Ethio-Semitic languages

Family of languages spoken in Eritrea, Ethiopia, and the Sudan

Ethio-Semitic

Ethiosemitic, Ethiopian Semitic, Ethiopic, Abyssinian
Geographic
distribution| Eritrea, Ethiopia, and Sudan[1]
Linguistic classification| Afro-Asiatic

* Semitic
* West Semitic
* South Semitic
* Southwestern?
* Ethio-Semitic

Subdivisions|

* North Ethiopic[2][3]
* South Ethiopic

Language codes
Glottolog| `ethi1244`

Ethio-Semitic (also Ethiopian Semitic, Ethiosemitic, Ethiopic or Abyssinian[4]) is a family of languages spoken in Eritrea, Ethiopia, and the Sudan.[1] They form the western branch of the South Semitic languages, itself a sub-branch of Semitic, part of the Afroasiatic language family.

With 57,500,000 total speakers as of 2019, including around 25,100,000 second language speakers, Amharic is the most widely spoken of the group, the most widely spoken language of Ethiopia and second-most widely spoken Semitic language in the world after Arabic.[5][6] Tigrinya has 7 million speakers and is the most widely spoken language in Eritrea.[7][8] Tigre is the second-most spoken language in Eritrea, and has also a small population of speakers in Sudan. The Geʽez language has a literary history in its own Geʽez script going back to the first century AD. It is no longer spoken but remains the liturgical language of the Ethiopian and Eritrean Orthodox Tewahedo Churches, as well as their respective Eastern Catholic counterparts.

## Development

[edit]

This section needs expansion with: forms of the South Semitic hypothesis, contact with Cushitic languages. You can help by adding to it. (April 2025)

|

The unity of the Ethio-Semitic languages has been usually assumed.[clarification needed] However, they do not share many common innovations. A possibility was entertained by Marcel Cohen and Harold C. Fleming that they could represent two separate branches of Semitic that had independently migrated to Africa. Current research regardless outlines reasons to consider the Ethiopian Semitic languages a single group, and notes an absence of reasons for any alternative classification within Semitic.

* Agent noun formation with a vowel pattern CaCāCi, e.g. √kʼtʼl 'to kill' → *kʼatʼāli 'killer';[9][10]
* An innovative verb for 'to exist', *hallawa;[9][10]
* An infinitive ending *-ot;[10]
* Shared semantic shifts in several Semitic roots, e.g.[11]
* √blʕ 'to eat' < Proto-Semitic √blʕ 'to swallow' (replaces PS √ʔkl, which only survives in a derived noun *ʔVkl- 'cereal');
* √lḫsʼ 'bark' < PS √lḫsʼ 'to draw off, peel' (PS √kʼlp survives only in Zay kʼəlfi);
* √ngŝ 'to be king' < PS √ngɬ 'to push, press for work' (replaces PS *malik 'king', which only survives in a broken plural form *ʔamlāk, meaning 'god');
* *ŝʼaħāy 'sun' < PS √ɬʼħw 'to shine' (replaces PS *ɬamš-);
* Shared innovative vocabulary, such as √kʼyħ 'to be red', √mwkʼ 'to be warm', √nbr 'to sit', √ndd 'to burn', *ħamad- 'ashes', *marayt- 'earth'.[11]

A unique "causative-reflexive" prefix *ʔasta-, combining two Proto-Semitic causative prefixes *ʔa-, *š- and the reflexive-passive marker *-t-, is productive in Ge'ez and has left occasional remnants in Tigre, Tigrinya and Amharic, but is not known as an independent prefix in the smaller languages. A similar but shorter innovative formation *ʔat- has arisen in the languages other than Ge'ez, and it is possible *ʔasta- was a Proto-Ethio-Semitic innovation that later lost productivity.[9]

All Ethiopian Semitic languages have ejective consonants, and the more northern languages have broken plurals, which were formerly seen as evidence for their connection with the Modern South Arabian languages. Today these are however considered to be archaic features inherited from Proto-Semitic, which were lost in most or all of the Central Semitic languages such as Arabic, Aramaic and Hebrew.[10]

## South Semitic Urheimat

[edit]

The linguistic homeland of the South Semitic languages was widely debated, with some sources, such as A. Murtonen (1967) and Lionel Bender (1997),[12] suggesting an origin in Ethiopia, and others suggesting the southern portion of the Arabian Peninsula.[13]

More recently (2009), a study based on a Bayesian model suggested a South Arabian origin, with Semitic languages being introduced from southern Arabia some 2,800 years ago.[14] This statistical analysis could not estimate when or where the ancestor of all Semitic languages diverged from Afroasiatic, but it suggested that the divergence of East, Central, and South Semitic branches most likely occurred in the Levant.[14] According to other scholars, Semitic originated from an offshoot of a still earlier language in North Africa, perhaps in the southeastern Sahara, and desertification forced its inhabitants to migrate in the fourth millennium BCE – some southeast into what is now Ethiopia, others northeast out of Africa into Canaan, Syria and the Mesopotamian valley.[15]

## Subclassification

[edit]

A primary division of Ethiopic into northern and southern branches was proposed by Cohen (1931) and Hetzron (1972) and garnered broad acceptance, but has not been followed as such in more recent studies.[10] Rainer Voigt[16] argues that features traditionally used to define the Northern and Southern group are not exclusive to them but also found in some languages of the other group, while others do not cover the entire group. Bulakh and Kogan[9][17] agree on rejecting North Ethiopian Semitic, and point to several unique features particularly in Ge'ez and Tigre; they continue to support the broad Southern group, but not Hetzron's Transversal Southern grouping of Amharic–Argobba and Harari–East Gurage.

Genealogy of the Semitic languages

* Ethiopic
* Geʽez (Classical Ethiopic)[18] †
* Tigre–Dahalik?
* Tigre
* Dahalik
* Tigrinya
* South Ethiopic
* Amharic–Argobba
* Amharic – Amharic is the working language of the Federal Government of Ethiopia.[19][20]
* Argobba
* Harari–East Gurage
* Harari
* East Gurage
* Silt'e (Silt'e; dialects Ulbare, Wolane, Inneqor)
* Zway (Zay)
* Outer South Ethiopic
* n-group:
* Gafat – extinct
* Soddo (Kistane)
* tt-group:
* Mesmes – extinct (sometimes considered Inor)
* Muher
* West Gurage
* Mesqan (Masqan)
* Sebat Bet
* Sebat Bet Gurage (dialects Chaha, Ezha, Gumer, Gura)
* Inor (dialects Ennemor [Inor proper], Endegegn, Gyeto)

### Hudson (2013)

[edit]

Hudson (2013) recognises five primary branches of Ethiosemitic. His final classification is below.[21]

* Ethiosemitic
* North
* Geʽez
* Dahalik–Tigre–Tigrinya
* Dahalik–Tigre
* Dahalik[a]
* Tigre
* Tigrinya
* Gafat (†)
* Soddo–Mesqan–Gurage
* Soddo[24]
* Dobbi
* Galila
* Gogot
* Mesqan–Gurage
* Mesqan[24]
* Urib
* Gurage
* Muher
* Chaha–Inor
* Chaha[24]
* Ezma
* Gumer
* Gura
* Inor[24]
* Ener
* Gyeta
* Indeganya
* Meger
* Mesmes
* Siltʼe–Zay–Harari
* Harari
* Siltʼe–Zay
* Siltʼe[24]
* Inneqor
* Ulbareg
* Wolane
* Zay
* Argobba–Amharic
* Argobba
* Amharic

## Notes

[edit]

1. ^ Although Dahalik is not included on the main tree chart on page 289, Hudson notes on page 9 that other linguists have demonstrated a close relationship between it and Tigre and tentatively classifies it as having split from Tigre when examining Hetzron (1972)'s classification on page 45.[22][23]

## References

[edit]

1. ^ a b "Languages of Sudan". Ethnologue. Retrieved 24 February 2024.
2. ^ "Classification of Ethio Semitic languages according to Hudson 2013". Research Gate. Retrieved 21 April 2025.
3. ^ "Issues in mapping and classifying the Semitic languages of Ethiopia". Tekabe Legesse Felake. Retrieved 21 April 2025.
4. ^ Diakonov, Igor Mikhailovich (1965). Semito-Hamitic Languages: An Essay in Classification. Moscow: Nauka, Central Department of Oriental Literature. p. 12\. OCLC 576634823 - via Google Books.
5. ^ "Amharic". Ethnologue. Ethnologue.
6. ^ "The world factbook". cia.gov. 18 September 2023.
7. ^ Woldemikael, Tekle M. (April 2003). "Language, Education, and Public Policy in Eritrea". African Studies Review. 46 (1): 117–136\. doi:10.2307/1514983. JSTOR 1514983. S2CID 143172927.
8. ^ Simeone-Senelle, Marie-Claude (December 2005). "Up todate Assessment of the results of the research on the Dahalik language (December 1996 - December 2005)" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2016-03-04. Retrieved 2019-06-12.
9. ^ a b c d Bulakh, Maria; Kogan, Leonid (2012). "The Genealogical Position of Tigre and the Problem of North Ethio-Semitic Unity". Zeitschrift der Deutschen Morgenländischen Gesellschaft (160): 273–302.
10. ^ a b c d e Weninger, Stefan (2012). "Ethio-Semitic in General". In Weninger, Stefan (ed.). The Semitic Languages: an International Handbook. de Gruyter Mouton. pp. 1114–1123.
11. ^ a b Kogan, Leonid (2015). "Lexical isoglosses and the historical unity of Ethiopian Semitic". Genealogical Classification of Semitic. De Gruyter. ISBN 978-1-61451-726-9.
12. ^ Bender, L. (1997). "Upside Down Afrasian". Afrikanistische Arbeitspapiere. 50: 19–34.
13. ^ Hetzron, Robert (1972). Ethiopian Semitic: Studies in Classification. Manchester University Press. p. 122\. ISBN 9780719011238.
14. ^ a b Kitchen, Andrew; Ehret, Christopher; Assefa, Shiferaw; Mulligan, Connie J. (29 April 2009). "Bayesian phylogenetic analysis of Semitic languages identifies an Early Bronze Age origin of Semitic in the Near East". Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences. 276 (1665): 2703–2710\. doi:10.1098/rspb.2009.0408. PMC 2839953. PMID 19403539.
15. ^ Weitzman, Steven (2017). The Origin of the Jews: The Quest for Roots in a Rootless Age. Princeton: Princeton University Press. p. 69\. ISBN 978-0-691-19165-2. Retrieved 11 January 2023.
16. ^ Voigt, Rainer. "North vs. South Ethiopian Semitic" (PDF). portal.svt.ntnu.no. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2014-01-10. Retrieved 2019-06-12.
17. ^ Bulakh, Maria; Kogan, Leonid (2014). "More on Genealogical Classification of Ethiopian Semitic". Babel und Bibel (7).
18. ^ For its membership in North Ethiopic, see Leslau, Wolf (1970). "Ethiopic and South Arabian". Linguistics in South West Asia and North Africa. The Hague. p. 467.`{{cite book}}`: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link), and Faber, Alice (2005). "Genetic Subgrouping of the Semitic Languages". The Semitic Languages. Routledge. pp. 6–7..
19. ^ Emi, Ishioma (4 March 2020). "Ethiopia to Add 4 More Official Languages to Foster Unity". Ventures Africa. Ventures. Retrieved 2 February 2021.
20. ^ "Constitution of the Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia – Article 5" (PDF). Federal Government of Ethiopia. Retrieved 31 January 2018.
21. ^ Hudson 2013, pp. 289.
22. ^ Hudson 2013, pp. 9.
23. ^ Hudson 2013, pp. 45.
24. ^ a b c d e Hudson 2013, pp. 35.

## Bibliography

[edit]

* Cohen, Marcel (1931). Études d'éthiopien méridional [Southern Ethiopian Studies] (in French). Paris.`{{cite book}}`: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
* Hetzron, Robert (1972). Ethiopian Semitic: studies in classification. Manchester: Manchester University Press.
* Weninger, Stefan. "Vom Altäthiopischen zu den neuäthiopischen Sprachen" [From Old Ethiopian to the New Ethiopian Languages]. In Haspelmath, Martin; König, Ekkehard; Oesterreicher, Wulf; Raible, Wolfgang (eds.). Language Typology and Language Universals (in German). Vol. 2\. Berlin: Walter de Gruyter. pp. 1762–1774.
* Hudson, Grover (2013). Northeast African Semitic: Lexical Comparisons and Analysis. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz. p. 289\. ISBN 9783447069830.

* v
* t
* e

Languages of Ethiopia

Official languages|

* Afar
* Amharic
* Oromo
* Somali
* Tigrinya

Regional
languages|

| Ethiosemitic|

* Amharic
* Argobba
* Geʽez
* Gurage
* Harari
* Inor
* Mesqan
* Muher
* Sebat Bet Gurage
* Siltʼe
* Soddo
* Tigrinya
* Zay

|

Cushitic|

* Afar
* Alaba
* Ale
* Arbore
* Awngi
* Baiso
* Bussa
* Burji
* Daasanach
* Dirasha
* Gedeo
* Hadiyya
* Kambaata
* Konso
* Libido
* Oromo
* Qimant
* Saho
* Sidamo
* Somali
* Tsamai
* Xamtanga

Omotic|

* Aari
* Anfillo
* Bambassi
* Basketo
* Bench
* Boro
* Chara
* Dime
* Dizi
* Dorze
* Gamo-Gofa-Dawro
* Ganza
* Gayil
* Hamer-Banna
* Hozo
* Kachama-Ganjule
* Kafa
* Karo
* Koorete
* Maale
* Melo
* Nayi
* Oyda
* Seze
* Shekkacho
* Sheko
* Wolaitta
* Yemsa
* Zayse-Zergulla

Nilo-Saharan|

* Anuak
* Berta
* Daatsʼiin
* Gumuz
* Kacipo-Balesi
* Komo
* Kwama
* Kwegu
* Majang
* Meʼen
* Murle
* Mursi
* Nuer
* Nyangatom
* Opuuo
* Shabo
* Suri
* Uduk

Foreign languages|

* English
* Arabic

Sign languages|

* Ethiopian sign languages

* v
* t
* e

Languages of Eritrea

Working languages|

* Tigrinya
* Arabic
* English

National languages|

* Tigrinya
* Afar
* Beja
* Bilen
* Kunama
* Nara
* Saho
* Tigre

Other languages|

* Bitama
* Dahalik
* Italian

Main foreign languages|

* Italian
* Malay

* v
* t
* e

Semitic languages

Branches|

* East
* West
* Central
* South

East|

* Akkadian
* Canaano-Akkadian
* Dilmunite
* Eblaite
* Kishite

Central|

| Arabic|

| Historical|

* Proto-Arabic
* Old Arabic
* Ancient North Arabian
* Dadanitic
* Dumaitic
* Hasaitic
* Hismaic
* Safaitic
* Thamudic
* Thamudic B
* Nabataean Arabic
* Pre-classical Arabic

|

Literary|

* Classical
* Modern Standard

Dialect groups|

* Egyptian Arabic
* Levantine
* Maghrebi
* Siculo-Arabic
* Maltese
* Mesopotamian
* Peninsular
* Judeo-Arabic
* Judeo-Algerian
* Judeo-Egyptian
* Judeo-Fessi
* Judeo-Iraqi
* Judeo-Baghdadi
* Judeo-Moroccan
* Judeo-Palestinian
* Judeo-Tripolitanian
* Judeo-Syrian
* Judeo-Tunisian
* Judeo-Yemeni

Northwest|

| Aramaic|

| Historical|

* Old Aramaic
* Imperial Aramaic
* Biblical Aramaic
* Middle Aramaic

|

Dialect
groups|

* Armazic
* Eastern
* Ashurian and Hatran
* Jewish Babylonian
* Mandaic
* Syriac
* Judeo-Aramaic
* Western
* Lebanese
* Nabataean
* Palestinian
* Christian Palestinian
* Galilean
* Jewish Palestinian
* Samaritan
* Palmyrene

Neo-
Aramaic|

* Eastern
* Central
* Mlaḥsô
* Surayt
* Neo-Mandaic
* Northeastern
* Christian
* Barwar
* Bohtan
* Hértevin
* Koy Sanjaq Christian
* Qaraqosh
* Senaya
* Suret
* Urmia Christian
* Jewish
* Barzani
* Betanure
* Duhok
* Inter-Zab
* Koy Sanjaq Jewish
* Sanandaj
* Trans-Zab
* Urmia Jewish
* Zakho
* Western

Canaanite|

* Northern
* Philistine
* Phoenician
* Punic
* Southern
* Ammonite
* Edomite
* Hebrew
* Biblical
* Israelian
* Samaritan
* Mishnaic
* Medieval
* Modern
* Moabite

Others|

* Amorite
* Ugaritic
* South Gileadite (Deir Alla)
* Taymanitic
* Samalian
* Sutean

South|

| Southeast|

* Baṭḥari
* Ḥarsusi
* Hobyot
* Mehri
* Shehri
* Soqotri

|

Southwest|

| Abyssinian|

| North|

* Geʽez
* Dahalik
* Tigre
* Tigrinya

|

South|

| Trans-
versal|

* Amharic–Argobba
* Harari–East Gurage
* East Gurage
* Siltʼe
* Inneqor
* Ulbare
* Wolane
* Zay

|

Outer|

* N-group
* Gafat
* Soddo
* Tt-group
* Mesmes
* Muher
* West Gurage
* Inor
* Endegen
* Mesqan
* Sebat Bet
* Chaha
* Ezha
* Gumer
* Gura
* Gyeto

Yemenite|

* Faifi
* Hadramautic
* Minaean
* Qatabanian
* Rijal Alma
* Razihi
* Sabaic
* Himyaritic

History|

* Proto-Semitic
* Ancient Semitic-speaking peoples
* Studies

* Italics indicate extinct or historical languages.
* Languages between parentheses are varieties of the language on their left.

Authority control databases

National|

* Germany
* United States
* France
* BnF data
* Israel

Other|

* Yale LUX

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