from pressing domestic environmental policy concerns.[2]

## Timeline

[edit]

Green Pages

### Colonial Era

[edit]

* 1795: Cape Colony established as a British colony.[16]
* 1856: The government of the Cape Colony passed the Forest and Herbage Preservation Act. Knysna forest and Tsitsikama forest were designated as nature preserves.[17]
* 1867: Diamonds discovered in the Northern Cape.[16]
* 1883: The Natal Game Association, a group focused on the conservation of wildlife was founded. It was the first known non-governmental organization in South Africa that focused on environmental issues.[18]
* 1910: Union of South Africa established by the joining of three British colonies in South Africa.[16]
* 1912: African National Congress established to oppose the exclusion of Black South Africans from holding positions of power in the colonial government.[16]
* 1918: Native Farmers Association founded.[19]
* 1926: Wildlife Society of South Africa founded. Kruger National Park, the first national park in South Africa, was established.[18]

### Apartheid Era

[edit]

* 1948: Apartheid regime implemented by the National Party. This included environmental apartheid, the deliberate placement of Black South Africans in rural areas with harsh environmental conditions where it was difficult to access necessities such as food, water, and social services.[20]
* 1955: Congress of the People (1955), a meeting of anti-apartheid activists and organizations, was held at Kliptown. The Freedom Charter adopted at the meeting includes article on agrarian & environmental rights, including 'save the soil'.[21]
* 1973: Endangered Wildlife Trust founded
* 1976 Koeberg Alert founded following the decision to site South Africa's first nuclear power station only 30 kms from Cape Town[22]
* 1977: The Dolphin Action & Protection Group founded with the motto and policy 'Dolphins Should Be Free'.[23]
* 1983: Koeberg Alert reconstituted, "broadens the focus of the protest" to place the entire nuclear issue "within its social, political and economic context."[22]
* 1984: The Naturalist Society, also known as Natsoc founded.[24]
* 1987: Cape Town Ecology Group founded; with motto: 'Free the Humans'
* 1988: Earthlife Africa formed; Khanyisa, environmental awareness organisation founded in townships of Langa, Nyanga, Guguletu and Khayelitsha
* 1989: Earthlife Africa exposes mercury poisoning of workers at Thor Chemicals;[25] Kagenna Magazine is published; Green Action Forum founded by Greg Knill. Establishment of the Ecology Party in Cape Town.[12]
* 1990: A fishing industry campaign by the Food and Allied Workers Union links workers issues to the environment.
* 1991: First National Conference on Environment and Development; Environmental Monitoring Group releases a document "Towards Sustainable Development in South Africa";[26] General Magnus Malan takes over as new Minister of Water Affairs and Forestry; Bev Geach of the Weekly Mail publishes The Green Pages, a directory of environmental groups
* 1992: Earthlife Africa pressurizes the government for an inquiry into asbestos related deaths. Environmental Justice Networking Forum (EJNF) formed at an ELA conference.[27] Establishment of the Green Party by activists in Cape Town.
* 1993: Group for Environmental Monitoring (GEM) founded.[28]

### Post-Apartheid Era

[edit]

Climate change protesters in Durban participate in the 2011 Global Day of Action

* 1994: After South Africa's first democratic election, environmental rights submitted for debate to the Constitutional Assembly.[29]
* 1995: eThekwini ECOPEACE, an environmentalist political party now known as ECOPEACE founded.
* 1996: South Africa's Bill of Rights proclaims: "Everyone has the right to an environment that is not harmful to their health or well-being."[30]
* 1997: The ANC government moves to provide lead-free petrol as one of its first pro-environment policies
* 1998: The Truth Commission hears about asbestos-related deaths from mining
* 1999: groundWork (GW), a non-profit, environmental justice service and development organization founded.[31] Founding of the Government by the People Green Party by Judy Sole.[13]
* 2000: South Durban Community Environmental Alliance (SDCEA) formed; eThekwini ECOPEACE wins one seat in the eThekwini Municipal Council, the first time a Green Party of any sort in South Africa has won at the polls
* 2002: Rio+10 World Summit on Sustainable Development held in Johannesburg; Earthlife launches the People's Environmental Centre, the Greenhouse.
* 2003: Asbestos Relief Trust (ART) set up, and the Kgalagadi Relief Trust (KRT), both of which evaluate claims and provide compensation for qualified claimants. A media statement, indicates that the ban on the use of asbestos and asbestos-related materials was "well overdue." National Energy Caucus founded.
* 2004: Marthinus van Schalkwyk appointed as Minister of Environmental Affairs and Tourism
* 2006: Eskom, South Africa's national energy utility issues energy-saving lightbulbs to consumers as part of a "demand-side" energy-reduction campaign. EJNF reconstitutes as the Coalition for Environmental Justice.
* Dept of Environmental Affairs and Tourism holds hearings on nuclear power. First evidence of contamination and worker-related deaths caused b exposure to radiation.
* 2009: South Africa participates in the Copenhagen Climate Change round.[32]
* 2010: SA Government announces mothballing of PBMR. Edna Molewa appointed Minister of Environment under Jacob Zuma.
* 2011: South Africa hosts COP17 in Durban, a new framework emerges. Allied Climate & Health Conference releases "Durban Declaration" declaring a health emergency, signed by 250 medical professionals and public health organisations.
* 2015: South Africa hosts South African International Renewable Energy Conference.[33]
* 2016: Vukani Environmental Justice Movement formed in Mpumalanga Province. Establishment of The Greens in Cape Town.
* 2019: Barbara Creecy sworn in as new Minister of Environment under President Ramaphosa. The Government by the People Green Party participated in the 2019 National and Provincial Elections and obtained 0,13% of the vote in the Western Cape Province, but no parliamentary seat Archived 22 April 2009 at the Wayback Machine.
* 2021: The Greens contested the Local Government Elections in the Cape Town metropole but did not secure a seat in the council Archived 22 April 2009 at the Wayback Machine.
* 2022: March, "Deadly Air" case heard in South Africa. Court confirms the constitutional right of the country's citizens to an environment that isn't harmful to their health. This includes the right to clean air, as exposure to air pollution affects human health.[34]

Extinction Rebellion protesting coal in South Africa

* September, Shell 'Wild Coast' Ocean Exploration Case heard. High Court in Makhanda ruled that Shell's exploration right to conduct seismic surveys on the Wild Coast of South Africa was granted unlawfully and therefore set it aside.[35]

## See also

[edit]

* Federation of Green Parties of Africa
* Anti-nuclear movement
* Environmental issues in Southern Africa
* Geography of South Africa
* Climate change in South Africa
* Environmental racism
* Apartheid
* Square Kilometre Array

## References

[edit]

1. ^ Khan, Farieda. 2001: 'Towards Environmentalism: A Socio-political Evaluation of Trends in South African Conservation History, 1910-1976, with a specific focus on the Role of Black Conservation Organisations'. PhD Thesis, University of Cape Town.
2. ^ a b c d e f g Khan, Farieda. 2014: 'Race, Politics, and the Environment in South Africa- Trends in the History of Environmental Civil Society Organisations'. https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Farieda-Khan/publication/316240934_Race_Politics_and_the_Environment_in_South_Africa_-_Trends_in_the_History_of_Environmental_Civil_Society_Organisations/links/58f73a17a6fdcc187f3bd741/Race-Politics-and-the-Environment-in-South-Africa-Trends-in-the-History-of-Environmental-Civil-Society-Organisations
3. ^ a b c d e f Knight, Jasper (2 September 2023). "Environment, Power, and Justice: Southern African Histories, edited by Graeme Wynn, Jane Carruthers and Nancy J. Jacobs, Athens, Ohio, Ohio University Press, 2022, xii + 354 pp". Canadian Journal of African Studies. 57 (3): 767–768\. doi:10.1080/00083968.2023.2250136. ISSN 0008-3968.
4. ^ Survey, U. S. Geological (2024). Mineral commodity summaries 2024 (Report). U.S. Geological Survey.
5. ^ "COAL IN SOUTH AFRICA" (PDF). Eskom. August 2021.
6. ^ "Benchmarks: October 11, 1899: Second Boer War begins, fueled by discovery of gold". EARTH Magazine. 7 September 2018.
7. ^ Rathi, Anusha (8 July 2022). "Why South Africa Is in the Dark, Again". Foreign Policy. Retrieved 4 May 2024.
8. ^ "Will South Africa's Power Crisis Sink Its Green Ambitions?". Council on Foreign Relations. Retrieved 4 May 2024.
9. ^ "Water Crisis In South Africa". Greenpeace Africa. Retrieved 4 May 2024.
10. ^ Peek, Bobby (May 2019). "groundWork Environmental Justice Action Climate Change Letter to South African President Cyril Ramaphosa, December 2018". New Solutions. 29 (1): 112–115\. Bibcode:2019NewSo..29..112P. doi:10.1177/1048291119835446. ISSN 1048-2911. PMID 30866725.
11. ^ "About Us". groundWork. Retrieved 5 May 2024.
12. ^ a b c Kotzé, Hendrik Jakobus; Anneke Greyling (1994). Political organizations in South Africa A-Z (2 ed.). Tafelberg. ISBN 0-624-03261-2.
13. ^ a b Sawyer, Clive (19 May 1999). "South Africa: Small challengers with big ideas". Cape Argus.
14. ^ "IEC (Electoral Commission of South Africa)". Elections.org.za.
15. ^ "The Constitution of the Republic of South Africa | South African Government". www.gov.za. Retrieved 4 May 2024.
16. ^ a b c d "History | South African Government". www.gov.za. Retrieved 1 May 2024.
17. ^ Pincetl, Stephanie S. (October 1991). "The Global Environmental Movement: Reclaiming paradise". Political Geography Quarterly. 10 (4): 438–439\. doi:10.1016/0260-9827(91)90008-i.
18. ^ a b Pringle, John A. (1982). The Conservationists and the Killers: The Story of Game Protection and the Wildlife Society of Southern Africa. Cape Town: T.V. Bulpin & Books of Africa. ISBN 9780949956231.
19. ^ Khan, Farieda (1994). "Rewriting South Africa's Conservation History-The Role of the Native Farmers Association". Journal of Southern African Studies. 20 (4): 499–516\. doi:10.1080/03057079408708417. JSTOR 2636969.
20. ^ Stull, Valerie; Bell, Michael M.; Ncwadi, Mpumelelo (1 October 2016). "Environmental apartheid: Eco-health and rural marginalization in South Africa". Journal of Rural Studies. 47: 369–380\. Bibcode:2016JRurS..47..369S. doi:10.1016/j.jrurstud.2016.04.004. ISSN 0743-0167.
21. ^ South Africa Department of Education (2005). "History of the Freedom Charter" (PDF). Department of Environmental Affairs.
22. ^ a b "About KAA". KOEBERG ALERT ALLIANCE. 18 May 2011. Retrieved 30 April 2024.
23. ^ "Dolphin Action and Protection Group". Archived from the original on 30 April 2024. Retrieved 30 April 2024.
24. ^ Fynbos Fynmense: people making biodiversity work (12.4 MB) 2006. A. Ashwell, T. Sandwith, M. Barnett, A. Parker & F. Wisani. ISBN 1-919976-29-9. 187. https://www.cepf.net/sites/default/files/c.a.p.e.report.chapter6.pages185-206.pdf
25. ^ "Environmental Justice Case Study: Thor Chemicals and Mercury Exposure in".
26. ^ Lewis, D R, "Environment and Economics go together?", South Environment, Sept 19-25, 1991, p20
27. ^ McDonald, David A. (1998). "Three Steps Forward, Two Steps Back: Ideology & Urban Ecology in South Africa". Review of African Political Economy. 25 (75): 73–88\. doi:10.1080/03056249808704293. hdl:10.1080/03056249808704293. JSTOR 4006360.
28. ^ Cock, Jacklyn (2004) "Connecting the red, brown and green: The environmental justice movement in South Africa" (PDF). Centre for Civil Society, University of KwaZulu-Natal. Retrieved March 23, 2024.
29. ^ "Environmental Rights [1995] ZAConAsmRes 208 (23 January 1995)". www.saflii.org. Retrieved 30 April 2024.
30. ^ "The SA Constitution". www.justice.gov.za. Retrieved 30 April 2024.
31. ^ "About Us". groundWork. Retrieved 1 May 2024.
32. ^ "Short Review of the COP-15 Conference in Copenhagen - LAS-ANS" (in Brazilian Portuguese). 8 April 2009. Retrieved 30 April 2024.
33. ^ South African International Energy Conference, Conference Report. 2015 . https://www.ren21.net/wp-content/uploads/2019/05/SAIREC_Report_Final.pdf
34. ^ Garland, Rebecca, South African court rules that clean air is a constitutional right https://theconversation.com/south-african-court-rules-that-clean-air-is-a-constitutional-right-what-needs-to-change-179706
35. ^ Vlavianos, Chris, Communities celebrate as Court sets aside Shell's exploration right off the Wild Coast of South Africahttps://www.greenpeace.org/africa/en/press/52171/press-release-communities-celebrate-as-court-sets-aside-shells-exploration-right-off-the-wild-coast-of-south-africa/

* v
* t
* e

Politics of South Africa

By province|

* Eastern Cape
* Free State
* Gauteng
* KwaZulu-Natal
* Limpopo
* Mpumalanga
* North West
* Northern Cape
* Western Cape

Flag of South Africa

Political
movements|

| Ideologies|

* African nationalism
* Afrikaner nationalism
* Anarchism
* Anti-war
* Black consciousness
* Environmentalism
* Federalism
* Feminism
* Liberalism
* Pan-Africanism
* Non-racialism
* Trotskyism

|

Political parties|

see South Africa political parties

Other political
organisations|

* AfriForum
* Afrikanerbond
* Afrikaner Weerstandsbeweging (AWB)
* Congress of Traditional Leaders of South Africa (CONTRALESA)
* Congress of South African Students (COSAS)
* Earthlife Africa
* Keep Left
* Khanya College
* Koeberg Alert
* Lesbian and Gay Equality Project (LGEP)
* People Against Gangsterism and Drugs (PAGAD)
* South African Liberal Students' Association (SALSA)
* South African Students Congress (SASCO)
* South African Wine Initiative
* Zabalaza Anarchist Communist Front (ZACF)

Trade unions and
Social movements|

see South Africa trade unions

* Equal Education
* Mandela Park Backyarders
* People Against Suffering, Oppression and Poverty (PASSOP)
* Poor People's Alliance
* Abahlali baseMjondolo
* Landless Peoples Movement
* Western Cape Anti-Eviction Campaign
* Reclaim the City
* Social Justice Coalition
* Treatment Action Campaign
* Unemployed Peoples' Movement

Law|

see South African law

Political culture|

* African Renaissance
* Alternative media
* Azania
* Corruption
* (Don't) touch me on my studio
* Freedom Charter
* Proudly South African
* Rainbow nation
* Renaming
* Tenderpreneurs
* Toyi-toyi
* Ubuntu
* UnFreedom Day
* White monopoly capital
* Ungovernability
* Xenophobia

* Anti-Chinese sentiment
* Anti-Indian sentiment

| Slogans|

* "Amandla Ngawethu!"
* "No Land! No House! No Vote!"
* "Dubul' ibhunu" (Shoot the Boer)
* "One Settler, One Bullet"
* "Each One, Teach One"

|

Books and
periodicals|

* African Communist
* Amandla
* ANC Today
* Biko
* I Write What I Like
* Long Walk to Freedom
* Molotov Cocktail
* No Land! No House! No Vote!

Other|

* Corrective rape
* Crime
* Cape Independence
* Elections
* e-tolling
* Farm attacks
* Gupta family
* HIV/AIDS
* Labour brokering
* Land occupations
* Legacies of apartheid
* Lindela
* Phala Phala robbery
* Political assassinations
* Political repression
* Protests
* Sexual violence
* Shack fires
* Terrorism
* Third Force

Category

* v
* t
* e

Political history of South Africa

Defunct polities|

* Kingdom of Mapungubwe (c. 1075–c. 1220)
* Dutch Cape Colony (1652–1806)
* Mthethwa Paramountcy (c. 1780–1817)
* Ndwandwe Kingdom (c. 1780–1819)
* Cape Colony (1795–1910)
* Zulu Kingdom (1816–1897)
* Natalia Republic (1839–1843)
* Natal Colony (1843–1910)
* Orange Free State (1854–1902)
* South African Republic (1856–1902)
* Griqualand East (1861–1879)
* Griqualand West (1870–1873)
* Goshen (1882–1883)
* Stellaland (1882–1885)
* Nieuwe Republiek (1884–1888)
* Upingtonia (1885–1887)
* Klein Vrystaat (1886–1891)
* Orange River Colony (1902–1910)
* Transvaal Colony (1902–1910)
* Union of South Africa (1910–1961)
* Transkei (1976–1994)
* Bophuthatswana (1977–1994)
* Venda (1979–1994)
* Ciskei (1981–1994)

Events|

| Pre-colonial|

* Bantu migrations
* Battle of Salt River

|

1652–1815|

* Dutch settlement
* French Huguenot settlement
* Khoikhoi–Dutch Wars
* Xhosa Wars
* Battle of Muizenberg
* Battle of Blaauwberg
* Anglo-Dutch Treaty of 1814

1815–1910|

* Mfecane
* 1820 Settlers
* Great Trek
* Boer Republics
* Transvaal Civil War
* Mineral Revolution
* Witwatersrand Gold Rush
* South African Wars
* South Africa Act 1909 (National Convention)

1910–1948|

* South West Africa campaign
* Maritz rebellion
* Rand Rebellion
* Great Depression
* 1946 African Mine Workers' Union strike
* Bantustans

Apartheid|

* 1948 general election
* Apartheid legislation
* Pass laws
* Internal resistance
* Coloured-vote constitutional crisis
* Defiance Campaign
* Congress of the People
* Freedom Charter
* Women's March 1956
* 1957 Alexandra bus boycott
* Sharpeville massacre
* 1960 republic referendum
* International isolation
* UN Resolution 1761
* UNSC Resolution 591
* Academic boycott
* Disinvestment
* Constructive engagement
* Tar Baby Option
* Sporting boycott
* Olympics
* Rugby union
* Rivonia Trial
* Durban Moment
* Border War
* Israeli alliance
* Israel–South Africa Agreement
* Mafeje affair
* Soweto Uprising
* Weapons of mass destruction
* Project Coast
* Church Street bombing
* 1983 constitutional referendum
* Vaal uprising
* Langa massacre
* Rubicon speech
* Operation Vula
* Dakar Conference
* Transkei coup d'état
* Ciskei coup d'état
* Venda coup d'état
* Third Force
* CODESA
* Storming of the Kempton Park World Trade Centre
* Bisho massacre
* 1992 apartheid referendum
* Saint James Church massacre
* Bophuthatswana crisis
* Shell House massacre
* Sauer Commission

Post-
apartheid|

* 1994 general election
* Government of National Unity
* Reconstruction and Development Programme
* Truth and Reconciliation Commission
* Arms Deal
* Floor crossing
* Soweto bombings
* African Renaissance
* Travelgate
* Xenophobia
* Attack on Kennedy Road
* Blikkiesdorp
* Marikana massacre
* 2012 Western Cape farm workers' strike
* Nkandlagate
* Racism
* 2014 platinum strike
* #RhodesMustFall protests
* #FeesMustFall student protests
* Tshwane riots
* 2019 service delivery protests
* 2019 Johannesburg riots
* COVID-19 pandemic
* 2020 Phala Phala Robbery
* 2021 unrest
* Lady R incident

Political culture|

* African nationalism
* Afrikaner Calvinism
* Afrikaner nationalism
* Anarchism
* Azania
* Baasskap
* Boerehaat
* Black Consciousness Movement
* Cape Independence
* Day of the Vow
* Greater South Africa
* Honorary whites
* Rooi gevaar
* Slavery
* Swart gevaar
* Uitlander
* Volkstaat

Defunct
organisations|

| Civic and political
organisations|

* Afrikaner Bond
* Afrikaner Broederbond
* Afrikaner Party
* AITUP
* APO
* AVF
* BPC
* Black Sash
* Boerestaat Party
* CDA
* CNIP
* CTEG
* COD
* Congress Alliance
* COSG
* CP
* DLF
* Dominion Party
* DP (1973–1977)
* DP (1989–2000)
* DPP
* DSM
* ECC
* FA
* FD
* Genootskap van Regte Afrikaners
* GNP
* Het Volk
* HNP (Herenigde)
* HNP (Herstigte)
* IDASA
* ID
* IP
* ISL
* Jeugkrag
* Johannesburg Reform Committee
* Labour Party (1910–1958)
* Labour Party (1969–1994)
* Liberal Party (1953–1968)
* NA
* NCP
* Natal Indian Congress
* NLP
* NNP
* NP
* NPP
* NRP
* NUSAS
* Occupy
* Orangia Unie
* Oranjewerkers
* Orde Boerevolk
* PAVN
* PFP
* Progressive Party (Cape Colony)
* Progressive Party
* PRP
* Radio Freedom
* Reform Party
* SABP
* SADECO
* SAIC
* SASO
* SAYCO
* SAYRCO
* South African Party (Cape Colony)
* South African Party (1911–1934)
* South African Party (1977–1980)
* TNIP
* Torch Commando
* UFP
* United Party
* Unionist Party
* National Party of Venda
* Volksparty
* Workers Party
* WOSA

|

Trade unions and
social movements|

* APF
* BCM
* BLATU
* CNETU
* CTSWU
* FCWU
* FNETU
* FOSATU
* ICU
* IWW
* MUSA
* NEUM
* NURHS
* PAWE
* SAAPAWU
* SACTU
* SAIF
* SARHU
* SATUC
* Die Spoorbund
* UDF
* Umkosi Wezintaba

Paramilitary and
terrorist organisations|

* APLA
* ARM
* AWB
* BBB
* Boeremag
* Greyshirts
* MK
* Ossewabrandwag
* Orde van die Dood
* PAGAD
* SANF

Histories of
political parties|

* African National Congress
* Democratic Alliance
* Pan Africanist Congress of Azania

Category

* v
* t
* e

Environmentalism in Africa

Sovereign states|

* Algeria
* Angola
* Benin
* Botswana
* Burkina Faso
* Burundi
* Cameroon
* Cape Verde
* Central African Republic
* Chad
* Comoros
* Democratic Republic of the Congo
* Republic of the Congo
* Djibouti
* Egypt
* Equatorial Guinea
* Eritrea
* Eswatini
* Ethiopia
* Gabon
* The Gambia
* Ghana
* Guinea
* Guinea-Bissau
* Ivory Coast
* Kenya
* Lesotho
* Liberia
* Libya
* Madagascar
* Malawi
* Mali
* Mauritania
* Mauritius
* Morocco
* Mozambique
* Namibia
* Niger
* Nigeria
* Rwanda
* São Tomé and Príncipe
* Senegal
* Seychelles
* Sierra Leone
* Somalia
* South Africa
* South Sudan
* Sudan
* Tanzania
* Togo
* Tunisia
* Uganda
* Zambia
* Zimbabwe

States with limited
recognition

* Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic
* Somaliland

* v
* t
* e

Environmentalism

* Outline of environmentalism

Key topics|

* Climate justice
* Ecological crisis
* Environmental conflict
* Environmental movement
* History
* List of environmental conflicts
* Organizations
* Environmental studies
* Human impact on the environment

Disciplines|

* Communication
* Ecology
* Education
* Ethics
* Health
* History
* Humanities
* Law
* Philosophy
* Politics
* Psychology
* Religion
* Science
* Social science
* Sociology

Views|

| Philosophical|

* Political ecology
* Environmental philosophy
* Biocentrism
* Deep ecology
* Earth jurisprudence
* Ecocentrism
* Resacralization of nature
* Social ecology

|

Political|

* Bioconservatism
* Bright green environmentalism
* Disinvestment
* Eco-capitalism
* Ecofascism
* Ecofeminism
* Eco-nationalism
* Eco-socialism
* Eco-terrorism
* Ecomodernism
* Free-market environmentalism
* Green anarchism
* Green conservatism
* Green left
* Green liberalism
* Green libertarianism
* Green politics
* Green syndicalism
* War on coal

Religious|

* Ecotheology
* Christianity
* Evangelical
* Islam
* Judaism
* Stewardship (theology)

Opposition|

* Anti-environmentalism
* Environmental skepticism
* List of environmental killings

* Biophilia hypothesis
* Environmentalism of the poor
* Environmental stewardship
* Hardline
* Nature conservation
* Radical environmentalism

Offshoots|

* Anti-fracking movement
* Anti-nuclear movement
* Car-free movement
* Climate movement
* Conservation movement
* Cultural environmentalism
* Degrowth
* Earth Optimism
* Eco-anxiety
* Ecological grief
* Environmental defender
* Environmental justice
* Ethical banking
* Ethical consumerism
* Flight shame
* Impact investing
* Product stewardship
* Slow movement
* Sustainability organization

Goals|

* Circular economy
* Climate action
* Climate change mitigation
* Conservation community
* Ecological civilization
* Environmental personhood
* Environmental protection
* Environmental policy
* Environmental, social, and corporate governance
* Environmentally friendly
* Greening
* Green economy
* Greenwashing
* Natural resource management
* Environmental resource management
* Rights of nature
* Short-haul flight ban
* Smoke abatement
* Sustainability
* Vegetarianism
* Protests
* Tree sitting

By country|

* Albania
* Australia
* Brazil
* Rio Grande do Sul
* China
* Anti-incinerator movement
* India
* Chipko movement
* Israel
* New Zealand
* Philippines
* South Africa
* Switzerland
* United Kingdom
* United States

In culture|

* Art
* Books
* Ecofiction
* Conspicuous conservation
* Film
* list
* festivals
* horror
* Journalism
* The Lord of the Rings
* Music
* Ecomusicology
* Motorsport
* Sculpture
* Surfing
* Tourism
* Eco hotel
* Publications

Environmentalists|

* Environmentalist
* Environmental defender
* Water protector

| Notable people|

* Sunderlal Bahuguna
* Murray Bookchin
* David Brower
* Rachel Carson
* Jacques Cousteau
* Ng Cho-nam
* Tim Flannery
* Al Gore
* Aldo Leopold
* Wangari Maathai
* Seyyed Hossein Nasr
* Chico Mendes
* John Muir
* Theodore Roosevelt
* Shōzō Tanaka
* Greta Thunberg

|

Related topics|

* Barriers to pro-environmental behaviour
* Business ethics
* Land ethic
* Lifeboat ethics
* Tragedy of the commons

Environment portal

Portals:

* South Africa
* Politics
* Environment
* Society

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