Eritrean War of Independence

1961–1991 conflict within Ethiopia

Not to be confused with Eritrean–Ethiopian War.

Eritrean War of Independence

Part of Opposition to Haile Selassie, the Ethiopian Civil War, the Cold War, the Sino-Soviet split, the conflicts in the Horn of Africa, and the Revolutions of 1989

Military situation during the Eritrean War of Independence
| Date| 1 September 1961 – 24 May 1991
(29 years, 8 months and 4 weeks)

|

Location|

Predominantly: Eritrea Province

Result|

EPLF victory[27]

* Eritrean insurgency begins in 1961
* ELF defeated by EPLF and TPLF during the Eritrean Civil Wars
* Fall of the Derg regime
* Eritrea gains de facto independence from Ethiopia in 1991 under EPLF rule, and de jure independence after the referendum held in 1993 under UN auspices

Territorial
changes|

Independence of Eritrea

* Ethiopia becomes a landlocked country.

Belligerents
ELF (1961–1981)

Supported by:

* Sudan[1]
* Libya[2][3]
* China (until 1972)[4][5]
* Cuba (until 1975)[2][6]
* Syria[7][8]
* Iraq[9][10]
* Saudi Arabia[11]
* Somalia[12][13]

* * *

EPLF (since 1973)
TPLF (since 1975)

Supported by:

* Libya[15][16]
* Sudan[17]
* Somalia[12]
* Syria[7][8]
* Iraq[18]

|  1961–1974
Ethiopian Empire

Supported by:

* United States[19]
* Israel[20][21]

* * *

1974–1991
Derg (1974–1987)
PDR Ethiopia (1987–1991)

Supported by:

* Soviet Union[25] (1974–1990)
* Cuba (1974–1990)
* South Yemen (1974–1990)
* Israel[20]
* North Korea[26]

Commanders and leaders
Hamid Idris Awate †
Ahmed Nasser

* * *

Isaias Afewerki
Romodan M. Nur
Petros Solomon
Sebhat Ephrem
Mesfin Hagos
Meles Zenawi|  Haile Selassie I
Abiye Abebe

* * *

Mengistu H. Mariam
Tesfaye Gebre Kidan
Fisseha Desta
Merid Negussie
Berhanu Bayeh
Abebe Haile
Strength
2,000 (1970)[28]
30,000 (1975)[29]
110,000 (1990)[30]|  11,000 (1970)[31]
120,000 (1984)[32]
123,000 (1990)[33]
Casualties and losses
65,000–70,000 killed[34]|  103,682 killed[a][35]
33,895 captured[36]
150,000–280,000 civilians killed[b][37][38]
440,000–600,000+ displaced[c][39][40]

* v
* t
* e

Eritrean War of Independence

* Adal
* Nakfa
* First Civil War
* 1st Massawa
* Barentu
* Second Civil War
* Red Star
* Afabet
* 2nd Massawa

* v
* t
* e

Post-1960 conflicts
in the Horn of Africa

* Eritrean War of Independence
* Eritrean civil wars
* 1961 revolt in Somalia
* Bale revolt
* Somali–Kenyan conflict
* Shifta
* Rhamu
* Ethiopian–Somali conflict
* 1963 Ogaden Rebellion
* 1964
* Ogaden
* 1982
* 2022 Al-Shabaab
* Oromo conflict
* Ethiopian Civil War
* Somali Civil War
* Rebellion
* Puntland–Somaliland
* 2006–09
* 2009–present
* Somaliland War of Independence
* Djiboutian Civil War
* Insurgency in Ogaden
* 2007–08
* Second Afar insurgency
* Gedeo–Guji clashes
* Hanish Islands conflict
* Eritrean–Ethiopian War
* border conflict
* OEF – Horn of Africa
* Djiboutian–Eritrean conflict
* Ethiopian civil conflict
* Afar–Somali
* Oromia–Somali
* OLA insurgency
* Benishangul-Gumuz
* Tigray war
* War in Amhara
* Al-Fashaga conflict

The Eritrean War of Independence was an armed conflict and insurgency aimed at achieving self-determination and independence for Eritrea from Ethiopian rule. Starting in 1961, Eritrean insurgents engaged in guerrilla warfare to liberate Eritrea Province from the control of the Ethiopian Empire under Haile Selassie and later the Derg under Mengistu. Their efforts ultimately succeeded in 1991 with the fall of the Derg regime.

Eritrea was an Italian colony from the 1880s until the Italians were defeated by the Allies in World War II in 1941. Afterward, Eritrea briefly became a British protectorate until 1951. The United Nations convened after the war to decide Eritrea's future, eventually voting in favor of a federation between Eritrea and Ethiopia. As a result, Eritrea became a constituent state of the Federation of Ethiopia and Eritrea. The federation was intended to last for ten years, during which Eritrea would have limited autonomy, such as its own parliament, while remaining under the Ethiopian crown. However, Eritrea's autonomy was curtailed and the region was effectively governed as a police state by imperial authorities during the 1950s. As popular dissatisfaction with Ethiopian rule grew, an independence movement emerged under the banner of the Eritrean Liberation Front (ELF) in 1961.[41]

In September 1961, ELF head Hamid Idris Awate launched the Eritrean armed struggle for independence. During 1962, the federation was dissolved by the imperial government and Eritrea was formally annexed by the Ethiopian Empire. The dissolution of the federation resulted in many Eritreans supporting the ELF's armed struggle to achieve freedom. Ethiopian imperial army counterinsurgency campaigns against the ELF during the 1960s terrorized the civilian population, leading to greater local support for the insurgency and great international attention being brought to the war.[41] Following the Ethiopian Revolution in 1974, the Derg lead by Mengistu abolished the Ethiopian Empire and established a Marxist-Leninist communist state. The Derg enjoyed support from the Soviet Union and other communist nations in fighting against the Eritreans. The ELF was also supported diplomatically and militarily by various countries. During the Eritrean Civil Wars, the Eritrean People's Liberation Front (EPLF) emerged as the primary liberation group in 1977, after expelling the ELF from Eritrea. The EPLF then took advantage of the Ogaden War to intensify its war of attrition against Ethiopia.

As the Mengistu regime declined at the end of the 1980s and was overwhelmed by Ethiopian insurgents groups, the EPLF decisively defeated Ethiopian forces deployed in Eritrea during May 1991.[42] The Ethiopian People's Revolutionary Democratic Front (EPRDF), with the help of the EPLF, defeated the People's Democratic Republic of Ethiopia (PDRE) when it took control of the capital Addis Ababa a month later.[43] In April 1993, the Eritrean people voted almost unanimously in favour of independence in the Eritrean independence referendum, with formal international recognition of an independent, sovereign Eritrea in the same year.

## Background

[edit]

The Italians colonised Eritrea in 1882 and ruled it until 1941.[44] In 1936, Italy invaded Ethiopia and declared it part of their colonial empire, which they called Italian East Africa. Italian Somaliland and Eritrea were also part of that entity, ruled by a Governor-General or Viceroy.[45]

Conquered by the Allies in 1941, Italian East Africa was sub-divided. Ethiopia liberated its formerly Italian occupied land in 1941. Italian Somaliland remained under Italian rule, but as a United Nations protectorate not a colony, until 1960 when it united with British Somaliland, to form the independent state of Somalia.[46]

Eritrea was made a British protectorate from the end of World War II until 1951. However, there was debate as to what should happen with Eritrea after the British left. The British delegation to the United Nations proposed that Eritrea be divided along religious lines with the Christians to Ethiopia and the Muslims to Sudan.[46] In 1952, the United Nations decided to federate Eritrea to Ethiopia, hoping to reconcile Ethiopian claims of sovereignty and Eritrean aspirations for independence. About nine years later, Ethiopian Emperor Haile Selassie dissolved the federation and annexed Eritrea, triggering a thirty-year armed struggle in Eritrea.[47][48]

## Revolution

[edit]

Map of Ethiopia while Eritrea was still attached as a federation, and later as an annexation.

During the 1960s, the Eritrean independence struggle was led by the Eritrean Liberation Front (ELF). The independence struggle can properly be understood as the resistance to the annexation of Eritrea by Ethiopia long after the Italians left the territory. Additionally, one may consider the actions of the Ethiopian Monarchy against Muslims in the Eritrean government as a contributing factor to the revolution.[49] At first, this group factionalized the liberation movement along ethnic and geographic lines. The initial four zonal commands of the ELF were all lowland areas and primarily Muslim. Few Christians joined the organization in the beginning, fearing Muslim domination.[50]

After growing disenfranchisement with Ethiopian occupation, highland Christians began joining the ELF.[51] This growing influx of Christian volunteers prompted the opening of the fifth (highland Christian) command.[51] Internal struggles within the ELF command coupled with sectarian violence among the various zonal groups splintered the organization.[51]

The war started on 1 September 1961 with the Battle of Adal, when Hamid Idris Awate and his companions engaged the occupying Ethiopian Army and police.[52] In 1962, Emperor Haile Selassie unilaterally dissolved the federation and the Eritrean parliament and annexed the country.[53][54]

## War (1961–1991)

[edit]

### 1960s

[edit]

The Eritrean Liberation Front (ELF) was founded in 1961 by a handful of exiled Eritreans, and began guerrilla operations against the Imperial Government in the fashion of the traditional bandits of that province. By 1966, it had a free hand in much of the barren lowlands in western and coastal Eritrea. The movement enjoyed military aid from various Arab countries as virtually all of its leaders were Muslims from the Beni Amer tribe. However, the leadership of the ELF was often inept; and communications between roving guerrilla bands and the exiled leaders were sporadic at best. Nonetheless, it was able to infiltrate small arms and returning trainees by way of Sudan and harass Imperial forces in Eritrea. The ELF was mostly made up of Muslims, as the ELF perceived itself as an Islamic organization engaged in freeing Eritrea, which it described as predominantly Muslim and Arab. However, it was unable to gain the support of the Christian Eritreans, who perceived it an Islamist movement attempting to turn Eritrea into an Arab Muslim state.[28][55]

The Imperial Ethiopian Army, whose Second Division was based in Eritrea, made periodic sweeps through the countryside. The Israeli trained commando police were more efficient than the army. But the commando police was too few in number to protect important installations and also pursue the insurgents. And the 6,000 man strong Second Division, although better equipped and numerically superior, was less efficient than the Eritrean police. It was mostly composed of Ethiopians from the provinces outside of Eritrea, the Ethiopian soldiers lacked knowledge of the area and of the people. Their normal tactics were to burn villages, shoot suspects and destroy livestock—the traditional Ethiopian response to dissidence.[28][56]

### 1970s

[edit]

Destroyed BTR-60s as well as a destroyed AML armored car in a Tank graveyard near Asmara.

In 1970, members of the ELF had a falling out, and three smaller groups broke away from the group to form the Popular Liberation Forces (PLF) jointly represent by Osman Saleh Sabbe. The first group, led by Romodan Mohammed Nur, was made up of Tigre fighters who felt pushed aside by the Beni Amer dominated leadership of the ELF. The second led by Isaias Afwerki, was composed of Christian fighters who broke off from the ELF in 1969 due to their pro-Arab and Islamist stance. The third and final group led by former Sudanese army NCO Abu Tayyara, was called the Obel Group, and consisted of long-time veterans who resented the decline of their power in the ELF, and broke off due to personal ambitions. In August 1973, the leaders of the first two groups agreed to join together to form the Eritrean People's Liberation Front (EPLF).[57] The leader of the umbrella organization was Secretary-General of the EPLF Romodan Mohammed Nur, while the Assistant Secretary-General was Isaias Afewerki.[58] The EPLF began to fight a bitter civil war against the ELF. The two organizations were forced by popular will to reconcile in 1975 and participate in joint operations against Ethiopia. The ELF was supported diplomatically and militarily by various countries, particularly China, which supplied the ELF with weapons and training until 1972, when Ethiopia recognized Beijing as the legitimate government of China.[4]

In 1974, Emperor Haile Selassie was ousted in a coup. The collapse of the Ethiopian Empire coincided with the end of the Eritrean civil war.[59] The new Ethiopian government, called the Derg, was a Marxist military junta. Between June and mid-November 1974, the Derg, then under the control of the Eritrean-born General Aman Andom, declared a cease-fire in Eritrea. The cease-fire aimed to persuade Eritreans to lay down their arms and find a political solution to the conflict. Despite this, conflicting policies emerged within the Ethiopian leadership: one advocating for a military solution in Eritrea and the other supporting a political solution by granting substantial concessions to the Eritreans. However, the assassination of Andom and other officials by the Derg regime on November 24, 1974, marked the end to the pursuit of a political resolution. Subsequently, under Vice Chairman Lt. Colonel Mengistu Haile Mariam, the Ethiopian government shifted towards pacifying the Eritreans with brute force. This shift led to a period of terror in Asmara, with more than 50 individuals killed by the military by the end of 1974, fostering an atmosphere of fear.[60]

In 1975, the Derg dispatched a peasant army of 100,000 to crush the Eritrean rebels. The army was largely routed after it had crossed into Eritrea. In the ensuing years the Derg suffered back-to-back defeats against the insurgency.[59] During this time, the Derg could not control the population by force alone. To supplement its garrisons, forces were sent on missions to instill fear in the population, including massacres which took place in primarily Muslim parts of Eritrea, including the villages of She'eb, Hirgigo, Elabared, and the town of Om Hajer; massacres also took place in predominantly Christian areas as well.[50] The advent of these brutal killings of civilians regardless of race, religion, or class was the final straw for many Eritreans who were not involved in the war, and at this point many either fled the country or went to the front lines.[61]

The War memorial square in Massawa, Eritrea.

From 1975 to 1977, the ELF and EPLF outnumbered the Ethiopian army, and managed to overrun an Ethiopian garrison at the Siege of Nakfa. This heavily demoralized the Ethiopian garrisons throughout Eritrea and within the next few months, the EPLF took control of Afabet, Keren, Elabored, and Dekemhare. Similarly, the ELF seized control of Omhajer, Teseney, Agordat, Mendefera, and Adi Quala. All of Eritrea was liberated with the exception of Asmara, Massawa, Assab and Barentu.[62] By 1977, the EPLF was poised to drive the Ethiopians out of Eritrea, by utilizing a simultaneous military invasion from the east by Somalia in the Ogaden to siphon off Ethiopian military resources. But in a dramatic turnaround, the Derg managed to repulse the Somali invasion, thanks mainly to a massive airlift of Soviet arms. After that, using the considerable manpower and military hardware available from the Somali campaign, the Ethiopian Army regained the initiative. This was most notable in the Siege of Barentu and the First Battle of Massawa.[63]

In May 1978, using a newly completed airfield in Mekelle in neighboring Tigray, the Ethiopian Air Force began a campaign of saturation bombing of positions in Eritrea held by the ELF and EPLF. While many of the targets hit were military, the bombers also attacked towns, villages and animal herds. The ground offensive started in July, and in a few weeks captured all the towns that the ELF and EPLF had held in southern and central Eritrea. The second offensive began in November 1978, aimed at the relief of Massawa and the recapture of Keren. An even larger army was deployed, including large contingents of armor. On November 25–26, there was a huge two-day battle with the EPLF at Elabored, which ended inconclusively. However, the EPLF was badly mauled and decided to abandon Keren and the nearby towns, and withdraw to the mountains of Sahel, where the terrain was appropriate for a last stand. This was called the "strategic withdrawal." The ELF, which had taken the brunt of the first offensive, refused to pull out of the newly liberated areas. By continuing to engage the Ethiopian army, rather than retreat, the ELF ensured its military defeat.[32]

T-54 tank-turned-Eritrean war monument in Nefasit

The third offensive took place in January–February 1979, and consisted in a three-pronged attack on Nakfa, the headquarters of Sahel district, where the EPLF had set up its "liberated area" and was beginning to construct defensive lines. More areas were evacuated in the face of the assault, and the EPLF was able to dismantle and remove the infrastructure more systematically.[32]

The fourth offensive was launched towards Nakfa in March 1979, the fifth offensive was then launched in July. The army Chief of Staff wrote a newspaper article anticipating total victory, entitled: "Days of remnants of secessionist bandits lurking in bushes numbered." Over 50,000 troops were deployed in the attacks, together with large amounts of armor. Most of the attacks were destroyed well short of their target. Between July 14 and 22, the army lost an estimated 6,000 dead while the guerrillas lost around 2,500.[32]

Another offensive, launched towards Nakfa in December 1979, ended in a disaster and rout for government forces. The EPLF was able to counter-attack and push the army back as far as its headquarters at Afabet.[32]

### 1980s

[edit]

Wider view of the Asmara tank graveyard.

In December 1980, the government launched a relatively small attack, which petered out without military gains to either side. 1981 passed without a major military offensive.[32]

The alliance between the EPLF and the ELF which had held since 1975 began to break, and quickly developed into an irrevocable split. There were some armed clashes between the groups, for instance in August 1980, but large-scale civil war was avoided in part because of military weakness of the ELF. The Tigrayan People's Liberation Front (TPLF) assisted the EPLF in its attacks on ELF positions. Most of the ELF fighters retreated into Sudan, where they were detained and disarmed by the Sudanese government. The last major group arrived in Karakon, eastern Sudan, in 1981.[50][64]

After the comparative lull of 1980–81, 1982 was to be the worst year of war in Eritrea to date, in which the government made an all-out attempt to crush the EPLF. It was named the Red Star Campaign in response to the planned US "Bright Star" exercises in the Middle East. Mengistu Haile Mariam then went to Asmara to personally oversee the offensive himself. The Red Star Campaign involved the largest number of troops ever deployed in Eritrea—more than 80,000 were involved in the attacks on the EPLF base areas. The forcefully conscripted soldiers in the Ethiopian ranks were used for massive assaults on the EPLF positions around Nakfa, in the hope that sheer weight of numbers would overrun the rebel lines. The offensive involved an unprecedented use of air power and toxic gas. The EPLF had to equip its fighters with homemade gas masks. Despite inflicting devastating casualties on the EPLF, the Ethiopians failed to breakthrough the rebel lines. The Red Star offensive failed. By May 1982, it had failed to capture Nakfa, and it was unofficially abandoned on June 20. The EPLF was even able to counter-attack and push government lines back. Having been launched with huge publicity, the offensive ended in complete silence from the government media.[32][65][66][67]

In 1983, the government launched an offensive in March on the Halhal front, north of Keren. Known as the "Stealth Offensive" because of the lack of publicity surrounding it, government forces succeeded in overrunning EPLF lines, but not in inflicting a significant defeat on the rebels. By this point, Ethiopian forces had suffered 90,000 casualties.[32]

In early 1984, the EPLF went on the offensive, making some significant gains. The government responded by another round of aerial bombardment, and by an offensive launched on 27 October which inflicted heavy casualties on the Eritreans and forced them to retreat back to their original lines.[32]

In the summer of 1985, the EPLF again went on the offensive and expelled the Ethiopians from the town of Barentu. The Derg then sent freshly conscripted recruits and threw them at the entrenched Eritreans to force them out of Barentu, the result was a costly victory for the Ethiopians as they were able to push out the Eritreans but not after talking significant casualties.[68]

In 1986, the Derg launched the “Red Sea Offensive” and attacked the frontlines of the EPLF with the aim of capturing Nakfa. Despite extensive air support and the use of airborne troops in the Sahel, the Ethiopians were repelled. As insurgencies in Tigray, Wollo and other parts of Ethiopia began to grow worse, the government no longer had the resources to conduct massive offensives in Eritrea and had to focus on other regions as well.[69]

In 1988, with the Battle of Afabet, the EPLF captured Afabet and its surroundings, then headquarters of the Ethiopian Army in northeastern Eritrea, prompting the Ethiopian Army to withdraw from its garrisons in Tessenei, Barentu and Agordat leaving all of western and northern Eritrea into EPLF hands. EPLF fighters then moved into position around Keren, Eritrea's second-largest city.

### 1990s

[edit]

The Soviet Union informed Mengistu that it would not be renewing its defence and cooperation agreement. With the cessation of Soviet support and supplies, the Ethiopian Army's morale plummeted, and the EPLF, along with other Ethiopian rebel forces, began to advance on Ethiopian positions.[70]

In February 1990, the EPLF launched Operation Fenkil to capture the city of Massawa. The Ethiopian garrison initially put up fierce resistance until the EPLF used naval units to flak the Ethiopians. The Eritreans were able to overcome the Ethiopian defences and capture the city. Following the capture of Massawa by the EPLF, the Ethiopian government launched a devastating air raid on the city. The use of cluster bombs killed hundreds of civilians.[71][72]

In 1991, the Ethiopian People's Revolutionary Democratic Front (EPRDF) had begun advancing towards the capital, forcing Mengistu Haile Mariam to flee the country. By May 1991, the rebels had captured Addis Ababa and overthrown the government. Around the same time, the Ethiopian garrison in Asmara disintegrated, with tens of thousands of fighters surrendering or deserting, allowing the EPLF fighters to enter the city on May 24th. The last battle took place on May 25 in Assab, when the EPLF defeated the last remnants of government loyalists.[69]

## Peace talks

[edit]

The former President of the United States, Jimmy Carter, with the help of some U.S. government officials and United Nations officials, attempted to mediate in peace talks with the EPLF, hosted by the Carter Presidential Center in Atlanta, Georgia in September 1989. Ashagre Yigletu, Deputy Prime Minister of the People's Democratic Republic of Ethiopia (PDRE), helped negotiate and signed a November 1989 peace deal with the EPLF in Nairobi, along with Jimmy Carter and Al-Amin Mohamed Seid. However, soon after the deal was signed, hostilities resumed.[73][74][75][76] Yigletu also led the Ethiopian government delegations in peace talks with the TPLF leader Meles Zenawi in November 1989 and March 1990 in Rome.[77][78] He also attempted again to lead the Ethiopian delegation in peace talks with the EPLF in Washington, D.C. until March 1991.[79]

## Recognition

[edit]

Commemorative poster in 2023, celebrating the anniversary of Eritrea's vote for independence.

After the end of the Cold War, the United States played a facilitative role in the peace talks in Washington, D.C. during the months leading up to the May 1991 fall of the Mengistu regime. In mid-May, Mengistu resigned as head of the Ethiopian government and went into exile in Zimbabwe, leaving a caretaker government in Addis Ababa. A high-level U.S. delegation was present in Addis Ababa for the 1–5 July 1991 conference that established a transitional government in Ethiopia. Having defeated the Ethiopian forces in Eritrea, the EPLF attended as an observer and held talks with the new TPLF-led transitional government regarding Eritrea's relationship to Ethiopia. The outcome of those talks was an agreement in which the Ethiopians recognized the right of the Eritreans to hold a referendum on independence. The referendum was held in April 1993 and the Eritrean people voted almost unanimously in favour of independence, with the integrity of the referendum being verified by the UN Observer Mission to Verify the Referendum in Eritrea (UNOVER). On 28 May 1993, the United Nations formally admitted Eritrea to its membership.[80] Below are the results from the referendum:

Choice  | Votes  | %

|
|

Yes | 1,100,260 | 99.83
No | 1,822 | 0.17
Invalid/blank votes | 328 | \-
Total | 1,102,410 | 100
Registered voters/turnout | 1,156,280 | 98.52
Source: African Elections Database
Referendum Results[81] Region  | Do you want Eritrea to be an independent and sovereign country?  | Total

|
|

Yes | No | uncounted
Asmara | 128,443 | 144 | 33 | 128,620
Barka | 4,425 | 47 | 0 | 4,472
Denkalia | 25,907 | 91 | 29 | 26,027
Gash-Setit | 73,236 | 270 | 0 | 73,506
Hamasien | 76,654 | 59 | 3 | 76,716
Akkele Guzay | 92,465 | 147 | 22 | 92,634
Sahel | 51,015 | 141 | 31 | 51,187
Semhar | 33,596 | 113 | 41 | 33,750
Seraye | 124,725 | 72 | 12 | 124,809
Senhit | 78,513 | 26 | 1 | 78,540
Freedom fighters  | 77,512 | 21 | 46 | 77,579
Sudan | 153,706 | 352 | 0 | 154,058
Ethiopia | 57,466 | 204 | 36 | 57,706
Other  | 82,597 | 135 | 74 | 82,806
%  | 99.79 | 0.17 | 0.03 |

## See also

[edit]

* Eritrea portal

* Eritrean Civil Wars
* List of massacres committed during the Eritrean War of Independence
* Somaliland War of Independence

## Notes

[edit]

1. ^ (1974–1991)
2. ^ (1977–1991)
3. ^ 1977–1991

## References

[edit]

1. ^ The Pillage of Sustainablility in Eritrea, 1600s–1990s: Rural Communities and the Creeping Shadows of Hegemony, 1998. Page 82.
2. ^ a b c Fauriol, Georges A; Loser, Eva (1990). Cuba: the international dimension. Transaction Publishers. ISBN 0-88738-324-6.
3. ^ a b The maverick state: Gaddafi and the New World Order, 1996. Page 71.
4. ^ a b Schmidt, Elizabeth (2013). Foreign intervention in Africa: From the Cold War to the War on Terror. Cambridge. p. 158\. ISBN 9780521882385. "China assisted the ELF with weapons and military training until 1972, when Ethiopian recognition of Beijing as the legitimate Chinese government led to China's abandonment of the Eritrean struggle."`{{cite book}}`: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
5. ^ Chinese and African Perspectives on China in Africa 2009, Page 93
6. ^ Schoultz, Lars (2009). That infernal little Cuban republic: the United States and the Cuban Revolution. The University of North Carolina Press. ISBN 978-0-8078-3260-8.
7. ^ a b Historical Dictionary of Eritrea, 2010. Page 492
8. ^ a b Oil, Power and Politics: Conflict of Asian and African Studies, 1975. Page 97.
9. ^ Eritrea: Even the Stones Are Burning, 1998. Page 110
10. ^ Eritrea – liberation or capitulation, 1978. Page 103
11. ^ Ethiopia at Bay: A Personal Account of the Haile Selassie Years, 2006. page 318.
12. ^ a b Spencer C. Tucker, A Global Chronology of Conflict: From the Ancient World to the Modern Middle East, 2009. page 2402
13. ^ a b c Connell, Dan; Killion, Tom (2011). Historical Dictionary of Eritrea. Scarecrow Press, Inc. ISBN 978-0-8108-5952-4.
14. ^ Ethiopia and the United States: History, Diplomacy, and Analysis, 2009. page 84.
15. ^ [2][3][13][14]
16. ^ The Political Crisis in Ethiopia and the Role of the United States. U.S. Government Printing Office. 1992. ISBN 9780160372056. Archived from the original on 7 April 2023. Retrieved 19 March 2023.
17. ^ Ciment, James (27 March 2015). Encyclopedia of Conflicts Since World War II. Routledge. ISBN 9781317471868. Archived from the original on 7 April 2023. Retrieved 19 March 2023.
18. ^ Ciment, James (27 March 2015). Encyclopedia of Conflicts Since World War II. Routledge. ISBN 9781317471868. Archived from the original on 7 April 2023. Retrieved 19 March 2023.
19. ^ https://www.jstor.org/stable/45304844 | The U.S. and Ethiopia: The Politics of Military Assistance. Armed Forces & Society
20. ^ a b "Ethiopia-Israel". country-data.com. Archived from the original on 30 June 2018. Retrieved 26 October 2014.
21. ^ U.S. Requests for Ethiopian Bases Pushed Archived 6 May 2016 at the Wayback Machine Toledo Blade, 13 March 1957
22. ^ "Communism, African-Style". Time. 4 July 1983. Archived from the original on 22 December 2008. Retrieved 6 September 2007.
23. ^ "Ethiopia Red Star Over the Horn of Africa". Time. 4 August 1986. Archived from the original on 1 October 2007. Retrieved 6 September 2007.
24. ^ "Ethiopia a Forgotten War Rages On". Time. 23 December 1985. Archived from the original on 16 April 2009. Retrieved 6 September 2007.
25. ^ [13][22][23][24]
26. ^ Clapham, Christopher. Transformation and Continuity in Revolutionary Ethiopia. p. 277.
27. ^ Mlambo, Obert Bernard; Chitando, Ezra (2023). The Palgrave Handbook of Violence in Africa. Springer Nature. p. 147\. ISBN 978-3-031-40754-3. "In 1991 the EPLF's victory over the Dergue's troops won Eritrea's independence."
28. ^ a b c "FOREIGN RELATIONS OF THE UNITED STATES, 1969–1976, VOLUME E–5, PART 1, DOCUMENTS ON SUB-SAHARAN AFRICA, 1969–1972" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 8 March 2022. Retrieved 8 March 2022. This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain.
29. ^ "TOTAL WAR IN ERITREA, 1978-84" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 19 January 2022. Retrieved 19 January 2022.
30. ^ "Eritrea (01/06)". U.S. Department of State. Archived from the original on 19 January 2022. Retrieved 19 January 2022.
31. ^ Negash, Tekeste. Eritrea and Ethiopia The Federal Experience (PDF). p. 152.
32. ^ a b c d e f g h i "TOTAL WAR IN ERITREA, 1978-84" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 15 December 2021. Retrieved 27 November 2021.
33. ^ Tareke, Gebru (2016). The Ethiopian Revolution: War in the Horn of Africa. Eclipse Printing Press. p. 307\. ISBN 978-99944-951-2-2. OCLC 973809792.
34. ^ Tareke, Gebru (2016). The Ethiopian Revolution: War in the Horn of Africa. Eclipse Printing Press. p. 132\. ISBN 978-99944-951-2-2. OCLC 973809792.
35. ^ Tareke, Gebru (2016). The Ethiopian Revolution: War in the Horn of Africa. Eclipse Printing Press. p. 132\. ISBN 978-99944-951-2-2. OCLC 973809792.
36. ^ Tareke, Gebru (2016). The Ethiopian Revolution: War in the Horn of Africa. Eclipse Printing Press. p. 132\. ISBN 978-99944-951-2-2. OCLC 973809792.
37. ^ De Waal, Alexander (1991). Evil days: thirty years of war and famine in Ethiopia. New York: Human Rights Watch. p. 122\. ISBN 1-56432-038-3. OCLC 24504262.
38. ^ Cousin, Tracey L. "Eritrean and Ethiopian Civil War". ICE Case Studies. Archived from the original on 11 September 2007. Retrieved 3 September 2007.
39. ^ De Waal, Alexander (1991). Evil days: thirty years of war and famine in Ethiopia. New York: Human Rights Watch. p. 122\. ISBN 1-56432-038-3. OCLC 24504262.
40. ^ Dan Connell (15 July 2019). Historical Dictionary of Eritrea. Rowman & Littlefield. ISBN 978-1-5381-2066-8.
41. ^ a b Fessehatzion, Tekie (1983). "The International Dimensions of the Eritrean Question". Horn of Africa. 6 (2): 7–24.
42. ^ "Ethiopia-Eritrea: A Troubled Relationship". The Washington Post. Archived from the original on 26 March 2023. Retrieved 6 June 2019.
43. ^ Krauss, Clifford (28 May 1991). "Ethiopian Rebels Storm the Capital and Seize Control". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 10 March 2021. Retrieved 6 June 2019.
44. ^ Mesghenna, Yemane (2011). "Italian colonialism in Eritrea 1882–1941". Scandinavian Economic History Review. 37 (3): 65–72. doi:10.1080/03585522.1989.10408156.
45. ^ Epstein, M. (2016). The Statesman's Year-Book: Statistical and Historical Annual of the States of the World for the Year 1937. Springer. p. 675\. ISBN 9780230270671. Archived from the original on 18 September 2023. Retrieved 14 December 2021.
46. ^ a b Daniel Kendie, The Five Dimensions of the Eritrean Conflict 1941–2004: Deciphering the Geo-Political Puzzle. United States of America: Signature Book Printing, Inc., 2005, pp.17–8.
47. ^ "Ethiopia and Eritrea" Archived 19 May 2016 at the Wayback Machine, Global Policy Forum
48. ^ "A/RES/390(V)A-B. Resolution of the United Nations General Assembly, 1950" (PDF). documents-dds-ny.un.org. Retrieved 18 September 2023.
49. ^ "HISTORY OF ERITREA". www.historyworld.net. Archived from the original on 11 November 2021. Retrieved 20 September 2017.
50. ^ a b c Killion, Tom (1998). Historical Dictionary of Eritrea. Lanham, Md.: Scarecrow. ISBN 0-8108-3437-5.
51. ^ a b c "The ELF leading the struggle (1962-1974)". globalsecurity.org. Archived from the original on 14 December 2021. Retrieved 14 December 2021.
52. ^ Weldemichael, Awet Tewelde (2013). Third World Colonialism and Strategies of Liberation: Eritrea and East Timor Compared. Cambridge University Press. p. 60\. ISBN 9781107031234. Archived from the original on 18 September 2023. Retrieved 14 December 2021.
53. ^ Hickman Cutter, Charles (2001). Africa, 2001. Stryker-Post Publications. p. 177\. ISBN 9781887985314. "When Emperor Haile Selassie unilaterally dissolved the Eritrean parliament and annexed the country in 1962..."
54. ^ Gebremedhin, Tesfa G. (2002). Women, Tradition and Development: A Case Study of Eritrea. Red Sea Press. pp. 4–5. ISBN 9781569021538. Archived from the original on 18 September 2023. Retrieved 14 December 2021.
55. ^ "Translations on Sub-Saharan Africa". 1978. Archived from the original on 18 September 2023. Retrieved 2 July 2022.
56. ^ Negash, Tekeste. Eritrea and Ethiopia The Federal Experience (PDF). p. 152.
57. ^ Negash, Tekeste. Eritrea and Ethiopia The Federal Experience (PDF). p. 153.
58. ^ "Discourses on Liberation and Democracy – Eritrean Self-Views". Archived from the original on 15 December 2004. Retrieved 25 August 2006.
59. ^ a b Fessehatzion, Tekie (1978). "The Eritrean Struggle for Independence and National Liberation". Horn of Africa. 1 (2): 29–34.
60. ^ Negash, Tekeste. Eritrea and Ethiopia The Federal Experience (PDF). p. 153.
61. ^ List of massacres committed during the Eritrean War of Independence - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia. The Scarecrow Press. 1998. Archived from the original on 17 November 2016. Retrieved 20 September 2017. `{{cite book}}`: `|website=` ignored (help)
62. ^ Waal, Alexander De (1991). Evil Days: Thirty Years of War and Famine in Ethiopia. Human Rights Watch. p. 50\. ISBN 9781564320384. Archived from the original on 18 September 2023. Retrieved 16 November 2019.
63. ^ Ayele, Fantahun (2014). The Ethiopian Army: From Victory to Collapse, 1977-1991. Northwestern University Press. p. 133.
64. ^ "Eritrea—Hope For Africa's Future". Kurdistan Report. 9 (10): 1996.
65. ^ Johnson & Johnson 1981.
66. ^ Keller 1992.
67. ^ Connell, Dan (15 July 2019). Historical Dictionary of Eritrea. Rowman & Littlefield. ISBN 9781538120668. Archived from the original on 18 September 2023. Retrieved 27 June 2022.
68. ^ Cliffe, Lionel; Davidson, Basil (1988). The Long Struggle of Eritrea for Independence and Constructive Peace. The Red Sea Press. ISBN 9780932415370. Archived from the original on 18 September 2023. Retrieved 27 June 2022.
69. ^ a b Denison, Edward; Paice, Edward (2007). Eritrea: The Bradt Travel Guide. Bradt Travel Guides. ISBN 9781841621715. Archived from the original on 18 September 2023. Retrieved 27 June 2022.
70. ^ "Ethiopia - Eritrea: A tale of Two-Halves". TesfaNews. 21 August 2014. Archived from the original on 3 July 2019. Retrieved 3 July 2019.
71. ^ "Famine Relief in Ethiopia: An Update" (PDF). Hearing Before the International Taskforce of the Select Committee on Hunger House of Representatives (101st Congress, 2nd Session). Washington DC: US Government Printing Office. 8 May 1990. p. 75\. Archived from the original (PDF) on 23 July 2007. Retrieved 27 December 2006.
72. ^ "The Red Sea, Suez Canal, Egypt to Aden, Yemen - Nov - March 2005". Retrieved 27 December 2006. [dead link]
73. ^ Fontrier, Marc. La chute de la junte militaire ethiopienne: (1987–1991) : chroniques de la Republique Populaire et Democratique d'Ethiopie. Paris [u.a.]: L' Harmattan, 1999. pp. 453–454
74. ^ AP Images. Former President Jimmy Carter tells a news conference that peace talks between delegations headed by Alamin Mohamed Saiyed, left, of the Eritrean People's Liberation Front and Ashegre Yigletu, right, of the Workers' Party of Ethiopia will be resumed in November in Nairobi, Kenya, at the Carter Presidential Center in Atlanta, Sept. 19, 1989. (AP Photo/Charles Kelly) Archived 18 September 2023 at the Wayback Machine
75. ^ New African. London: IC Magazines Ltd., 1990. p. 9
76. ^ The Weekly Review. Nairobi: Stellascope Ltd.], 1989. p. 199
77. ^ Haile-Selassie, Teferra. The Ethiopian Revolution, 1974–1991: From a Monarchical Autocracy to a Military Oligarchy. London [u.a.]: Kegan Paul Internat, 1997. p. 293
78. ^ countrystudies.us. [Regime Stability and Peace Negotiations]
79. ^ Iyob, Ruth. The Eritrean Struggle for Independence: Domination, Resistance, Nationalism, 1941–1993. Cambridge [England]: Cambridge University Press, 1997. p. 175
80. ^ "Eritrea". Archived from the original on 31 October 2009. Retrieved 25 August 2006.
81. ^ "Eritrea: Birth of a Nation". Archived from the original on 28 October 2015. Retrieved 30 January 2007.

### Bibliography

[edit]

* Gebru Tareke (2009). The Ethiopian Revolution: War in the Horn of Africa. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-14163-4.
* Johnson, Michael; Johnson, Trish (1981). "Eritrea: The National Question and the Logic of Protracted Struggle". African Affairs. 80 (319): 181–195. doi:10.1093/oxfordjournals.afraf.a097304. JSTOR 721320.
* Keller, Edmond J. (1992). "Drought, War, and the Politics of Famine in Ethiopia and Eritrea". The Journal of Modern African Studies. 30 (4): 609–624. doi:10.1017/s0022278x00011071. JSTOR 161267. S2CID 154671218.
* Charles G. Thomas and Toyin Falola. 2020. "The Anomaly of Eritrean Secession, 1961-1993." in Secession and Separatist Conflicts in Postcolonial Africa. University of Calgary Press.

## Further reading

[edit]

Wikimedia Commons has media related to Eritrean War of Independence.

* Country profile: Eritrea BBC 4 November 2005
* Ethiopia Eritrea Independence War 1961–1993

* v
* t
* e

Eritrea articles

History|

* Kingdom of Dʿmt
* Kingdom of Aksum
* Medri Bahri
* Italian Eritrea
* World War II
* Civil wars
* War of Independence
* Eritrean–Ethiopian War
* border conflict
* 2018 peace summit
* Djiboutian–Eritrean conflict
* Tigray War
* Involvement

Geography|

* Cities
* Districts
* Earthquakes
* Mountains
* Provinces
* Regions
* Rivers
* Wildlife

Politics|

* Constitution
* Elections
* Foreign relations
* Government
* Cabinet
* Human rights
* LGBT
* International rankings
* Military
* Conscription
* Political parties
* President

Economy|

* Agriculture
* Companies
* Energy
* Nakfa (currency)
* Telecommunications
* Tourism
* Transport

Culture|

* Cuisine
* Flag
* Independence Day
* Literature
* Media
* Music
* Public holidays
* Sport
* Olympics

Demographics|

* Education
* Ethnic groups
* Health
* Languages
* List of Eritreans
* Religion

* Outline
* Index

* Category
* Portal

* v
* t
* e

Ethiopian Civil War (1974–1991)

Background|

| Scramble for
Africa|

* Italian colonialism
* Italo-Ethiopian Wars

* 1887–89
* First
* 1935 crisis
* Second

* Italian East Africa

* WWII

* Ethiopian–Eritrean Federation

* Eritrean loss of autonomy

|

Opposition to
Haile Selassie|

* Ethiopian Empire
* Mekwanint
* Gugsa Wale's rebellion
* Woyane rebellion
* 1958 Tigray famine
* Ethiopian Student Movement
* 1972–1975 Wollo famine
* 1960 coup attempt

Other factors|

* Cold War
* 1973 oil crisis
* Ethnic discrimination
* Land reform
* Neftenya
* Pan-Somali nationalism

War|

| Prelude|

* Eritrean War of Independence (1961–1991)
* Ethiopian Revolution
* Timeline
* 1974 coup d'état

|

Major events|

* Villagization
* Massacre of the Sixty
* Death of Haile Selassie
* Red Terror
* 1983–1985 famine
* Peasant revolution
* Hawzen massacre
* Fall of the Derg regime

Related conflicts|

* Eritrean Civil Wars (1972–74; 1980–81)
* Oromo conflict (1973–present)
* Ethiopian–Somali conflict
* Ogaden War (1977–78)
* 1982 border war
* Somali Rebellion (1978–1991)
* Somaliland War of Independence (1981–1991)

Impact|

| Casualties|

* Casualties of the Ethiopian Civil War
* Massacres in the Eritrean War of Independence

|

Aftermath|

* Somali Civil War
* Djiboutian Civil War
* Eritrean independence
* Eritrean–Ethiopian War
* Trials of the Derg members

Memorials|

* "Red Terror" Martyrs' Memorial Museum
* Downfall of the Derg (holiday)

Groups|

| Governments|

* The Derg
* People's Democratic Republic of Ethiopia

|

Ethiopian rebels|

* EPRDF
* Ethiopian People's Democratic Movement
* Tigray People's Liberation Front
* Afar Liberation Front
* All-Ethiopia Socialist Movement
* Ethiopian Democratic Union
* Ethiopian People's Revolutionary Army
* Ogaden National Liberation Front
* Oromo Liberation Front
* Western Somali Liberation Front

Eritrean rebels|

* Eritrean Liberation Front (1961–1981)
* Eritrean People's Liberation Front (1970–1991)

Cold War in Africa

* v
* t
* e

Post–Cold War conflicts in Africa

North Africa|

| Egypt|

* Egyptian Crisis (2011–2014)
* 2011 revolution
* Sinai insurgency (2011–present)
* Post-coup unrest (2013–2014)
* Terrorism in Egypt (2013–present)

|

Libya|

* 2008 Kufra conflict
* Libyan crisis
* 2011 civil war
* 2011–2014 factional violence
* 2014–2020 civil war

Western Sahara|

* Western Sahara conflict (1970–present)
* War, 1975–1991
* Clashes, 2020–present

Others|

* Algerian Civil War (1991–2002)
* Insurgency in the Maghreb (2002–present)
* Tunisian revolution (2010–2011)

West Africa|

| Nigeria|

* Communal conflicts in Nigeria (1998–present)
* Herder–farmer conflicts
* Religious violence
* Boko Haram insurgency (2009–present)
* Niger Delta conflict (2003–present)
* 2016 conflict
* Insurgency in Southeastern Nigeria (2021–present)

|

Mali|

* Tuareg rebellions
* 1990–1995
* 2007–2009
* 2012
* Mali War (2012–present)

Sierra Leone|

* Ndogboyosoi War
* Sierra Leone Civil War

Liberia|

* Liberian Civil Wars
* 1989–1996
* 1999–2003

Côte d'Ivoire|

* Ivorian Civil Wars
* 2002–2007
* 2010–2011

Others|

* Guinea-Bissau Civil War (1998–1999)
* Guinea clashes (2013)
* Casamance conflict (1982–present)
* 2016–2017 Gambian constitutional crisis
* ECOWAS military intervention
* Western Togoland Rebellion (2020–present)

Central Africa|

| Angola|

* Angolan Civil War (1975–2002)
* Cabinda War (1975–present)

|

DR Congo|

* First Congo War (1996–1997)
* Allied Democratic Forces insurgency (1996–present)
* Second Congo War (1998–2003)
* Ituri conflict (1999–2007)
* Kivu conflict (2004–present)
* Dongo conflict (2009)
* Ituri conflict (2009–present)
* March 23 Movement conflict
* 2012–2013 rebellion
* 2022–2024 offensive
* Batwa–Luba clashes (2013–2018)
* Kamwina Nsapu rebellion (2016–2019)

Republic
of the Congo|

* Civil wars
* 1993–1994
* 1997–1999
* Pool Department conflict (2002–2003)
* Pool War (2016–2017)

Central African
Republic|

* Bush War (2004–2007)
* Civil War (2012–present)
* Djotodia period, 2013–2014

Chad|

* Civil War (2005–2010)
* Insurgency in Northern Chad (2016–present)
* 2021 offensive

Others|

* Anglophone Crisis (Cameroon)
* Lord's Resistance Army insurgency (1987–present)
* Boko Haram insurgency (2009–present)

East Africa|

| Ethiopia|

* Oromo conflict
* OLA insurgency, 2018–present
* Insurgency in Ogaden (1994–2018)
* Second Afar insurgency (1995–2018)
* Eritrean–Ethiopian border conflict (2000–2018)
* War, 1998–2000
* Ethiopian civil conflict (2018–present)
* Afar–Somali clashes
* Benishangul-Gumuz conflict
* Oromia–Somali clashes
* Tigray war
* War in Amhara

|

Somalia|

* Puntland–Somaliland dispute (1998–present)
* Somali Civil War
* 2006–2009 Ethiopian intervention
* 2009–present phase
* AMISOM
* Piracy off the coast of Somalia

Kenya|

* Ethnic conflicts
* Somali–Kenyan conflict (1963–present)
* Likoni massacres (1997)
* Kenyan crisis (2007–2008)
* 2012–2013 Tana River District clashes (2012–2013)
* Baragoi clashes (2012)

South Sudan|

* Heglig Crisis (2012)
* Nomadic conflicts
* Ethnic violence
* Civil War (2013–2020)
* Abyei conflict (2022–2023)

Sudan|

* Second Sudanese Civil War (1983–2005)
* War in Darfur (2003–2020)
* Nomadic conflicts (2009–present)
* South Kordofan and Blue Nile conflict (2011–2020)
* Heglig Crisis (2012)
* Blue Nile clashes (2022–2023)
* Sudanese civil war (2023–present)

Uganda|

* Lord's Resistance Army insurgency (1987–present)
* Allied Democratic Forces insurgency (1996–present)
* Kasese clashes (2016)

Others|

* Rwandan Civil War / genocide (1990–1994)
* Djiboutian Civil War (1991–1994)
* Hanish Islands conflict
* 2008 invasion of Anjouan
* Djiboutian–Eritrean border conflict
* Burundian conflicts
* 1993–2005 Civil War
* 2015–2018 unrest

Southern Africa|

| Mozambique|

* Mozambican Civil War (1977–1992)
* RENAMO insurgency (2013–2021)
* Insurgency in Cabo Delgado (2017–present)

|

Others|

* Bophuthatswana crisis (1994)
* Caprivi conflict (1994–1999)
* Lesothan conflicts
* SADC intervention in Lesotho (1998–1999)
* 2014 Lesotho political crisis

Related topics|

* War on terror
* Arab Spring
* Arab Winter
* Colour revolutions

*[v]: View this template
*[t]: Discuss this template
*[e]: Edit this template