Ethnicity in Myanmar

Map of ethnolinguistic groups based on the 1972 Burmese census.

Burman

Tribal (Chin, Kachin, Lisu, Lahu, Akha, Naga)

Shan / Hkamti

Thai

Mon / Wa / Palaung

Chinese

Karen

Note: Other ethnic groups like Rakhine, Kayah, Pa’O and Shanni might not appear on this map because the government merged sub ethnic groups into a large single ethnic group. (i.e. Kayah and Pa’O are Karen sub-groups so the government merged them into a one single ethnic identity.)

Myanmar (Burma) is an ethnically diverse nation with 135 distinct ethnic groups officially recognised by the Burmese government, which are grouped into eight "major national ethnic races" — the Bamar, Kayin, Rakhine, Shan, Mon, Chin, Kachin, and Karenni. The Bamar (Burman) make up approximately 68% of the population, while the remainder belongs to various major and minor ethnic and linguistic groups.

The "major national ethnic races" are grouped primarily according to geographic region rather than ethnolinguistic affiliation. For example, the Shan national race includes 33 ethnic groups that live in Shan State and speak languages in at least four language families.[1] Myanmar's contemporary politics around ethnicity surround treating ethnicity as a minoritising discourse, pitting a "pan-ethnic" national identity against minority groups. Often ethnicity identities in practice are flexible — sometimes as flexible as simply changing clothes — in part due to a lack of religious or ethnic stratification prior to British colonialism.[2]

Ethnic identity in modern-day Myanmar has been significantly shaped by British colonial rule, Christian missionaries, and decolonisation in the post-independence era. To this day, the Burmese language does not have precise terminology that distinguishes the European concepts of race and ethnicity; the term lu-myo (လူမျိုး, lit. 'type of person') can reference race, ethnicity, and religion.[3] For instance, many Bamar self-identify as members of the 'Buddhist lu-myo' or the 'Myanmar lu-myo,' which has posed a significant challenge for census-takers.[4]

Many unrecognised ethnic groups exist in the country, the largest being the Burmese Chinese and Panthay (who together form 3% of the population), Burmese Indians (who form 2% of the population), Rohingya, Anglo-Burmese and Gurkha. There are no official statistics regarding the population of the latter two groups, although unofficial estimates place around 52,000 Anglo-Burmese in Burma with around 1.6 million outside the country.

## History

[edit]

### Pre-colonial era

[edit]

In the pre-colonial era, ethnic identity was fluid and dynamic, marked by patron-client relationships, religion, and regional origins, not ethnicity.[5] Lowland valley populations were mainly Theravada Buddhists who spoke Burmese and practiced settled rice cultivation, while minority groups in the surrounding highlands had distinct cultures based on shifting cultivation and local clan or kinship-based loyalties.[5] Pre-colonial Burmese kingdoms were defined by cultural exchange and contact, especially between the Buddhist Bamar, Shan, Rakhine and Mon peoples.[6] Peripheral groups were more likely to adopt the cultural norms and institutions of dominant centers of power, like the Kingdom of Ava.[6]

The Konbaung dynasty incorporated diverse peoples—such as the Shan, Mon, Arakanese, and Tai—into its Theravada Buddhist cultural system through rituals, religious monuments, and royal merit practices.[7] Provincial leaders were required to participate in royal ceremonies, spreading court culture across regions.[7] Intermarriage between the central court and provincial elites also strengthened this cultural integration, making Burmese Theravada orthodoxy a hegemonic force across the empire.[7]

### British colonial rule

[edit]

During British rule in Burma (1896–1948), colonial authorities developed formal classifications to label groups of people, using language as a key criterion, which led to inconsistencies —for instance, some groups labeled as Kachin were not linguistically, ethnically, or racially related to others.[8]

The British transformed the previously fluid nature of ethnic identity by categorizing people based on language in census records and linking ethnic groups to specific territories.[5] They divided the colony into “Ministerial Burma” (directly ruled lowland areas populated mostly by the Bamar, Mon, and Rakhine) and “Frontier Areas” (indirectly ruled highlands inhabited by ethnic minorities like the Kachin, Shan, Chin, and Karen), which reinforced ethnic divisions and limited political interaction.[5]

Christian missionaries converted many minority groups—especially the Karen, Kachin, and Chin—creating religious divides with the Buddhist Bamar majority.[5] These groups also benefited more from colonial recruitment into military and civil service, intensifying Bamar resentment.[5] Economic and political tensions further escalated due to mass immigration encouraged by the British, particularly of Indians and Chinese.[5] Colonial historiography helped perpetuate ethnic categories in Burma, which in turn, became the criteria for conceptualizing and organizing precolonial Myanmar’s history.[6]

These colonial developments promulgated the creation of pan-ethnic identities among minority groups like the Karen, Chin, and Kachin, while politically sidelining the Bamar majority, fueling future ethnic armed resistance and communal violence.[5] For instance, Tai peoples in the country, who now identify as part of the Shan ethnic group, became a distinct ethno-cultural community only during British colonial rule with the creation of the “Shan States” in 1886.[6]

During World War II, the Bamar nationalists aligned with Japan to expel British colonial rulers, while many minority groups supported the British.[5] In 1947, independence leader Aung San secured minority support with promises of autonomy in the 1947 Panglong Agreement, but his assassination later that year destabilised the burgeoning movement.[5]

### Decolonisation

[edit]

After independence, postcolonial Burmese governments adopted rigid colonial ethnic classifications, officially recognizing 135 “national races” called taing-yin-tha (တိုင်းရင်းသား).[5] These identities have become the basis for citizenship and access to rights. The 1982 citizenship law reserved full citizenship for those classified as taing-yin-tha, effectively excluding groups like the Rohingya.[5]

These imposed identities often grouped diverse subgroups together and became institutionalised over time, with post-independence governments continuing to use them to determine access to territory, political power, and economic opportunities—leading to ongoing grievances and struggles among excluded groups.[5] These ethnic classifications have been criticised as arbitrary and exclusionary.[5] While some blame ethnic diversity for ongoing military rule and conflict, the country's political institutions and elite actions have politicised ethnic identities and deepened divisions and conflict.[5]

Ideological disputes and unmet promises to ethnic minorities led to ongoing civil wars between the central government and ethnic armed organisations.[5] During the 1962 Burmese coup d'état, General Ne Win seized power to halt perceived threats of secession and further minority concessions.[5] Consequently, Myanmar has faced continuous armed struggles between the Bamar-majority central government and minority ethnic groups demanding greater autonomy.[5] Harsh military rule and brutal campaigns against ethnic insurgencies have hundreds of thousands and pushing many into refugee camps, particularly in Thailand.[5]

The 1948 Constitution of Burma granted statehood to Kachin, Karenni (now Kayah), Shan and Karen States (now Kayin). The 1974 Constitution granted statehood to Chin State by upgrading its former status as the Special Division of the Chins, to Mon State by carving up the upper half of Tenasserim Division, and to Arakan State by upgrading its former status as Arakan Division. In 2010, in accordance with the 2008 Constitution, several ethnic groups were granted self-administered zones:

* Danu Self-Administered Zone: consisting of Ywangan and Pindaya townships in Shan State
* Kokang Self-Administered Zone: consisting of Konkyan and Laukkai townships in Shan State
* Naga Self-Administered Zone: consisting of Leshi, Lahe, and Namyun townships in Sagaing Region
* Pa Laung Self-Administered Zone: consisting of Namhsan and Manton townships in Shan State
* Pa-O Self-Administered Zone: consisting of Hopong, Hsihseng, and Pinlaung townships in Shan State
* Wa Self-Administered Division: consisting of Hopang, Mongmao, Panwai, Nahpan, Metman, and Pangsang (Pankham) townships in Shan State

## Ethnic makeup

[edit]

Ethnic composition of Myanmar

Ethnic group |  | Percentage
Bamar |

| 68.5%
Kayin |

| 6.6%
Shan |

| 4.7%
Rakhine |

| 4.3%
Mon |

| 2.1%
Chin |

| 2.1%
Pa-O |

| 2.1%
Kachin |

| 1.5%
Ta'ang |

| 0.6%
Danu |

| 0.6%
Lahu |

| 0.5%
Kokang |

| 0.4%
Karenni |

| 0.4%
Others |

| 5.8%
Source: 2019 GAD township reports

After the 2014 Census in Myanmar, the Burmese government indefinitely withheld release of detailed ethnicity data, citing concerns around social unrest and political sensitivity surrounding the issue of ethnicity in Myanmar.[9] In February 2018, Thein Swe, the minister of labor, immigration, and population did not provide a timeline, and stated that more discussions with ethnic leaders, historians, anthropologists, and cultural experts were necessary to finalise the terminology and classifications of ethnic groups.[10] As of March 2018, the census data remains unreleased.[9][11]

In 2022, researchers analysed the General Administration Department's nationwide township reports compiled between October 2018 and September 2019 to tabulate the ethnic makeup of the country.[12][13]

The GAD used only 22 ethnic groups in its reports, reflecting the lack of standardisation within the Burmese government to classify ethnic groups, and disaggregation of several "national races."[13] The GAD's list includes entries not found in the country's 135 officially recognised ethnic groups, including Mong Wong, Lishaw, and Ying.[13]

## Officially recognised ethnic groups

[edit]

The Burmese government recognises 8 "national races" that are made up of 135 ethnic groups. The list has faced criticism for overcounting the number of ethnic groups and classifying groups that speak unrelated languages under the same "national race." Specifically, it represents clans and people with dialectical differences as distinct ethnic groups, sometimes even repeating the same group under a different name.[14] According to Gamanii, a researcher who scrutinised the claim, only 59 out of the 135 recognised ethnic groups can be verified as existing entities.[15]

The following language families are associated the ethnic groups:

* Sino-Tibetan
* Lolo–Burmese
* Nungish
* Sal
* Karenic
* Kuki-Chin
* Sinitic
* Austroasiatic
* Monic
* Palaungic
* Indo-European
* Indo-Aryan
* Kra–Dai
* Southwestern Tai
* Hmong–Mien
* Mienic
* Hmongic
* Austronesian
* Malayo-Polynesian

Note: The list is very controversial. Many of the names and spelling variants are known only from this list.[15][16]

### Kachin

[edit]

According to the Burmese government, the Kachin comprises 12 different sub-groups:

№  | Group  | Native language  | Language family  | Language sub-family

|
|
|
|

1 | Kachin | Various Kachin languages | Sino-Tibetan \- Tibeto-Burman | Various
2 | Tarone (Derung, Drung) | Derung | Sino-Tibetan \- Tibeto-Burman | Nungish
4 | Jinghpaw (Jingpo) | Jinghpaw | Sino-Tibetan \- Tibeto-Burman | Sal
3 | Dalaung[17] | Jinghpaw (Dalaung dialect) | Sino-Tibetan \- Tibeto-Burman | Sal
5 | Guari, see Jingpo people[17] | Jinghpaw (Guari dialect) | Sino-Tibetan \- Tibeto-Burman | Sal
6 | Hkahku, see Jingpo people | Jinghpaw (Hkahku dialect) | Sino-Tibetan \- Tibeto-Burman | Sal
7 | Duleng[17] |  | Sino-Tibetan \- Tibeto-Burman |
8 | Maru (Lhao Vo, Langsu) | Maru | Sino-Tibetan \- Tibeto-Burman | Lolo–Burmese
9 | Rawang (Nung) | Rawang | Sino-Tibetan \- Tibeto-Burman | Nungish
10 | Lashi (La Chit) | Lashi | Sino-Tibetan \- Tibeto-Burman | Lolo–Burmese
11 | Zaiwa (Atsi) | Zaiwa (Atsi) | Sino-Tibetan \- Tibeto-Burman | Lolo–Burmese
12 | Lisu (Yawyin) | Lisu | Sino-Tibetan \- Tibeto-Burman | Lolo–Burmese

### Kayah

[edit]

According to the Burmese government, the Kayah comprise nine sub-groups:[note 1][18]

№  | Group  | Native language  | Language family  | Language sub-family

|
|
|
|

1 | Kayah (Karenni) | Karenni | Sino-Tibetan \- Tibeto-Burman | Karenic
2 | Zayein (Lahta; Gaungto; Loilong Karens) | Lahta | Sino-Tibetan \- Tibeto-Burman | Karenic
3 | Ka-Yun (Kayan; Padaung) | Kayan | Sino-Tibetan \- Tibeto-Burman | Karenic
4 | Gheko (Karen, Geko) | Geko | Sino-Tibetan \- Tibeto-Burman | Karenic
5 | Kebar (Geba) | Geba | Sino-Tibetan \- Tibeto-Burman | Karenic
6 | Bre (Ka-Yaw; Kayaw) | Kayaw | Sino-Tibetan \- Tibeto-Burman | Karenic
7 | Manu Manaw (Manumanaw) | Manumanaw | Sino-Tibetan \- Tibeto-Burman | Karenic
8 | Yin Talai (Yintale) | Yintale | Sino-Tibetan \- Tibeto-Burman | Karenic
9 | Yin Baw (Yinbaw) | Yinbaw | Sino-Tibetan \- Tibeto-Burman | Karenic

1. ^ The source of this list is the nine captions from an unscientific Italian book, using Italian spelling.

### Kayin

[edit]

According to the Burmese government, the Kayin comprise 11 sub-groups:

№  | Group  | Native language  | Language family  | Language sub-family

|
|
|
|

1 | Kayin (Karen) | Various Karen languages | Sino-Tibetan \- Tibeto-Burman | Karenic
2 | Kayinphyu [my] (Geba Karen) | Geba | Sino-Tibetan \- Tibeto-Burman | Karenic
3 | Pa-le-chi [my] (Paleki, possibly Mobwa) | Mobwa (tentative) | Sino-Tibetan \- Tibeto-Burman | Karenic
4 | Mon Kayin (Saphyu)

(same as Pwo Karen)

| Various Pwo Karen languages | Sino-Tibetan \- Tibeto-Burman | Karenic
5 | Sgaw (S’gaw Karen) | S'gaw Karen | Sino-Tibetan \- Tibeto-Burman | Karenic
6 | Ta-lay-pwa [my] (Thalebwa) | Thalebwa (tentative) | Sino-Tibetan \- Tibeto-Burman | Karenic
7 | Paku [my] (Paku Karen) | Paku | Sino-Tibetan \- Tibeto-Burman | Karenic
8 | Bwe (Bwe Karen) | Bwe | Sino-Tibetan \- Tibeto-Burman | Karenic
9 | Monnepwa [my] (Paku Karen) | Possibly Paku (variant) | Sino-Tibetan \- Tibeto-Burman | Karenic
10 | Monpwa [my] | Unknown | Sino-Tibetan \- Tibeto-Burman | Karenic
11 | Pwo Karen [my] (Pwo Kayin, Pwo Karen) | Various Pwo Karen languages | Sino-Tibetan \- Tibeto-Burman | Karenic

### Chin

[edit]

According to the Burmese government, the Chin comprise 53 sub-groups. This list was possibly originally a list of colonial tax rate districts. The groupings have long been contested by ethnic Chin leaders, and some subgroups like the Zomi refute their categorization as Chins.[19] Ahead of the 2014 Myanmar census, the Chin National Action Committee on Census produced a list of mistakes and incoherencies with the government's list:[20]

* Overarching category ambiguity: "Chin" is treated as just another coded category, rather than a distinct ethnolinguistic umbrella.
* Misclassification under "Chin": Some ethnic groups (e.g. Naga, Thanghkul, Meithei) do not self-identify as Chin.
* Non-ethnonyms listed: Some names (e.g. Saline, Mi-er) are not actual ethnonyms.
* Inconsistent spelling: Many group names are spelled inconsistently across languages (e.g. Khami/Khumi, Tiddim/Tedim).
* Merged identities: Some single names represent multiple distinct groups (e.g. Dai (Yinthu) representing both Dai/Daai and Daa Yinthu).
* Redundant listings: Some groups appear multiple times under different spellings (e.g. Lushai and Lushei for Lashai).
* Missing groups: Several well-defined groups are entirely omitted from the list (e.g. Ng’gha, Hlawn Ceu, Sometu, Larktu, Laisaw, Laitu, Mayin, Lungpaw, Minkya, Bawm).

The presence of 53 Chin sub-groups prompted confusion among census participants.[19] Chin civil society groups called for a future revision to the number of Chin subgroups.[19] In 2019, the national government confirmed it had no plans to correct the nomenclature.[20]

№  | Group  | Native language  | Language family  | Language sub-family

|
|
|
|

1 | Chin | Various Kuki-Chin languages | Sino-Tibetan \- Tibeto-Burman | Kuki-Chin
2 | Meithei (Meitei; Kathe) | Meitei (Manipuri) | Sino-Tibetan \- Tibeto-Burman | Kuki-Chin
3 | Salai [my] | Unknown | Unknown |
4 | Ka-lin-kaw (Mizo, Lushay, Kalinko) | Mizo | Sino-Tibetan \- Tibeto-Burman | Kuki-Chin
5 | Khami (Khumi) | Khumi | Sino-Tibetan \- Tibeto-Burman | Kuki-Chin
6 | Awa Khami (Mro-Khimi) | Mro-Khimi | Sino-Tibetan \- Tibeto-Burman | Kuki-Chin
7 | Khawno (Khuano) | Possibly a Chin dialect | Sino-Tibetan \- Tibeto-Burman |
8 | Khaungso [my] (Hkongso) | Possibly a Chin dialect | Sino-Tibetan \- Tibeto-Burman |
9 | Kaung Saing Chin | Possibly a Chin dialect | Sino-Tibetan \- Tibeto-Burman |
10 | Kwelshin [my] (Khualsim) | Dialect of Falam | Sino-Tibetan \- Tibeto-Burman | Kuki-Chin
11 | Kwangli (Sim) | Possibly a Chin dialect | Sino-Tibetan \- Tibeto-Burman |
12 | Gunte (Gangte, Lyente; Falam) | Dialect of Falam | Sino-Tibetan \- Tibeto-Burman | Kuki-Chin
13 | Gwete (Guite, Nguite) | Chin | Sino-Tibetan \- Tibeto-Burman | Kuki-Chin
14 | Ngorn (Chin, Ngawn) | Ngawn | Sino-Tibetan \- Tibeto-Burman | Kuki-Chin
15 | Sizang (Siyin) | Sizang (Siyin) | Sino-Tibetan \- Tibeto-Burman | Kuki-Chin
16 | Sentang [my] | Possibly a Chin dialect | Sino-Tibetan \- Tibeto-Burman |
17 | Saing Zan [my] | Possibly a Chin dialect | Sino-Tibetan \- Tibeto-Burman |
18 | Za-How [my] (Zahau) | Zahau | Sino-Tibetan \- Tibeto-Burman | Kuki-Chin
19 | Zotung | Zotung | Sino-Tibetan \- Tibeto-Burman | Kuki-Chin
20 | Zo-Pe (Zophei, Zyphe) | Zyphe | Sino-Tibetan \- Tibeto-Burman | Kuki-Chin
21 | Zo (Zou) | Zou (Zo) | Sino-Tibetan \- Tibeto-Burman | Kuki-Chin
22 | Zahnyet (Zanniet) | Zanniat | Sino-Tibetan \- Tibeto-Burman | Kuki-Chin
23 | Tapong | Tapong | Sino-Tibetan \- Tibeto-Burman | Kuki-Chin
24 | Tiddim (Tedim, Haidim) | Tedim | Sino-Tibetan \- Tibeto-Burman | Kuki-Chin
25 | Tay-Zan [my] | Possibly a Chin dialect | Sino-Tibetan \- Tibeto-Burman |
26 | Taishon (Tashon) | Taishon | Sino-Tibetan \- Tibeto-Burman | Kuki-Chin
27 | Thado | Thadou | Sino-Tibetan \- Tibeto-Burman | Kuki-Chin
28 | Torr people (Tawr) | Tawr | Sino-Tibetan \- Tibeto-Burman | Kuki-Chin
29 | Dim | Unknown | Sino-Tibetan \- Tibeto-Burman |
30 | Dai (Yindu, Daai) | Daai | Sino-Tibetan \- Tibeto-Burman | Kuki-Chin
31 | Naga | Various Naga languages | Sino-Tibetan \- Tibeto-Burman | Kuki-Chin
32 | Tangkhul | Tangkhul | Sino-Tibetan \- Tibeto-Burman |
33 | Malin | Possibly Chin or Mizo dialect | Sino-Tibetan \- Tibeto-Burman |
34 | Panun [my] | Possibly Chin dialect | Sino-Tibetan \- Tibeto-Burman |
35 | Magun [my] | Possibly Chin dialect | Sino-Tibetan \- Tibeto-Burman |
36 | Matu | Matu | Sino-Tibetan \- Tibeto-Burman | Kuki-Chin
37 | Miram (Mara) | Mara | Sino-Tibetan \- Tibeto-Burman | Kuki-Chin
38 | Mi-er | Possibly Chin dialect | Sino-Tibetan \- Tibeto-Burman |
39 | Mgan (Kaang) | Kaang | Sino-Tibetan \- Tibeto-Burman | Kuki-Chin
40 | Lushei (Lushay, Duhlian) | Mizo | Sino-Tibetan \- Tibeto-Burman | Kuki-Chin
41 | Laymyo | Laymyo | Sino-Tibetan \- Tibeto-Burman | Kuki-Chin
42 | Lyente | Possibly Falam-related dialect | Sino-Tibetan \- Tibeto-Burman | Kuki-Chin
43 | Lautu (Lutuv, Lawhtu) | Lautu | Sino-Tibetan \- Tibeto-Burman | Kuki-Chin
44 | Lai (Hakha Chin) | Lai (Hakha Chin) | Sino-Tibetan \- Tibeto-Burman | Kuki-Chin
45 | Laizao [my] | Possibly Lai dialect | Sino-Tibetan \- Tibeto-Burman | Kuki-Chin
46 | Wakim (Mro) | Mro | Sino-Tibetan \- Tibeto-Burman | Kuki-Chin
47 | Hualngo | Hualngo | Sino-Tibetan \- Tibeto-Burman | Kuki-Chin
48 | Anu | Possibly Chin dialect | Sino-Tibetan \- Tibeto-Burman |
49 | Anun | Possibly Chin dialect | Sino-Tibetan \- Tibeto-Burman |
50 | Oo-Pu (Shö, Uppu) | Shö | Sino-Tibetan \- Tibeto-Burman | Kuki-Chin
51 | Lhinbu | Possibly Chin dialect | Sino-Tibetan \- Tibeto-Burman |
52 | Asho (Plain) | Asho | Sino-Tibetan \- Tibeto-Burman | Kuki-Chin
53 | Rongtu (Rungtu) | Rongtu | Sino-Tibetan \- Tibeto-Burman | Kuki-Chin

### Bamar

[edit]

According to the Burmese government, the Bamar comprise nine sub-groups, several of which speak variants of Burmese. In 2016, the Thein Sein government officially recognised the Chinese-speaking Mong Wong in northern Shan State as the Mong Wong Bamar.[21]

№  | Group  | Native language  | Language family  | Language sub-family

|
|
|
|

1 | Burman (Bamar) | Burmese | Sino-Tibetan \- Tibeto-Burman | Lolo-Burmese
2 | Dawei (Tavoyan) | Burmese: Tavoyan dialect | Sino-Tibetan \- Tibeto-Burman | Lolo-Burmese
3 | Myeik (Beik, Merguese) | Burmese: Myeik dialect | Sino-Tibetan \- Tibeto-Burman | Lolo-Burmese
4 | Yaw | Burmese: Yaw dialect | Sino-Tibetan \- Tibeto-Burman | Lolo-Burmese
5 | Yabein (defunct) | Burmese: Yabein dialect | Sino-Tibetan \- Tibeto-Burman | Lolo-Burmese
6 | Kadu (Kado) | Kadu | Sino-Tibetan \- Tibeto-Burman | Sal
7 | Ganan [my] | Ganan | Sino-Tibetan \- Tibeto-Burman | Sal
8 | Salone (Salon; Moken) | Moken | Austronesian | Malayo-Polynesian
9 | Hpon people | Hpon | Sino-Tibetan \- Tibeto-Burman | Lolo-Burmese

### Mon

[edit]

№  | Group  | Native language  | Language family  | Language sub-family

|
|
|
|

1 | Mon | Mon | Austroasiatic | Monic

### Rakhine

[edit]

According to the Burmese government, the Rakhine comprise seven sub-groups. The groupings have been criciticised for including culturally different groups like the Mro and Thet under the Rakhine umbrella. [22]

№  | Group  | Native language  | Language family  | Language sub-family

|
|
|
|

1 | Rakhine (Arakanese) | Rakhine (Arakanese) | Sino-Tibetan \- Tibeto-Burman | Lolo-Burmese
2 | Kamein (Kaman) | Rakhine (Arakanese) | Sino-Tibetan \- Tibeto-Burman | Lolo-Burmese
3 | Kwe Myi (Khami) | Khumi | Sino-Tibetan \- Tibeto-Burman | Kuki-Chin
4 | Daingnet (Thetkama, Chakma) | Chakma | Indo-European | Indo-Aryan
5 | Maramagyi (Barua) | Rakhine, Bengali | Indo-European | Indo-Aryan
6 | Mro | Mro | Sino-Tibetan \- Tibeto-Burman | Kuki-Chin
7 | Thet (Chak) | Chak | Indo-European | Indo-Aryan

### Shan

[edit]

According to the Burmese government, the Shan comprise 33 sub-groups. The groupings have been criciticised for including culturally different groups like the Kokang, Palaung, and Pa-O under the Shan umbrella.[22] The list also includes redundant groups that go by different names, such as the Tai Leng, who are also called Shan Galay or Red Shan.[22]

№  | Group  | Native language  | Language family  | Language sub-family

|
|
|
|

1 | Shan (Tai) | Various Tai languages | Kra–Dai | Tai – Southwestern Tai
2 | Yun (Tai Yuan, Lanna) | Northern Thai | Kra–Dai | Tai – Southwestern Tai
3 | Kwi [my] | Possibly a Tai dialect | Kra–Dai |
4 | Pyin | Possibly a Tai dialect | Kra–Dai |
5 | Yao (Mien) | Iu Mien | Hmong–Mien | Mienic
6 | Danaw [my] (Danau) | Danau | Austroasiatic | Palaungic
7 | Pale [my] (Ruching) | Palaung: Ruching dialect | Austroasiatic | Palaungic
8 | Eng (En) | Possibly a Palaungic language | Austroasiatic | Palaungic
9 | Son | Possibly a Palaungic language | Austroasiatic | Palaungic
10 | Khamu (Khmu) | Khmu | Austroasiatic | Khmuic
11 | Kaw (Akha) | Akha | Sino-Tibetan \- Tibeto-Burman | Lolo–Burmese
12 | Kokant (Kokang) | Mandarin | Sino-Tibetan \- Tibeto-Burman | Sinitic
13 | Khamti Shan (Hkamti) | Khamti | Kra–Dai | Tai – Southwestern Tai
14 | Hkun (Tai Khün) | Khün | Kra–Dai | Tai – Southwestern Tai
15 | Taungyo | Taungyo | Sino-Tibetan \- Tibeto-Burman | Lolo–Burmese
16 | Danu | Danu | Sino-Tibetan \- Tibeto-Burman | Lolo–Burmese
17 | Palaung (Ta'ang) | Palaung | Austroasiatic | Palaungic
18 | Myaungzi (Hmong, Man Zi) | Hmong | Hmong–Mien | Hmongic
19 | Yin Kya [my] | Possibly a Palaungic language | Austroasiatic | Palaungic
20 | Yin Net [my] | Riang | Austroasiatic | Palaungic
21 | Shan Gale

(same as Tai-Leng)

| Tai Leng | Kra–Dai |
22 | Shan Gyi (Tai Long) | Tai Long | Kra–Dai | Tai – Southwestern Tai
23 | Lahu | Lahu | Sino-Tibetan \- Tibeto-Burman | Lolo–Burmese
24 | Intha | Burmese: Intha dialect | Sino-Tibetan \- Tibeto-Burman | Lolo–Burmese
25 | Eikswair [my] | Possibly a Tai dialect | Kra–Dai |
26 | Pa-O (Taungthu; Black Karen) | Pa-O | Sino-Tibetan \- Tibeto-Burman | Karenic
27 | Tai-Loi | Tai Loi | Austroasiatic | Palaungic
28 | Tai-Leng [my] (Red Shan, Tai Laing) | Tai Leng | Kra–Dai | Tai – Southwestern Tai
29 | Tai-Lon (Tai Long) | Tai Long | Kra–Dai | Tai – Southwestern Tai
30 | Tai-Lay (Chinese Shan, Tai Nua) | Tai Nüa | Kra–Dai | Tai – Southwestern Tai
31 | Maingtha (Achang) | Achang | Sino-Tibetan \- Tibeto-Burman | Lolo–Burmese
32 | Maw Shan [my] (Tai Mao) | Tai Mao | Kra–Dai | Tai – Southwestern Tai
33 | Wa (Va) | Wa | Austroasiatic | Palaungic

## Unrecognised ethnic groups

[edit]

The government of Myanmar does not officially recognise several ethnic groups:

№  | Group  | Native language  | Language family  | Language sub-family

|
|
|
|

1 | Anglo-Burmese | Burmese, English | Various, inc. Sino-Tibetan and Indo-European | Various
2 | Burmese Chinese (Sino-Burmese) | Burmese, Chinese dialects (e.g. Hokkien, Cantonese) | Sino-Tibetan | Sinitic
3 | Panthay (Hui) | Mandarin Chinese | Sino-Tibetan | Sinitic
4 | Burmese Indians, inc. Myanmar Tamils | Burmese, Hindi, Tamil, Urdu, etc. | Various, inc. Indo-European and Dravidian | Various
5 | Taungtha people | Burmese, Rungtu | Sino-Tibetan | Lolo–Burmese
6 | Rohingya people | Rohingya | Indo-European | Indo-Aryan
7 | Burmese Gurkhas (Burmese Gorkhas, Nepalese) | Nepali | Indo-European | Indo-Aryan
8 | Burmese Mizos | Mizo | Sino-Tibetan | Kuki-Chin
9 | Burmese Jews | Hebrew, Burmese | Afro-Asiatic | Semitic
10 | Bamar Muslims (Pathi) | Burmese, Urdu, Arabic (liturgical) | Indo-European | Lolo–Burmese, Indo-Aryan
11  | Burmese Malays | Burmese, Malay | Austronesian | Malayo-Polynesian
12  | Bayingyi | Burmese | Sino-Tibetan | Lolo–Burmese

## See also

[edit]

* Myanmar portal

## References

[edit]

1. ^ "Myanmar People & Races". Archived from the original on 9 June 2010. Retrieved 14 December 2007. For example, the Shan speak a Tai–Kadai language, the Lahu speak a Tibeto-Burman language, the Khmu people speak a Mon–Khmer language, and the Yao speak a Hmong–Mien language.
2. ^ Cho, Violet (2020). "Ethnicity and Identity". In Simpson, Adam; Farrelly, Nicholas; Holliday, Ian (eds.). Routledge Handbook of Contemporary Myanmar. Routledge. pp. 43–54\. ISBN 9781138820777.
3. ^ "Identity Crisis: Ethnicity and Conflict in Myanmar". International Crisis Group. 28 August 2020.
4. ^ Callahan, Mary P. (2017). "Distorted, Dangerous Data? Lumyo in the 2014 Myanmar Population and Housing Census". Sojourn: Journal of Social Issues in Southeast Asia. 32 (2): 452–478\. ISSN 1793-2858.
5. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s Thawnghmung, Ardeth Maung (20 April 2022), ""National Races" in Myanmar", Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Asian History, Oxford University Press, doi:10.1093/acrefore/9780190277727.013.656, ISBN 978-0-19-027772-7, retrieved 21 August 2022
6. ^ a b c d Aung-Thwin, Michael A. (31 May 2017), Aung-Thwin, Michael A. (ed.), "The Ava Convention", Myanmar in the Fifteenth Century: A Tale of Two Kingdoms, University of Hawai'i Press, p. 0, doi:10.21313/hawaii/9780824867836.003.0003, ISBN 978-0-8248-6783-6, retrieved 10 May 2025
7. ^ a b c Schober, Juliane (30 November 2010), Schober, Juliane (ed.), "Theravada Cultural Hegemony in Precolonial Burma", Modern Buddhist Conjunctures in Myanmar: Cultural Narratives, Colonial Legacies, and Civil Society, University of Hawai'i Press, pp. 15–33, doi:10.21313/hawaii/9780824833824.003.0002, ISBN 978-0-8248-3382-4, retrieved 10 May 2025
8. ^ Liu, Amy H.; Selway, Joel (12 March 2024). State Institutions, Civic Associations, and Identity Demands: Regional Movements in Greater Southeast Asia. University of Michigan Press. ISBN 978-0-472-90341-2.
9. ^ a b Aung, San Yamin (21 February 2018). "Still No Date for Release of Census Findings on Ethnic Populations". The Irrawaddy. Retrieved 11 May 2025.
10. ^ Aung, San Yamin (21 February 2018). "Still No Date for Release of Census Findings on Ethnic Populations". The Irrawaddy. Retrieved 11 May 2025.
11. ^ Zaw, John (1 March 2018). "Ethnic groups blast Myanmar for gaps in 2014 census". UCA News. Retrieved 11 May 2025.
12. ^ "PoneYate ethnic population dashboard".
13. ^ a b c Jap, Jangai; Courtin, Constant (22 November 2022). Deciphering Myanmar's Ethnic Landscape: A Brief Historical and Ethnic Description of Myanmar's Administrative Units. International IDEA. doi:10.31752/idea.2022.57. ISBN 978-91-7671-577-2.
14. ^ "2014 Population Census: The problematic of 135 ethnic groups categorization". Shan Herald. 5 December 2017. Archived from the original on 29 January 2022. Retrieved 8 March 2023.
15. ^ a b Gamanii (25 September 2012). "135: Counting Races in Burma". Shan Herald. Archived from the original on 5 January 2014. Retrieved 26 August 2013.
16. ^ "Composition of the Different Ethnic Groups". Embassy of the Republic of the Union of Myanmar Brussels. Archived from the original on 10 April 2020. Retrieved 17 August 2013.
17. ^ a b c "Ethnologue". Archived from the original on 13 October 2011. Retrieved 1 May 2006.
18. ^ Manna, Paolo (1902). I Ghekù, tribù cariana della Birmania orientale | WorldCat.org. Milan: Tipografia pontificia S. Giuseppe. Retrieved 30 September 2024.
19. ^ a b c Saning, Yen (9 May 2014). "Chin Group Says Myanmar Census Ethnicity Question Caused Confusion". The Irrawaddy. Retrieved 11 May 2025.
20. ^ a b Lian, Salai Van Cung; Salem-Gervais, Nicolas (November 2020). "How Many Chin Languages Should Be Taught in Government Schools? Ongoing developments and structural challenges of language-in-education policy in Chin State". Parami Journal of Education. 1 (1).
21. ^ Tickner, Steve (22 August 2016). "Identity politics and the Mong Wong". Frontier Myanmar. Retrieved 12 May 2025.
22. ^ a b c "Ethnicity without Meaning, Data without Context". Transnational Institute. 10 April 2025. Retrieved 12 May 2025.

## External links

[edit]

* List of ethnic groups in Myanmar – Myanmar Ministry of Hotels and Tourism
* Ethnologue page for Burma languages
* Minorities in Burma and Burma: Time for Change by Minority Rights Group International

## Books

[edit]

* U Min Naing (2000). National Ethnic Groups of Myanmar. Translated by Hpone Thant. Yangon: Thein Myint Win Press.

* National Races of Myanmar. Myanmar: Ministry of Culture. 1960.

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