European Canadians

Canadians of European ancestry

Ethnic group

European Canadians

Map of Canadians reporting only European ancestry by census division (2021)

Total population
24,493,090 (2021 census)[1][2][a]
67.4% of the total Canadian population (White alone)

871,050 (2.4%) (White mixed with non-White)

Regions with significant populations
All areas of Canada
less prevalent in Northern Canada
Languages
English
French
Italian
German
Ukrainian
Portuguese
Other European Languages
Historically: Scottish Gaelic * Irish

Religion
Christianity (60.3%)
Roman Catholicism, Protestantism, Eastern Orthodoxy, Oriental Orthodoxy, Mormonism, Other Latter Day Saints, Nondenominational and Other Christians
Irreligion (37.5%)
Judaism (1.2%)
Converts and others (1.1%)

Related ethnic groups
European diaspora, Europeans, European Americans, European Australians, European New Zealanders, British (English, Scottish, Welsh, Northern Irish), Irish, French, German, Italian, Dutch, Russian, Ukrainian, Polish, Portuguese

European Canadians are Canadians who can trace their ancestry to the continent of Europe.[3][4] They form the largest panethnic group within Canada.

In the 2021 Canadian census, 19,062,115 people or 52.5% of the population self-identified ethnic origins from Europe.[5] 8,329,950 people or 22.9% of the population self-identified ethnic origins that were from North America and were not Indigenous. Most of these responses are not counted as visible minority by Statistics Canada (such as "Canadian" and "French Canadian" ethnic origin responses).[note 1] People may nominate more than one ethnic origin in the census.

In the 2021 Canadian census, 25,364,140 Canadians self-identified as White and mixed White, forming approximately 69.8 percent of the total Canadian population.[1][2] This included 24,493,090 people (67.4%) who were White only and 871,050 people (2.4%) who were White mixed with non-White groups.[1][2]

## Terminology

[edit]

As with other panethnic groups, Statistics Canada records ethnic ancestry by employing the term "European origins" under the ethnic origin population section in the census data,[6] but does not specifically use the term "European Canadian". "Euro-Canadians" and "European Canadians" are terms primarily used by those opposed to immigration to Canada from the Third World, and their use has been criticised as conflating distinctions between very different European groups and nationalities.[7] Those employing the terms can recognise that most Canadians of European descent do not see that as their collective identity and instead identify with a specific ethnicity or country of ancestral origin, characterising themselves as for example "Anglo" or "Québecois" rather than as part of a larger "Euro-Canadian" group.[8] For most of the history of European settlement in North America, the French and the English were seen as two distinct races, with distinct cultures and national spirits.[9][10]

Statistics Canada has cautioned that "the reporting of ethnicity, and subsequent interpretation of the results, has become increasingly complex due to a number of factors, and poses challenges for historical data comparisons. The concept of ethnicity is fluid and is probably one of the more complex concepts measured in the census."[11] As well, patterns of self-reporting ethnic origins on the census vary with different population groups in Canada, with particular fluidity on self-reporting of the category "Canadian".[12][13] Use of statistics in this subject area must be approached with these cautions in mind. The sum of the identified ethnic groups is greater than the total population estimate, because a person may report more than one ethnic origin in the census.[14][12]

## Subgroups

[edit]

There are several subgroups of Canadians of European origin.[15] Although approximately defined categories (due to imprecise, or ethnocultural, regionalization of the continent), the subgroups have been utilized widely in ethnic and cultural identification.[16][17] This is especially relevant in diaspora, as is the case with European people in Canada.[18]

Statistics Canada does not use the term "European Canadian". The 2021 census asked individuals to self-identify their ethnic origins,[14] within seven general categories (subcategories shown for clarity):

* British Isles origins, including British Canadians (Cornish Canadians, English Canadians, Scottish Canadians, and Welsh Canadians) and Irish Canadians
* French origins, including French Canadians (Breton Canadians)
* Other Western European origins, including Austrian Canadians, Belgian Canadians, Dutch Canadians, German Canadians, Luxembourgish Canadians, and Swiss Canadians
* Northern European origins, including Danish Canadians, Finnish Canadians, Icelandic Canadians, Norwegian Canadians, and Swedish Canadians
* Southern European origins, including Greek Canadians, Italian Canadians, Maltese Canadians, Portuguese Canadians, and Spanish Canadians (Basque Canadians)
* Southeast European origins, including Albanian Canadians, Bosnian Canadians, Bulgarian Canadians, Croatian Canadians, Macedonian Canadians, Montenegrin Canadians, Romanian Canadians, Serbian Canadians, and Slovenian Canadians
* Eastern European origins, including Belarusian Canadians, Czech Canadians, Estonian Canadians, Hungarian Canadians, Latvian Canadians, Lithuanian Canadians, Polish Canadians, Russian Canadians, Slovak Canadians, and Ukrainian Canadians

## History

[edit]

A reconstruction of Norse buildings at the UNESCO listed L'Anse aux Meadows site in Newfoundland, Canada. Archaeological evidence demonstrates that iron working, carpentry, and boat repair were conducted at the site.[19]

The exploration of Canada by European nations commenced with the Norse in the late 10th century along the East Coast. After Jacques Cartier's arrival in 1534, British and French explorers progressively ventured westward over the subsequent three centuries.[20]

The first documented source of Scots in what would become Canada comes from the Saga of Eric the Red and the Viking expedition of 1010 AD to Vinland (literally, the land of meadows), which is believed to refer to the island of Newfoundland. The Viking prince Thorfinn Karlsefni took two Scottish slaves to Vinland.[21] When the longships moored along the coast, they sent the slaves ashore to run along the waterfront to gauge whether it was safe for the rest of the crew to follow. After the Scots survived a day without being attacked, by either human or animal, the Vikings deemed it safe to spend the night ashore. The expedition was abandoned three years later; the original sagas were passed on in an oral tradition and then written down 250 years later.

### 16th century

[edit]

English Canadian history starts with the attempts to establish English settlements in Newfoundland in the sixteenth century. The first English settlement in present-day Canada was at St. Johns Newfoundland, in 1583. Newfoundland's population was significantly influenced by Irish and English immigration, much of it as a result of the migratory fishery in the decades prior to the Great Famine of Ireland.

The first recorded Irish presence in the area of present-day Canada dates from 1536, when Irish fishermen from Cork traveled to Newfoundland.

### 17th century

[edit]

One group of King's Daughters arrives at Quebec, 1667

The French were the first Europeans to establish a continuous presence in what is now Canada. French settlers from Normandy, Perche, Beauce, Brittany, Maine, Anjou, Touraine, Poitou, Aunis, Angoumois, Saintonge and Gascony were the first Europeans to permanently colonize what is now Quebec, parts of Ontario, Acadia, and select areas of Western Canada, all in Canada (see French colonization of the Americas) .Their colonies of New France (also commonly called Canada) stretched across what today are the Maritime provinces, southern Quebec and Ontario, as well as the entire Mississippi River Valley.

Hélène Desportes is considered the first child with European ancestry to be born in New France. She was born circa 1620, to Pierre Desportes (born Lisieux, Normandie, France) and Françoise Langlois.[22]

The first permanent European settlements in Canada were at Port Royal in 1605 and Quebec City in 1608 as fur trading posts. The territories of New France were Canada, Acadia (later renamed Nova Scotia), and Louisiana. The inhabitants of the French colony of Canada (modern-day Quebec) called themselves the Canadiens, and came mostly from northwestern France.[23] The early inhabitants of Acadia, or Acadians (Acadiens), came mostly but not exclusively from the southwestern regions of France.

Canadien explorers and fur traders would come to be known as coureurs des bois and voyageurs, while those who settled on farms in Canada would come to be known as habitants. Many French Canadians are the descendants of the King's Daughters (Filles du Roi, several hundred women who immigrated over a decade under the sponsorship of Louis XIV). A few also are the descendants of mixed French and Algonquian marriages (see also Metis people and Acadian people).[24]

### 18th century

[edit]

#### Early to mid-century

[edit]

Jean Baptiste de La Vérendrye of New France with a group of engagés (indentured servants)

The area that forms the present day province of Nova Scotia was contested by the British and French in the eighteenth century. French settlements at Port Royal, Louisbourg and what is now Prince Edward Island were seized by the British. After the 1713 Treaty of Utrecht ceded the French colony of Acadia (today's mainland Nova Scotia and New Brunswick) to Great Britain, efforts to colonize the province were limited to small settlements in Canso and Annapolis Royal.

In 1749, Colonel Edward Cornwallis was given command of an expedition for the settlement of Chebucto by some three thousand persons, many of whom were Cockney. Cornwallis' settlement, Halifax, would become the provincial capital, the primary commercial centre for the Maritime provinces, a strategic British military and naval outpost and an important east coast cultural centre. To offset the Catholic presence of Acadians, foreign Protestants (mainly German) were given land and founded Lunenburg. Nova Scotia itself saw considerable immigration from Scotland, particularly to communities such as Pictou in the northern part of the province and to Cape Breton Island, beginning with the arrival of 189 Highlanders on the sailing ship Hector in 1773.

A few Germans came to New France when France colonized the area, but large-scale migration from Germany began only under British rule, when Governor Edward Cornwallis established Halifax, Nova Scotia in 1749. Known as the Foreign Protestants, the continental Protestants were encouraged to migrate to Nova Scotia between 1750 and 1752 to counterbalance the large number of Catholic Acadians. Family surnames, Lutheran churches, and village names along the South Shore of Nova Scotia retain their German heritage, such as Lunenburg. The first German church in Canada, the Little Dutch (Deutsch) Church in Halifax, is on land which was set aside for the German-speaking community in 1756. The church was designated a National Historic Site of Canada in 1997.[25]

Expulsion of the Acadians in 1755

After the fall of New France to the British in 1759, a colonial governing class established itself in Quebec City. Larger numbers of English-speaking settlers arrived in the Eastern Townships and Montreal after the American Revolution.

A large group of Ulster Scots, many of whom had first settled in New Hampshire, moved to Truro, Nova Scotia in 1761.[citation needed]

New Brunswick became the home for many Scots. In 1761, a Highland regiment garrisoned Fort Frederick. The surrounding lands surveyed by Captain Bruce in 1762 attracted many Scottish traders when William Davidson of Caithness arrived to settle two years later. Their numbers were swelled by the arrival of thousands of loyalists of Scottish origin both during and after the American Revolution. One of the New Brunswick and Canada's most famous regiments was "The King's First American Regiment" founded in 1776. It was composed mostly of Highlanders, many of whom fought with their traditional kilts to the sound of bagpipes. The regiment distinguished itself when it defeated Washington's forces at the Battle of Brandywine. When it disbanded after the War, most of its members settled in New Brunswick.[citation needed]

In 1772, a wave of Gaels began to arrive in Prince Edward Island, and in 1773 the ship Hector brought 200 Gaels to Pictou, beginning a new stream of Highland emigration — the town's slogan is "The Birthplace of New Scotland". At the end of the 18th century, Cape Breton Island had become a centre of Scottish Gaelic settlement, where only Scottish Gaelic was spoken. Furthermore, a number of Scottish loyalists to the British crown, who had fled the United States in 1783, arrived in Glengarry County (in eastern Ontario) and Nova Scotia.[citation needed]

#### Late century

[edit]

Prince Edward Island (PEI) was also heavily influenced by Scottish Gaelic settlers. One prominent settler in PEI was John MacDonald of Glenaladale, who conceived the idea of sending Gaels to Nova Scotia on a grand scale after Culloden. The name Macdonald still dominates on the island, which received a large influx of settlers, predominantly Catholics from the Highlands, in the late 18th century.

The history of English Canadians is bound to the history of English settlement of North America, and particularly New England, because of the resettlement of many Loyalists following the American Revolution in areas that would form part of Canada. Many of the fifty thousand Loyalists who were resettled to the north of the United States after 1783 came from families that had already been settled for several generations in North America and were from prominent families in Boston, New York and other east coast towns. Although largely of British ancestry, these settlers had also intermarried with Huguenot and Dutch colonists and were accompanied by Loyalists of African descent. Dispossessed of their property at the end of the Revolutionary War, the Loyalists arrived as refugees to settle primarily along the shores of southern Nova Scotia, the Bay of Fundy and the Saint John River and in Quebec to the east and southwest of Montreal. The colony of New Brunswick was created from western part of Nova Scotia at the instigation of these new English-speaking settlers. The Loyalist settlements in southwestern Quebec formed the nucleus of what would become the province of Upper Canada and, after 1867, Ontario.

At the end of the 18th century, Cape Breton Island had become a centre of Scottish Gaelic settlement, where only Scottish Gaelic was spoken. Throughout the 18th and 19th centuries, Canadian Gaelic was spoken as the first language in much of "Anglophone" Canada, such as Nova Scotia, Prince Edward Island, and Glengarry County in Ontario. Gaelic was the third most commonly spoken language in Canada.[26]

In the late 18th century, British colonies in North America were significantly affected by the outbreak and subsequent loss of the American Revolutionary War. At the time, Great Britain and its overseas empire were ruled by the German-descended King George III, who was also the Prince-Elector of Hanover, a state in what is now northwestern Germany. Notably, a number of soldiers fighting on what modern historiography terms the pro-British side of the conflict were members of regiments hired from various small German states. These soldiers were collectively known as "Hessians", since many of them came from Hesse. Following the defeat of British forces in the Revolutionary War, about 2,200 of them settled in Canada once their terms of service had expired or they had been released from American captivity. For example, a group from the Brunswick Regiment settled southwest of Montreal and south of Quebec City.[27] In this, they formed part of a larger population movement composed of several waves of migration northward from the newly-founded United States to Upper and Lower Canada. In traditional Canadian historiography, these migrants are often grouped together under the broad label of United Empire Loyalists, obscuring particular ethnic and religious identities,[28] as well as their exact motivations for migrating to Canada.

Welsh mapmaker David Thompson was one of the great explorers of the North West Company in the late 18th and early 19th centuries, and is often called "Canada's Greatest Geographer". He covered 130,000 kilometres on foot and surveyed most of the Canada–United States border in the early days of exploration.

### 19th century

[edit]

#### Early century

[edit]

Upper Canada was a primary destination for English, Scottish and Scots-Irish settlers to Canada in the nineteenth century, and was on the front lines in the War of 1812 between the British Empire and the United States. The province also received immigrants from non English-speaking sources such as Germans, many of whom settled around Kitchener (formerly called Berlin).[29] Ontario would become the most populous province in the Dominion of Canada at the time of Confederation, and, together with Montreal, formed the country's industrial heartland and emerged as an important cultural and media centre for English Canada.

English, Scottish, and Irish communities established themselves in Montreal throughout the 1800s. Montreal became Canada's largest city and commercial hub until surpassed by Toronto the following century.[citation needed]

In the early 19th century, a large group of Germans (Mennonites) fled the United States. Many of their families' ancestors had been from southern Germany or Switzerland. They began to move to what is now southwestern Ontario and settled around the Grand River, especially in Berlin, Ontario (now Kitchener) and in the northern part of what later became Waterloo County, Ontario.[30] The same geographic area also attracted new German migrants from Europe, roughly 50,000 between the 1830 and 1860.[31][32] Research indicates that there was no apparent conflict between the Germans from Europe and those who came from Pennsylvania.[33]

Another large group of Scottish Gaels immigrated to Canada and settled in Prince Edward Island in 1803. This migration, primarily from the Isle of Skye, was organized by the Earl of Selkirk, Lord Thomas Douglas, 5th Earl of Selkirk. The Earl, who was sympathetic to the plight of the dispossessed crofters (tenant farmers in the Highlands), brought 800 colonists to Prince Edward Island. In 1811, he founded the Red River Colony as a Scottish colonization project on an area of 300,000 square kilometres (120,000 sq mi) in what would later be the province of Manitoba — land that was granted by the Hudson's Bay Company, in what is referred to as the Selkirk Concession. This formed the earliest English and Scottish settlements in Assiniboia (part of present-day Manitoba), involving some 300 largely Scottish colonists.[citation needed]

One of the first efforts to encourage Welsh emigration to Canada began in 1812, when Welsh native John Mathews endeavoured to bring his family to Canada. Mathews left home at a young age and went on to become a successful businessman in the United States. When he returned to Wales, he found his family living in poverty and became convinced they should emigrate to Canada. In 1817 his family settled in the township of Southwald, near what is now London, Ontario. By 1812 he had brought over more relatives who built homes on the 100-acre (0.40 km2) lots granted to them by Colonel Thomas Talbot.[citation needed]

#### Mid century

[edit]

A continual influx of immigrants from Scotland and Ulster meant that by 1843 there were over 30,000 Scots in New Brunswick.[34]

Broader English, Scottish, and Irish settlement of British Columbia began in earnest with the founding of Fort Victoria in 1843 and the subsequent creation of the Colony of Vancouver Island in 1849. The capital, Victoria developed during the height of the British Empire and long self-identified as being "more English than the English".

Emigrants Leave Ireland depicting the emigration to North America following the Great Famine in Ireland

After the permanent settlement in Newfoundland by Irish in the late 18th and early 19th century, overwhelmingly from Waterford, increased immigration of the Irish elsewhere in Canada began in the decades following the War of 1812 and formed a significant part of The Great Migration of Canada. Between 1825 and 1845, 60% of all immigrants to Canada were Irish; in 1831 alone, some 34,000 arrived in Montreal. Between 1830 and 1850, 624,000 Irish arrived; in contextual terms, at the end of this period, the population of the provinces of Canada was 2.4 million. Besides Upper Canada (Ontario), Lower Canada (Quebec), the Maritime colonies of Nova Scotia, Prince Edward Island and New Brunswick, especially Saint John, were arrival points. Not all remained; many out-migrated to the United States or to Western Canada in the decades that followed. Few returned to Ireland.

During the Great Famine of Ireland (1845–52), Canada received the most destitute Irish Catholics, who left Ireland in grave circumstances. Land estate owners in Ireland would either evict landholder tenants to board on returning empty lumber ships, or in some cases pay their fares. Others left on ships from the overcrowded docks in Liverpool and Cork.[35] Most of the Irish immigrants who came to Canada and the United States in the nineteenth century and before were Irish speakers, with many knowing no other language on arrival.[36]

The first South Slavs (including Serbs) to arrive in Canada came to British Columbia in the 1850s.[37] Many of them came from the state of California in the United States, while others directly emigrated from the Balkans.[38] They primarily originated from the Bay of Kotor and the Dalmatian coast which had similar climates as their destinations.[39][40][41] The majority of these migrants came from territories controlled by Austria-Hungary for political and economic reasons, and only a small number came directly from Independent Serbia.[40] Those who settled were typically young single men and employed in mining or forestry near such towns as Phoenix, Golden Prince Rupert and Kamloops.[42]

The German Protestants developed the Lutheran Church along Canadian lines. In Waterloo County, Ontario, with large German elements that arrived after 1850, the Lutheran churches played major roles in the religious, cultural and social life of the community. By 1871, nearly 55% of the population of Waterloo County had German origins.[43] Especially in Berlin, German was the dominant language spoken. Research indicates that there was no apparent conflict between the Germans from Europe and those who came from Pennsylvania.[44]

#### Late century

[edit]

Scottish-Canadian Lord Strathcona drives the last spike of the Canadian Pacific Railway at Craigellachie, November 7, 1885.

The French-English tensions that marked the establishment of the earliest English-speaking settlements in Nova Scotia were echoed on the Prairies in the late nineteenth century. The suppression of the rebellions allowed the government of Canada to proceed with a settlement of Manitoba, Saskatchewan, and Alberta that was to create provinces that identified generally with English Canada in culture and outlook, although immigration included large numbers of people from non English-speaking European backgrounds, especially Scandinavians and Ukrainians.

The history of Yugoslav-Bosnian arrivals to Canada dates back to as far as the 19th century.[45] Around the same time, many thousands of Yugoslav-Aegean Macedonians emigrated to Canada in the 1890s. They settled primarily in Ontario, especially Toronto. Many early Aegean Macedonian immigrants found industrial work in Toronto. Later migrants found work as factory in abattoirs and foundries. Chatham and Windsor attracted many Macedonian immigrants who worked along the railroads. Many later settled in Detroit, Michigan.

Western Canada started to attract in 1896 and draw large numbers of other German immigrants, mostly from Eastern Europe. Plautdietsch-speaking Russian Mennonites of Dutch-Prussian ancestry were especially prominent since they were persecuted by the Tsarist regime in Russia. The farmers were used to the harsh conditions of farming in southern Imperial Russia (now Ukraine) and so were some of the most successful in adapting to the Canadian Prairies.

### 20th century

[edit]

#### Early century

[edit]

European Canadians in Toronto celebrating the end of the Boer War, 31 May 1900

Nearly one million European immigrants, primarily from non-British and non-French origins, came through Pier 21 in Halifax, Nova Scotia in the early-mid 1900s.[46]

In 1902, Welsh immigrants arrived from Patagonia, which had been incorporated into Argentina in 1881. Compulsory military service and a series of floods that ruined Welsh farmers' crops led to some emigrants resettling at Llewelyn near Bangor, Saskatchewan, where they once again took up farming. A community of Welsh farmers was also established at Wood River near Ponoka, Alberta.[citation needed]

In the early 20th century, Yugoslavs (Serbs) arrived in the prairies. In Saskatchewan, they took up farming.[40] In Alberta, coal mining and road construction was a source of employment. Many Serbs worked on the construction of railway lines that now extend from Edmonton to the Pacific coast.[47] Communities of Serbs emerged in Regina, Lethbridge, Edmonton and Calgary while significant populations formed in Atlin, British Columbia and Dawson, Yukon.[48] In Ontario and Quebec, Serbs were drawn to work in the industry sector. By 1914, the Serbian community of the city of Hamilton, Ontario numbered around 1,000.[49] Further Serb settlement was established in Niagara Falls, London, and Windsor.[37] The first Serbian immigrants to the city of Toronto arrived in 1903; by 1914 there were more than 200 Serbs.[37]

European Canadians from Vancouver in the Canadian Expeditionary Force, 1915

Until the Second World War, most people who today identify themselves as Yugoslav-Macedonian Canadians claimed a Bulgarian ethnic identity and were recorded as part of the Bulgarian ethnic group.[50][51][52][53] The term Macedonian was used as a geographic/regional term rather than an ethnic one.[53] At that time the political organization by the Slavic immigrants from the region of Macedonia, the Macedonian Patriotic Organization, also promoted the idea of Macedonian Slavs being Bulgarians.[54]

During the Great War, military-aged Serb males who hailed from Serbia or Montenegro were considered allies but those who were born in Austro-Hungarian territories were deemed enemy aliens by Canadian law, even though their sympathies tended to lie with the allied cause. The latter were restricted in their freedom of movements, had to wear special identity cards and had to identify themselves regularly at the police station.[49] Several hundred were interned in prison camps throughout the country under terrible conditions.[55] Physicist Mihajlo Pupin, Serbia's consul in New York during the war, and Antun Seferović, the honorary consul of Serbia in Montreal, advocated for the rights of the classified aliens and internees through diplomacy via the Srpska Narodna Odbrana u Kanadi (Serbian National League of Canada) which resulted in exemption, compensation and the release of many ethnic Serbs.[56] Another advocate for the rights of Serbs of Austro-Hungarian origin was Serbian-born court interpreter Bud Protich, who enlisted in the Canadian Army and was wounded in action in 1917.[57]

#### Mid to late century

[edit]

European Canadians in the British Columbia Regiment marching in New Westminster, October 1940

German immigration and settlement to Canada accelerated in the 1920s, when the United States imposed quotas on Central and Eastern European immigration. Soon, Canada imposed its own limits, however, and prevented most of those trying to flee the Third Reich from moving to Canada. Many of the Mennonites settled in the areas of Winnipeg and Steinbach, and the area just north of Saskatoon.[58]

Victoria Hayward described the cultural changes of the Canadian Prairies as a "mosaic" in the 1920s, as hundreds of thousands of immigrants from central and eastern Europe settled across the Prairies beginning in earnest during the late 19th century, with large scale immigration flows lasting through the mid-20th century.

> "New Canadians, representing many places and widely separated sections of Old Europe, have contributed to the Prairie Provinces a variety in the way of Church Architecture. Cupolas and domes distinctly Eastern, almost Turkish, startle one above the tops of Manitoba maples or the bush of the river banks. These architectural figures of the landscape, apart altogether of their religious significance, are centers where, crossing the threshold on Sundays, one has the opportunity of hearing Swedish music, or the rich, deep chanting of the Russian responses; and of viewing at close hand the artistry that goes to make up the interior appointments of these churches transplanted from the East to the West…It is indeed a mosaic of vast dimensions and great breadth, essayed of the Prairie."[59]

After 1921, all immigrants from Yugoslavia, including Serbs, were designated as "Yugoslavs".[41] The interwar period saw a major increase in Serbian immigration to Canada.[39] More than 30,000 Yugoslavs came to Canada between 1919 and 1939, including an estimated 10,000 Serbs. Many of these immigrants were single, working men who settled in the northern region of the province of Ontario.[37]

European Canadians in Montreal celebrating the Victory in Europe, May 1945

Another early use of the term mosaic to refer to Canadian society was by John Murray Gibbon, in his 1938 book Canadian Mosaic. Gibbon clearly disapproved of the American melting-pot concept. He saw the melting pot as a process by which immigrants and their descendants were encouraged to cut off ties with their countries and cultures of origin so as to assimilate into the American way of life.[60]

In the aftermath of the Holocaust, displaced Jews emigrated to Canada from Europe, rejuvenating Canada's Yiddish-language European culture.[61][62][63]

After the Second World War, Serbian political émigrés who were opposed to the newly established Yugoslav communist government sought refuge in Canada.[39] Many of these were POWs and laborers from Austria and Germany who refused to return to their homeland. They settled in cities such as Toronto, Sudbury and Hamilton.[37] Later, between 1957 and 1971, some 23,000 Yugoslavs arrived in Canada, of whom 10-15% were Serbs. They established organizations, newspapers and cultural events.[37]

A community of Portuguese immigrants, primarily from the Azores Islands, came to settle in Canada beginning in significant numbers in 1953.[64]

## Demography

[edit]

### Population

[edit]

Beginning with the first Canadian census in 1871, the European Canadian population as a percentage of the total Canadian population had a peak of 98.5 percent. Since then, their proportion of the total Canadian population has been decreasing gradually since the mid-20th century to the most recent census in 2021.[14][65][66] The actual decrease in the percentage of the population who are of European origins is hard to quantify, because individuals who fill out the census can self-identify under more than one category, based on their personal family history. Statistics Canada advises that the total number of people listed by ethnic origin is actually larger than the total population estimate.[14]: note103 [12] It is therefore not possible to express the number of individuals of European origin as a percentage of the total population.

The 2021 census recorded Canadians of European descent in the following categories: British Isles origins; French origins; other Western European origins; other Northern European origins; Southern European origins; Southeast European origins; Eastern European origins; and other European origins.[67]

"Canadian" was the single largest ethnic origin reported in the 2021 census, reported by 5,677,205 individuals, although the grouping from the British Isles was collectively larger, at 10,712,280. The British category included 5,322,830 English, 4,392,200 Scottish, 4,413,115 Irish, and 455,720 Welsh. It was followed by French at 4,011,665. Other large groups included individuals of German (2,955,695), Italian (1,546,390), Ukrainian (1,258,635), Dutch (988,585), and Polish (982,820) origin.[67]

Vertical bar chart demographic of European Canadians between 1871 and 2021

Population (1871-2021) Canadian census

Vertical bar chart demographic of European Canadians between 1871 and 2021

Population percentage (%) per census (1871-2021)

European Canadian Population History
1871−2021[nb 1] Year  | Population  | % of total population

|
|

1871
[66][68] | 3,433,315  | 98.495%
1881
[68][69] | 4,146,900  | 95.886%
1901
[68][69] | 5,170,522  | 96.262%
1911
[68][69][70] | 7,005,583  | 97.21%
1921
[65][68][69][70] | 8,568,584  | 97.504%
1931
[65][66][71] | 10,134,313  | 97.663%
1941
[65][66][72] | 11,242,868  | 97.708%
1951
[65][66][73] | 13,582,574  | 96.953%
1961
[65][66][74] | 17,653,864  | 96.796%
1971
[65][66][75] | 20,763,915  | 96.27%
1981
[76][c] | 22,024,190  | 91.45%
1996
[77][d] | 24,748,455  | 86.751%
2001
[78][e] | 23,414,150  | 78.998%
2011
[79] | 20,157,965  | 61.359%
2016
[80] | 19,683,320  | 57.119%
2021
[81] | 19,062,115  | 52.472%

### Ethnic and national origins

[edit]

European Canadian population by country of origin (1871–1911)  Ethnicity  | Population (1871)[69] | % of Canadian population (1871)  | Population (1881)[69] | % of Canadian population (1881)  | Population (1901)[69] | % of Canadian population (1901)  | Population (1911)[69] | % of Canadian population (1911)

|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|

Albanian | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | N/A
Austrian | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | 10,947  | 0.2%  | 42,535  | 0.6%
Basque | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | N/A
Belgian | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | 2,994  | 0.1%  | 9,593  | 0.1%
Bosnian | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | N/A
British Isles (not otherwise specified)  | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | N/A
Bulgarian | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | N/A
Croatian | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | N/A
Cypriot | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | N/A
Czechoslovakian | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | N/A
Czech | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | N/A
Danish | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | N/A
Dutch | 29,662  | 0.9%  | 30,412  | 0.7%  | 33,845  | 0.6%  | 54,986  | 0.8%
English | 706,369  | 20.3%  | 881,301  | 20.4%  | 1,260,899  | 23.5%  | 1,823,150  | 25.3%
Estonian | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | N/A
Finnish | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | 2,502  | 0.1%  | 15,497  | 0.2%
French | 1,082,940  | 31.1%  | 1,298,929  | 30.0%  | 1,649,371  | 30.7%  | 2,054,890  | 28.5%
German | 202,991  | 5.8%  | 254,319  | 5.9%  | 310,501  | 5.8%  | 393,320  | 5.5%
Greek | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | 291  | 0.0%  | 3,594  | 0.0%
Hungarian | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | 1,549  | 0.0%  | 11,605  | 0.2%
Icelandic | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | N/A
Irish | 846,414  | 24.3%  | 957,403  | 22.1%  | 988,721  | 18.4%  | 1,050,384  | 14.6%
Italian | 1,035  | 0.0%  | 1,849  | 0.0%  | 10,834  | 0.2%  | 45,411  | 0.6%
Kosovar | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | N/A
Latvian | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | N/A
Lithuanian | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | N/A
Luxembourger | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | N/A
Macedonian | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | N/A
Maltese | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | N/A
Moldovan | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | N/A
Montenegrin | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | N/A
Norwegian | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | N/A
Polish | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | 6,285  | 0.1%  | 33,365  | 0.5%
Portuguese | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | N/A
Romanian | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | N/A
Russian | 607  | 0.0%  | 1,227  | 0.1%  | 19,825  | 0.4%  | 43,142  | 0.6%
Scottish | 549,946  | 15.8%  | 699,863  | 16.2%  | 800,154  | 14.9%  | 997,880  | 13.9%
Serbian | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | N/A
Slovak | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | N/A
Slovene | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | N/A
Spanish | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | N/A
Swedish | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | N/A
Swiss | 2,962  | 0.1%  | 4,588  | 0.1%  | 3,865  | 0.1%  | 6,625  | 0.1%
Ukrainian | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | N/A
Welsh | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | N/A
Yugoslav | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | N/A
European Canadian population by country of origin (1921–1961)  Ethnicity  | Population (1921)[69] | % of Canadian population (1921)  | Population (1941)[82][83] | % of Canadian population (1941)  | Population (1951)[82][83] | % of Canadian population (1951)  | Population (1961)[82][83] | % of Canadian population (1961)

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Albanian | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | N/A
Basque | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | N/A
Belgian | 20,234  | 0.2%  | 29,711  | 0.3%  | 35,148  | 0.3%  | 61,382  | 0.3%
Bosnian | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | N/A
British Isles (not otherwise specified)  | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | N/A
Bulgarian | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | N/A
Byelorussian | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | N/A
Croatian | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | N/A
Cypriot | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | N/A
Czechoslovakian | N/A  | N/A  | 42,912  | 0.4%  | 63,959  | 0.4%  | 73,061  | 0.4%
Czech | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | N/A
Danish | N/A  | N/A  | 37,439  | 0.3%  | 42,671  | 0.3%  | 85,473  | 0.5%
Dutch | 117,506  | 1.2%  | 212,863  | 1.8%  | 264,267  | 1.9%  | 429,679  | 2.4%
English | 2,545,496  | 29.0%  | 2,968,402  | 25.1%  | 3,630,344  | 25.9%  | 4,195,175  | 23.0%
Estonian | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | N/A
Finnish | 21,494  | 0.2%  | 41,683  | 0.4%  | 43,745  | 0.3%  | 59,436  | 0.3%
French | 2,452,751  | 27.9%  | 3,483,038  | 29.5%  | 4,319,167  | 30.8%  | 5,540,346  | 30.4%
German | 294,636  | 3.4%  | 464,682  | 3.9%  | 619,995  | 4.4%  | 1,049,599  | 5.8%
Greek | 5,740  | 0.1%  | 11,692  | 0.1%  | 13,966  | 0.1%  | 56,475  | 0.3%
Hungarian | 13,181  | 0.1%  | 54,598  | 0.5%  | 60,460  | 0.4%  | 126,220  | 0.7%
Icelandic | N/A  | N/A  | 21,050  | 0.2%  | 23,307  | 0.2%  | 30,623  | 0.2%
Irish | 1,107,817  | 12.6%  | 1,267,702  | 10.7%  | 1,439,635  | 10.3%  | 1,753,351  | 9.6%
Italian | 66,769  | 0.8%  | 112,625  | 1.0%  | 152,245  | 1.1%  | 459,351  | 2.5%
Kosovar | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | N/A
Latvian | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | N/A
Lithuanian | N/A  | N/A  | 7,789  | 0.1%  | 16,224  | 0.1%  | 27,629  | 0.2%
Luxembourger | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | N/A
Macedonian | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | N/A
Maltese | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | N/A
Moldovan | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | N/A
Montenegrin | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | N/A
Norwegian | N/A  | N/A  | 100,718  | 0.9%  | 119,266  | 0.9%  | 148,681  | 0.8%
Polish | 53,403  | 0.6%  | 167,485  | 1.4%  | 219,845  | 1.6%  | 323,517  | 1.8%
Portuguese | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | N/A
Romanian | N/A  | N/A  | 24,689  | 0.2%  | 23,601  | 0.2%  | 43,805  | 0.2%
Russian | 100,064  | 1.1%  | 83,708  | 0.7%  | 91,279  | 0.6%  | 119,168  | 0.7%
Scottish | 1,173,637  | 13.4%  | 1,403,974  | 11.9%  | 1,547,470  | 11.0%  | 1,902,302  | 10.4%
Serbian | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | N/A
Slovak | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | N/A
Slovene | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | N/A
Spanish | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | N/A
Swedish | N/A  | N/A  | 85,396  | 0.7%  | 97,780  | 0.7%  | 121,757  | 0.7%
Swiss | 12,837  | 0.2%  | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | N/A
Ukrainian | N/A  | N/A  | 305,929  | 2.6%  | 395,043  | 2.8%  | 473,337  | 2.6%
Welsh | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | N/A
Yugoslav | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | 21,214  | 0.2%
European Canadian population by country of origin (1991–2006)  Ethnicity  | Population (1991)[84] | % of Canadian population (1991)  | Population (1996)[85] | % of Canadian population (1996)  | Population (2001)[86] | % of Canadian population (2001)  | Population (2006)[87] | % of Canadian population (2006)

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Albanian | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | 14,935  | 0.1%  | 22,395  | 0.1%
Austrian | 107,671  | 1.2%  | 37,715  | 0.3%  | 32,231  | 0.2%  | 106,535  | 0.6%
Austrian | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | 147,585  | 0.5%  | 194,255  | 0.6%
Basque | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | 2,715  | 0.0%  | 4,975  | 0.0%
Belgian | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | 129,780  | 0.4%  | 168,910  | 0.5%
Bosnian | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | 15,720  | 0.1%  | 21,045  | 0.1%
British Isles (not otherwise specified)  | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | 150,585  | 0.5%  | 403,915  | 1.3%
Bulgarian | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | 15,195  | 0.1%  | 27,255  | 0.1%
Byelorussian | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | 5,115  | 0.0%  | 10,505  | 0.0%
Croatian | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | 97,050  | 0.3%  | 110,880  | 0.4%
Cypriot | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | 2,060  | 0.0%  | 3,395  | 0.0%
Czechoslovakian | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | 33,540  | 0.1%  | 36,970  | 0.1%
Czech | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | 79,910  | 0.3%  | 98,090  | 0.3%
Danish | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | 170,780  | 0.6%  | 200,035  | 0.6%
Dutch | 961,600  | 3.4%  | 916,215  | 3.1%  | 923,310  | 3.1%  | 1,035,965  | 3.3%
English | 8,605,125  | 30.7%  | 6,832,095  | 23.1%  | 5,978,875  | 20.2%  | 6,570,015  | 21.0%
Estonian | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | 22,085  | 0.1%  | 23,930  | 0.1%
Finnish | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | 114,690  | 0.4%  | 131,040  | 0.4%
French | 8,369,210  | 29.9%  | 5,597,845  | 18.9%  | 4,668,410  | 15.8%  | 4,941,210  | 15.8%
German | 2,793,775  | 10.0%  | 2,757,140  | 9.3%  | 2,742,765  | 9.3%  | 3,179,425  | 10.2%
Greek | 191,475  | 0.7%  | 203,345  | 0.7%  | 215,105  | 0.7%  | 242,685  | 0.8%
Hungarian | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | 267,255  | 0.9%  | 315,510  | 1.0%
Icelandic | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | 75,090  | 0.3%  | 88,875  | 0.3%
Irish | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | 3,822,660  | 12.9%  | 4,354,155  | 13.9%
Italian | 1,147,780  | 4.1%  | 1,207,475  | 4.2%  | 1,270,370  | 4.3%  | 1,445,335  | 4.6%
Kosovar | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | 1,200  | 0.0%  | 1,530  | 0.0%
Latvian | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | 22,615  | 0.1%  | 27,870  | 0.1%
Lithuanian | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | 36,485  | 0.1%  | 46,690  | 0.1%
Luxembourger | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | 2,390  | 0.0%  | 3,225  | 0.0%
Macedonian | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | 31,265  | 0.1%  | 37,055  | 0.1%
Maltese | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | 33,000  | 0.1%  | 37,120  | 0.1%
Moldovan | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | N/A
Montenegrin | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | 1,055  | 0.0%  | 2,370  | 0.0%
Norwegian | 286,240  | 1.0%  | N/A  | N/A  | 363,760  | 1.2%  | 432,515  | 1.4%
Polish | 740,720  | 2.6%  | 786,735  | 2.7%  | 817,085  | 2.8%  | 984,565  | 3.2%
Portuguese | 292,185  | 1.0%  | 335,110  | 1.1%  | 357,690  | 1.2%  | 410,850  | 1.3%
Romanian | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | 131,830  | 0.4%  | 192,170  | 0.6%
Russian | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | 337,960  | 1.1%  | 500,600  | 1.6%
Scottish | 4,248,365  | 15.2%  | 4,260,840  | 14.4%  | 4,157,210  | 14.0%  | 4,719,850  | 15.1%
Serbian | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | 55,540  | 0.2%  | 72,690  | 0.2%
Slovak | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | 50,860  | 0.2%  | 64,145  | 0.2%
Slovene | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | 28,910  | 0.1%  | 35,935  | 0.1%
Spanish | 158,915  | 0.6%  | 204,360  | 0.7%  | 213,105  | 0.7%  | 325,730  | 1.0%
Swedish | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | 282,760  | 1.0%  | 334,765  | 1.1%
Swiss | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | 110,795  | 0.4%  | 137,775  | 0.4%
Ukrainian | 1,054,295  | 3.8%  | 1,026,470  | 3.5%  | 1,071,060  | 3.6%  | 1,209,085  | 3.9%
Welsh | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | 350,365  | 1.2%  | 440,965  | 1.4%
Yugoslav | 21,404  | 0.2%  | 68,587  | 0.4%  | 65,505  | 0.2%  | 65,305  | 0.2%
European Canadian population by country of origin (2011–2021)  Ethnicity  | Population (2011)[88] | % of Canadian population (2011)  | Population (2016)[14] | % of Canadian population (2021)  | Population (2021)[89] | % of Canadian population (2021)

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Albanian | 28,270  | 0.1%  | 36,185  | 0.1%  | 41,625  | 0.1%
Austrian | 197,990  | 0.6%  | 207,050  | 0.6%  | 189,535  | 0.5%
Basque | 5,570  | 0.0%  | 6,965  | 0.0%  | 7,740  | 0.0%
Belgian | 176,615  | 0.5%  | 186,665  | 0.5%  | 182,175  | 0.5%
Bosniak | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | 2,770  | 0.0%
Bosnian | 22,920  | 0.1%  | 26,740  | 0.1%  | 28,490  | 0.1%
British Isles (not otherwise specified)  | 576,030  | 1.8%  | 644,695  | 1.9%  | 938,950  | 2.6%
Bulgarian | 30,485  | 0.1%  | 34,565  | 0.1%  | 33,080  | 0.1%
Byelorussian | 15,565  | 0.0%  | 20,710  | 0.0%  | 18,850  | 0.0%
Croatian | 114,880  | 0.3%  | 133,970  | 0.4%  | 130,820  | 0.4%
Cypriot | 4,815  | 0.0%  | 5,650  | 0.0%  | 4,830  | 0.0%
Czechoslovakian | 40,035  | 0.1%  | 40,715  | 0.1%  | 33,135  | 0.1%
Czech | 94,805  | 0.3%  | 104,580  | 0.3%  | 98,925  | 0.3%
Danish | 203,080  | 0.6%  | 207,470  | 0.6%  | 196,945  | 0.5%
Dutch | 1,067,245  | 3.2%  | 1,111,655  | 3.2%  | 988,585  | 2.7%
English | 6,509,500  | 19.8%  | 6,320,085  | 18.3%  | 5,322,830  | 14.7%
Estonian | 23,180  | 0.1%  | 24,530  | 0.1%  | 23,455  | 0.1%
Finnish | 136,215  | 0.4%  | 143,645  | 0.4%  | 144,055  | 0.4%
French | 5,065,690  | 15.4%  | 4,670,595  | 13.6%  | 4,011,670  | 11.0%
German | 3,203,330  | 9.8%  | 3,322,405  | 9.6%  | 2,955,695  | 8.1%
Greek | 252,960  | 0.8%  | 271,410  | 0.8%  | 262,135  | 0.7%
Greek Cypriot | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | 1,935  | 0.0%
Hungarian | 316,765  | 1.0%  | 348,085  | 1.0%  | 320,155  | 0.9%
Icelandic | 94,205  | 0.3%  | 101,795  | 0.3%  | 101,990  | 0.3%
Irish | 4,544,870  | 13.8%  | 4,627,000  | 13.4%  | 4,413,120  | 12.2%
Italian | 1,488,425  | 4.5%  | 1,587,970  | 4.6%  | 1,546,390  | 4.3%
Kosovar | 2,760  | 0.0%  | 2,865  | 0.0%  | 3,730  | 0.0%
Latvian | 27,355  | 0.1%  | 30,725  | 0.1%  | 28,135  | 0.1%
Lithuanian | 49,130  | 0.1%  | 59,285  | 0.2%  | 52,040  | 0.1%
Luxembourger | 3,790  | 0.0%  | 3,915  | 0.0%  | 4,145  | 0.0%
Macedonian | 36,985  | 0.1%  | 43,110  | 0.1%  | 39,440  | 0.1%
Maltese | 38,780  | 0.1%  | 41,920  | 0.1%  | 40,665  | 0.1%
Moldovan | 8,050  | 0.0%  | 14,915  | 0.0%  | 18,190  | 0.0%
Montenegrin | 2,970  | 0.0%  | 4,160  | 0.0%  | 4,310  | 0.0%
Northern Irish | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | 25,205  | 0.1%
Norwegian | 452,705  | 1.4%  | 463,275  | 1.3%  | 466,500  | 1.3%
Pennsylvania Dutch | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | 17,315  | 0.0%
Polish | 1,010,705  | 3.1%  | 1,106,585  | 3.2%  | 982,815  | 2.7%
Portuguese | 429,850  | 1.3%  | 482,605  | 1.4%  | 448,305  | 1.2%
Romanian | 204,625  | 0.6%  | 238,050  | 0.7%  | 215,885  | 0.6%
Russian | 550,520  | 1.7%  | 622,445  | 1.8%  | 548,145  | 1.5%
Scottish | 4,714,970  | 14.4%  | 4,799,005  | 13.9%  | 4,392,200  | 12.1%
Serbian | 80,320  | 0.2%  | 96,530  | 0.3%  | 93,355  | 0.3%
Slovak | 66,545  | 0.2%  | 72,285  | 0.2%  | 68,210  | 0.2%
Slovene | 37,170  | 0.1%  | 40,470  | 0.1%  | 38,595  | 0.1%
Spanish | 368,305  | 1.1%  | 396,460  | 1.2%  | 342,045  | 0.9%
Swedish | 341,845  | 1.0%  | 349,645  | 1.0%  | 334,510  | 0.9%
Swiss | 146,830  | 0.4%  | 155,120  | 0.5%  | 145,570  | 0.4%
Ukrainian | 1,251,170  | 3.8%  | 1,359,655  | 3.9%  | 1,258,635  | 3.5%
Welsh | 458,705  | 1.4%  | 474,805  | 1.4%  | 455,720  | 1.3%
Yugoslav | 48,320  | 0.1%  | 38,480  | 0.1%  | 30,565  | 0.1%

### Language

[edit]

In the 2021 census, the largest non-official European mother tongue languages were Spanish (538,870), Italian (319,505), German (272,865) and Portuguese (240,680) and Russian (197,905).[89] English and French are not included in this table because most Canadians have one of those languages as their mother tongue, regardless of their ethnic origin.

European mother tongue by language (1991–2001)  Language  | Population (1991)[90] | % of non-official language mother
tongue speakers in Canada (1991)  | % of all language mother tongue
speakers in Canada (1991)  | Population (1996)[91] | % of non-official language mother
tongue speakers in Canada (1996)  | % of all language mother tongue
speakers in Canada (1996)  | Population (2001)[92] | % of non-official language mother
tongue speakers in Canada (2001)  | % of all language mother tongue
speakers in Canada (2001)

|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|

Afrikaans | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | N/A
Albanian | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | N/A
Armenian | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | 26,295  | 0.6%  | 0.1%  | 27,350  | 0.5%  | 0.1%
Belarusan | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | 420  | 0.0%  | 0.0%  | 530  | 0.0%  | 0.0%
Bosnian | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | N/A
Bulgarian | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | 6,330  | 0.1%  | 0.0%  | 9,130  | 0.2%  | 0.0%
Catalan | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | N/A
Croatian | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | 50,105  | 1.1%  | 0.2%  | 54,880  | 1.1%  | 0.2%
Czech | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | 24,985  | 0.5%  | 0.1%  | 24,795  | 0.5%  | 0.1%
Danish | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | 20,280  | 0.4%  | 0.1%  | 18,230  | 0.4%  | 0.1%
Dutch | 124,535  | 3.5%  | 0.5%  | 133,805  | 2.9%  | 0.5%  | 128,670  | 2.5%  | 0.4%
Estonian | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | 10,690  | 0.2%  | 0.0%  | 8,720  | 0.2%  | 0.0%
Finnish | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | 24,735  | 0.5%  | 0.1%  | 22,400  | 0.4%  | 0.1%
Flemish | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | 6,980  | 0.2%  | 0.0%  | 6,010  | 0.1%  | 0.0%
Frisian | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | 2,915  | 0.0%  | 0.0%  | 3,185  | 0.1%  | 0.0%
German | 424,645  | 12.0%  | 1.6%  | 450,140  | 9.8%  | 1.6%  | 438,080  | 8.4%  | 1.5%
Greek | 114,370  | 3.2%  | 0.4%  | 121,180  | 2.6%  | 0.4%  | 120,365  | 2.3%  | 0.4%
Hungarian | 72,900  | 2.1%  | 0.3%  | 77,235  | 1.7%  | 0.3%  | 75,550  | 1.5%  | 0.3%
Icelandic | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | 2,675  | 0.1%  | 0.0%  | 2,075  | 0.0%  | 0.0%
Italian | 449,660  | 12.7%  | 1.7%  | 484,500  | 10.5%  | 1.7%  | 469,485  | 9.0%  | 1.6%
Latvian | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | 9,635  | 0.2%  | 0.0%  | 8,230  | 0.2%  | 0.0%
Lithuanian | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | 9,385  | 0.2%  | 0.0%  | 8,770  | 0.2%  | 0.0%
Macedonian | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | 19,300  | 0.4%  | 0.1%  | 16,905  | 0.3%  | 0.1%
Maltese | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | 7,120  | 0.2%  | 0.0%  | 7,375  | 0.1%  | 0.0%
Norwegian | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | 10,235  | 0.2%  | 0.0%  | 8,725  | 0.2%  | 0.0%
Polish | 171,975  | 4.9%  | 0.6%  | 213,410  | 4.6%  | 0.7%  | 208,370  | 4.0%  | 0.7%
Portuguese | 186,995  | 5.3%  | 0.7%  | 211,290  | 4.6%  | 0.7%  | 213,815  | 4.1%  | 0.7%
Romanian | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | 35,710  | 0.8%  | 0.1%  | 50,900  | 1.0%  | 0.2%
Russian | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | 57,495  | 1.3%  | 0.2%  | 94,555  | 1.8%  | 0.3%
Scottish Gaelic | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | 2,175  | 0.0%  | 0.0%  | 2,155  | 0.0%  | 0.0%
Serbian | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | 28,620  | 0.6%  | 0.1%  | 41,175  | 0.8%  | 0.1%
Serbo-Croatian | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | 17,940  | 0.4%  | 0.1%  | 26,685  | 0.5%  | 0.1%
Slovak | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | 18,285  | 0.4%  | 0.1%  | 17,540  | 0.3%  | 0.1%
Slovene | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | 14,085  | 0.3%  | 0.0%  | 12,800  | 0.2%  | 0.0%
Spanish | 158,655  | 4.5%  | 0.6%  | 212,890  | 4.6%  | 0.8%  | 245,495  | 4.7%  | 0.8%
Swedish | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | 9,760  | 0.2%  | 0.0%  | 9,070  | 0.2%  | 0.0%
Ukrainian | 166,830  | 4.7%  | 0.6%  | 162,695  | 3.5%  | 0.6%  | 148,085  | 2.8%  | 0.5%
Welsh | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | 1,670  | 0.0%  | 0.0%  | 1,615  | 0.0%  | 0.0%
Yiddish | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | 21,415  | 0.1%  | 0.5%  | 19,290  | 0.4%  | 0.1%
European mother tongue by language (2006–2016)  Language  | Population (2006)[93] | % of non-official language mother
tongue speakers in Canada (2006)  | % of all language mother tongue
speakers in Canada (2006)  | Population (2011)[94] | % of non-official language mother
tongue speakers in Canada (2011)  | % of all language mother tongue
speakers in Canada (2011)  | Population (2016)[14] | % of non-official language mother
tongue speakers in Canada (2016)  | % of all language mother tongue
speakers in Canada (2016)

|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|

Afrikaans | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | 8,770  | 0.1%  | 0.0%  | 10,265  | 0.1%  | 0.0%
Albanian | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | 23,820  | 0.4%  | 0.1%  | 26,890  | 0.4%  | 0.1%
Armenian | 30,130  | 0.5%  | 0.1%  | 29,795  | 0.5%  | 0.1%  | 33,355  | 0.5%  | 0.1%
Belarusan | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | 810  | 0.0%  | 0.0%
Bosnian | 12,790  | 0.2%  | 0.0%  | 11,685  | 0.2%  | 0.0%  | 12,210  | 0.2%  | 0.0%
Bulgarian | 16,790  | 0.3%  | 0.1%  | 19,050  | 0.3%  | 0.1%  | 20,025  | 0.3%  | 0.1%
Catalan | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | 865  | 0.0%  | 0.0%
Croatian | 55,335  | 0.9%  | 0.2%  | 49,730  | 0.8%  | 0.2%  | 48,200  | 0.7%  | 0.1%
Czech | 24,450  | 0.4%  | 0.1%  | 23,585  | 0.4%  | 0.1%  | 22,290  | 0.3%  | 0.1%
Danish | 18,735  | 0.3%  | 0.1%  | 14,145  | 0.2%  | 0.0%  | 12,630  | 0.2%  | 0.0%
Dutch | 128,905  | 2.1%  | 0.4%  | 110,490  | 1.7%  | 0.3%  | 99,020  | 1.4%  | 0.3%
Estonian | 8,245  | 0.1%  | 0.0%  | 6,385  | 0.1%  | 0.0%  | 5,445  | 0.1%  | 0.0%
Finnish | 21,030  | 0.3%  | 0.1%  | 17,415  | 0.3%  | 0.1%  | 15,295  | 0.3%  | 0.1%
Flemish | 5,665  | 0.1%  | 0.0%  | 4,690  | 0.1%  | 0.0%  | 3,895  | 0.1%  | 0.0%
Frisian | 2,890  | 0.0%  | 0.0%  | 14,935  | 0.1%  | N/A  | 2,100  | 0.0%  | 0.0%
German | 450,570  | 7.3%  | 1.4%  | 409,200  | 6.2%  | 1.2%  | 384,035  | 5.2%  | 1.1%
Greek | 108,925  | 1.7%  | 0.3%  | 106,525  | 1.5%  | 0.3%  | 117,285  | 1.9%  | 0.4%
Hungarian | 73,335  | 1.2%  | 0.2%  | 67,920  | 1.0%  | 0.2%  | 61,235  | 0.8%  | 0.2%
Icelandic | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | 1,285  | 0.0%  | 0.0%
Italian | 455,040  | 7.4%  | 1.5%  | 407,485  | 6.2%  | 1.2%  | 375,635  | 5.1%  | 1.1%
Latvian | 6,995  | 0.1%  | 0.0%  | 6,200  | 0.1%  | 0.0%  | 5,455  | 0.1%  | 0.0%
Lithuanian | 8,335  | 0.1%  | 0.0%  | 7,245  | 0.1%  | 0.0%  | 7,075  | 0.1%  | 0.0%
Macedonian | 18,440  | 0.3%  | 0.0%  | 17,245  | 0.3%  | 0.1%  | 16,775  | 0.2%  | 0.0%
Maltese | 6,405  | 0.1%  | 0.0%  | 6,220  | 0.1%  | 0.0%  | 5,565  | 0.1%  | 0.0%
Norwegian | 7,225  | 0.1%  | 0.0%  | 5,800  | 0.1%  | 0.0%  | 4,615  | 0.1%  | 0.0%
Polish | 211,175  | 3.4%  | 0.7%  | 191,645  | 2.9%  | 0.6%  | 181,710  | 2.5%  | 0.5%
Portuguese | 219,270  | 3.6%  | 0.7%  | 211,335  | 3.2%  | 0.6%  | 221,540  | 3.0%  | 0.6%
Romanian | 78,500  | 1.3%  | 0.3%  | 90,300  | 1.4%  | 0.3%  | 96,665  | 1.3%  | 0.3%
Russian | 133,575  | 2.2%  | 0.4%  | 164,330  | 2.5%  | 0.5%  | 188,255  | 2.6%  | 0.5%
Scottish Gaelic | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | 1,090  | 0.0%  | 0.0%
Serbian | 51,665  | 0.8%  | 0.2%  | 56,420  | 0.9%  | 0.2%  | 57,350  | 0.8%  | 0.2%
Serbo-Croatian | 12,510  | 0.2%  | 0.0%  | 10,155  | 0.2%  | 0.0%  | 9,555  | 0.1%  | 0.0%
Slovak | 18,825  | 0.3%  | 0.1%  | 17,580  | 0.3%  | 0.1%  | 17,580  | 0.2%  | 0.1%
Slovene | 13,135  | 0.2%  | 0.0%  | 10,775  | 0.2%  | 0.0%  | 9,790  | 0.1%  | 0.0%
Spanish | 345,345  | 5.6%  | 1.1%  | 410,670  | 6.3%  | 1.2%  | 458,850  | 6.3%  | 1.3%
Swedish | 8,220  | 0.1%  | 0.0%  | 7,350  | 0.1%  | 0.0%  | 6,840  | 0.1%  | 0.0%
Ukrainian | 134,500  | 2.2%  | 0.4%  | 111,540  | 1.7%  | 0.3%  | 102,485  | 1.4%  | 0.3%
Welsh | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | N/A  | 1,075  | 0.0%  | 0.0%
Yiddish | 16,295  | 0.3%  | 0.1%  | 15,205  | 0.2%  | 0.0%  | 13,555  | 0.2%  | 0.0%
European mother tongue by language (2021)  Language  | Population (2021)[89] | % of non-official language mother
tongue speakers in Canada (2021)  | % of all language mother tongue
speakers in Canada (2021)

|
|
|

Afrikaans | 12,270  | 0.2%  | 0.0%
Albanian | 29,265  | 0.4%  | 0.1%
Armenian | 33,720  | 0.4%  | 0.1%
Belarusan | 720  | 0.0%  | 0.0%
Bosnian | 13,820  | 0.2%  | 0.0%
Bulgarian | 19,035  | 0.2%  | 0.1%
Catalan | 905  | 0.0%  | 0.0%
Croatian | 43,500  | 0.6%  | 0.1%
Czech | 20,025  | 0.3%  | 0.1%
Danish | 9,945  | 0.1%  | 0.1%
Dutch | 80,315  | 1.0%  | 0.2%
Estonian | 4,485  | 0.1%  | 0.0%
Finnish | 12,200  | 0.2%  | 0.0%
Flemish | 2,935  | 0.0%  | 0.0%
Frisian | 1,570  | 0.0%  | 0.0%
German | 272,865  | 3.5%  | 0.8%
Greek | 93,335  | 1.2%  | 0.3%
Hungarian | 51,500  | 0.7%  | 0.1%
Icelandic | 905  | 0.0%  | 0.0%
Italian | 319,505  | 4.1%  | 0.9%
Irish | 665  | 0.0%  | 0.0%
Latvian | 4,430  | 0.1%  | 0.0%
Lithuanian | 6,130  | 0.1%  | 0.0%
Low Saxon | 1,270  | 0.0%  | 0.0%
Macedonian | 14,795  | 0.2%  | 0.0%
Maltese | 4,425  | 0.1%  | 0.0%
Norwegian | 3,535  | 0.0%  | 0.0%
Pennsylvania German | 9,065  | 0.1%  | 0.0%
Plautdietsch | 33,200  | 0.4%  | 0.1%
Polish | 160,170  | 2.0%  | 0.4%
Portuguese | 240,680  | 3.1%  | 0.7%
Romanian | 93,160  | 1.2%  | 0.3%
Russian | 197,905  | 2.5%  | 0.5%
Rusyn | 500  | 0.0%  | 0.0%
Scottish Gaelic | 425  | 0.0%  | 0.0%
Serbian | 57,425  | 0.7%  | 0.2%
Serbo-Croatian | N/A  | N/A  | N/A
Slovak | 15,255  | 0.2%  | 0.0%
Slovene | 7,965  | 0.1%  | 0.0%
Spanish | 538,870  | 6.9%  | 1.5%
Swedish | 5,890  | 0.1%  | 0.0%
Swiss German | 7,575  | 0.1%  | 0.0%
Ukrainian | 84,705  | 1.1%  | 0.2%
Welsh | 825  | 0.0%  | 0.0%
Yiddish | 12,060  | 0.2%  | 0.0%

### Immigration

[edit]

European immigrant population in Canada  Year  | Population  | % of immigrants
in Canada  | % of Canadian
population

|
|
|

1986[95] | 2,430,470  | 62.2%  | 9.3%
1991[95] | 2,364,695  | 54.5%  | 8.4%
1996[95] | 2,334,005  | 47.0%  | 7.9%
2001[96] | 2,287,535  | 42.0%  | 7.4%
2006[97] | 2,269,705  | 36.7%  | 7.0%
2011[98] | 2,226,100  | 30.8%  | 6.5%
2016[99] | 2,082,765  | 27.6%  | 5.7%
2021[100] | 1,967,620  | 23.5%  | 5.3%

## Geographical distribution

[edit]

### Provinces & territories

[edit]

White Canadians by province and territory (2001−2021)[a] Province/Territory | 2021[1] | 2016[101] | 2011[102] | 2006[103] | 2001[104][105]

|
|
|
|
|

Pop. | % | Pop. | % | Pop. | % | Pop. | % | Pop. | %
Ontario | 9,037,200  | 64.41%  | 8,982,180  | 67.83%  | 9,070,795  | 71.7%  | 9,041,200  | 75.16%  | 8,944,190  | 79.25%
Quebec | 6,790,675  | 81.73%  | 6,750,200  | 84.74%  | 6,740,370  | 87.17%  | 6,673,120  | 89.74%  | 6,548,205  | 91.9%
British Columbia | 3,044,730  | 61.94%  | 2,908,420  | 63.78%  | 2,911,568  | 67.33%  | 2,869,450  | 70.43%  | 2,862,405  | 73.99%
Alberta | 2,799,575  | 67.01%  | 2,786,340  | 70.04%  | 2,690,955  | 75.42%  | 2,613,790  | 80.27%  | 2,455,005  | 83.47%
Nova Scotia | 824,000  | 86.21%  | 798,195  | 87.87%  | 825,050  | 91.05%  | 841,230  | 93.15%  | 846,030  | 94.26%
Manitoba | 794,050  | 60.75%  | 800,540  | 64.52%  | 824,820  | 70.24%  | 849,025  | 74.9%  | 866,545  | 78.51%
Saskatchewan | 763,940  | 69.25%  | 779,665  | 72.83%  | 787,745  | 78.09%  | 778,060  | 81.57%  | 805,380  | 83.62%
New Brunswick | 687,290  | 90.53%  | 676,785  | 92.62%  | 696,085  | 94.6%  | 688,650  | 95.69%  | 693,295  | 96.33%
Newfoundland and Labrador | 443,055  | 88.24%  | 454,710  | 88.77%  | 464,540  | 91.58%  | 471,430  | 94.17%  | 485,450  | 95.55%
Prince Edward Island | 133,730  | 88.87%  | 130,310  | 93.29%  | 130,885  | 95.28%  | 130,645  | 97.35%  | 130,860  | 98.11%
Yukon | 26,305  | 66.45%  | 23,915  | 68.11%  | 23,595  | 70.81%  | 21,395  | 70.86%  | 20,955  | 73.46%
Northwest Territories | 15,830  | 39.2%  | 16,320  | 39.67%  | 16,915  | 41.46%  | 18,150  | 44.21%  | 16,925  | 45.61%
Nunavut | 3,775  | 10.31%  | 4,115  | 11.57%  | 3,820  | 12.05%  | 3,990  | 13.61%  | 3,735  | 14.01%
Canada  | 25,364,140  | 69.82%  | 25,111,695  | 72.87%  | 25,186,890  | 76.67%  | 25,000,150  | 80.02%  | 24,678,880  | 83.26%

## Culture

[edit]

Main articles: Canadian culture and Western culture

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Ukrainian Mandolin Orchestra in May 1945 Fergus Scottish Festival and Highland Games in Fergus, Ontario

The various cultures of the Canadians of European descent have had a predominant influence on the culture of Canada. Over time, many people of European Canadian origins have brought with them or contributed literature, art, architecture, cinema and theater, religion and philosophy, ethics, agricultural skills, foods, medicine, science and technology, fashion and clothing styles, music, language, business, economics, legal system, political system, and social and technological innovation to Canadian culture. European settlers brought with them European plants, animals, viruses and bacteria, remaking significant portions of the Canadian ecology and landscape in the image of their homelands.[106][107] Canadian culture evolved in large part from the culture that the English, French, Scottish, Welsh, and Irish settlers brought with them, long before Canada became a country. Much of English-Canadian culture shows influences from the cultures of the British Isles, with later influence, due to 19th-century immigration from different regions of Europe, such as Eastern Europe. Colonial ties to Great Britain and the cultural presence of the United States spread the English language, legal system and other cultural attributes.

Elements of Aboriginal, French, British and more recent immigrant customs, languages and religions have combined to form the culture of Canada and thus a Canadian identity, without eradicating specific regional or cultural identities such as Aboriginal or Québecois.[dubious - discuss] Canada has also been strongly influenced by its linguistic, geographic and economic neighbour, the United States.

Many Canadians see the Cultural Mosaic, which promotes multiculturalism and an equality of cultures, as a distinctive feature of Canadian culture, one that sets it apart from the melting pot philosophy of many Americans.[108][109]

### Music

[edit]

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Scottish-Canadian Robert Stanley Weir wrote the lyrics to O Canada.

Another area of cultural influence are Canadian Patriotic songs:

* Canadian National Anthem \- Two Canadians of French descent Adolphe-Basile Routhier wrote the lyrics and Calixa Lavallée composed the music in 1880.[110][111] The English lyrics were written in 1908 by Scottish-Canadian Robert Stanley Weir.[112] The lyrics have also been translated into many other languages spoken by different Canadian minority populations, including other European languages.[113][114][115][116][117]
* The Maple Leaf Forever \- is an older but unofficial national anthem written by Scotsman Alexander Muir in 1867.[118] It was in consideration for official national anthem, however, as no French version was ever written, it was never popular with Francophones.[119]

### Sport

[edit]

* Ice Hockey \- British soldiers and immigrants to Canada and the United States brought their stick-and-ball games with them and played them on the ice and snow of winter. Ice hockey was first played in Canada during the early nineteenth century, based on similar sports such as field hockey that were played in Europe.[120] Although stick-and-ball games are common to many cultures, including those of the indigenous people of the Americas,[121] European Canadians created a distinctive variation. Although the sport was originally played with a stick and ball, but in 1860 a group of English veterans from the Royal Canadian Rifle Regiment played a game in Kingston, Ontario, utilising a puck for what is believed to be the first time. This match, played on the frozen harbour by the city, is sometimes considered to be the birth of modern ice hockey.[122] According to legend, the first hockey pucks were molded from fresh cow dung that was then allowed to freeze in below-zero outdoor temperatures.[123] Whether or not this was how the first puck was made, the use of horse or cow droppings was common thereafter, a distinctively Euro-Canadian aspect of the game made possible by the country's Northern climate.[123][124]

## Notable people

[edit]

### Prime Ministers

[edit]

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Most of the heritage that all twenty-three Canadian Prime Ministers come from (or in some combination thereof): is British (English, Scottish, Ulster Scot or Welsh) ancestry. Later Canadian Prime Ministers' ancestry can often be traced to ancestors from multiple nations in Europe.

1st John A. Macdonald (Scottish)
2nd Alexander Mackenzie (Scottish)
3rd John Abbott (English)
4th John Thompson (Irish)
5th Mackenzie Bowell (English)
6th Charles Tupper (English)
7th Wilfrid Laurier (French)
8th Robert Borden (English)
9th Arthur Meighen (Scots-Irish)
10th William Lyon Mackenzie King (Scottish)
11th R. B. Bennett (English, Irish)
12th Louis St. Laurent (French, Irish)

13th John Diefenbaker (German, Scottish)
14th Lester B. Pearson (Anglo-Irish)
15th Pierre Trudeau (French, Scottish)
16th Joe Clark (Scottish, Irish)
17th John Turner (English)
18th Brian Mulroney (Irish)
19th Kim Campbell (Scottish)
20th Jean Chrétien (French)
21st Paul Martin (Irish, French, Scottish)
22nd Stephen Harper (English, Scottish)
23rd Justin Trudeau (French, Scottish, English)

|

## Diaspora

[edit]

This section's factual accuracy is disputed. Relevant discussion may be found on the talk page. Please help to ensure that disputed statements are reliably sourced. (November 2021) (Learn how and when to remove this message)

|

Substantial numbers of European Canadians of French extraction migrated to New England beginning in the late nineteenth century, taking jobs in the cotton mills there and forming a Catholic French-speaking immigrant community.[125] Notable francophone European-Canadian Americans included Beat novelist Jack Kerouac and best-selling novelist Grace Metalious.

Notable Canadians of European descent who settled in the United States or lived in the United States for extended periods have included Joni Mitchell, Lorne Michaels, Hal Foster, Todd McFarlane, Norm Macdonald, Pamela Anderson, Justin Bieber, Seth Rogen, Fay Wray, Mary Pickford, Michael J. Fox, Saul Bellow and William Shatner. Ted Cruz was born in Canada and his family returned to the United States when he was a child; he became active in American politics as a dual citizen but renounced his Canadian citizenship when competing to be the Republican presidential candidate, effective 2014.

## See also

[edit]

* Europe portal
* Canada portal

* European emigration
* Métis people (Canada)
* Ethnic origins of people in Canada
* White Americans
* European Americans
* Demographics of Canada
* Racism in Canada

## Notes

[edit]

1. ^ Some non-Indigenous North American ethnic origins such as African American are counted as visible minority.

## References

[edit]

1. ^ a b c d e Government of Canada, Statistics Canada (October 26, 2022). "Visible minority and population group by generation status: Canada, provinces and territories, census metropolitan areas and census agglomerations with parts". www12.statcan.gc.ca. Retrieved September 28, 2022.
2. ^ a b c d Government of Canada, Statistics Canada (October 26, 2022). "The Canadian census: A rich portrait of the country's religious and ethnocultural diversity". www12.statcan.gc.ca. Retrieved September 28, 2024. "In 2021, just over 25 million people reported being White in the census, representing close to 70% of the total Canadian population. The vast majority reported being White only, while 2.4% also reported one or more other racialized groups."
3. ^ www.oxforddictionaries.com Euro-Canadian definition
4. ^ Menzies, Charles (1994). "Stories from Home: First Nations, Land Claims, and Euro-Canadians". American Ethnologist. 21 (4). American Anthropological Association: 776–791. doi:10.1525/ae.1994.21.4.02a00060. JSTOR 646839. "Example of Euro-Canadian being used"
5. ^ Government of Canada, Statistics Canada (October 26, 2022). "Ethnic or cultural origin by gender and age: Canada, provinces and territories". www150.statcan.gc.ca. Retrieved October 28, 2022.
6. ^ "Census Profile, 2016 Census Canada [Country] and Canada [Country] Ethnic origin population".
7. ^ "What the hell is a European Canadian?". The Georgia Straight. August 17, 2017. Retrieved October 27, 2021.
8. ^ Duchesne, Ricardo (2017). "Preface", Canada in Decay: Mass Immigration, Diversity, and the Ethnocide of Euro-Canadians. Black House Publishing.
9. ^ "The Ever Changing Nature of White Canada". Active History. August 3, 2017. Retrieved October 27, 2021.
10. ^ Groulx, Lionel (1923). L'appel de la race. Bibliothèque de l’Action française.
11. ^ "Canada's Ethnocultural Mosaic, 2006 Census: National picture."
12. ^ a b c Don Kerr (2007). The Changing Face of Canada: Essential Readings in Population. Canadian Scholars' Press. pp. 313–317. ISBN 978-1-55130-322-2.
13. ^ Jack Jedwab (April 2008). "Our 'Cense' of Self: the 2006 Census saw 1.6 million 'Canadian'" (PDF). Association for Canadian Studies. Archived from the original (PDF) on October 2, 2011. Retrieved March 7, 2011.
14. ^ a b c d e f Government of Canada, Statistics Canada (February 8, 2017). "Census Profile, 2016 Census - Canada: "Ethnic Origin Population — European origins"". www12.statcan.gc.ca. Retrieved August 6, 2019.
15. ^ A. S. Whiteley, “The Peopling of the Prairie Provinces of Canada.” American Journal of Sociology 38#2 (1932), pp. 240–52, online states: "The Prairie born constituted the largest single element in the population in 1926 and with those from other provinces comprised 62.75 per cent of the total. With respect to "origin," about one-half of those from Central, South, and East Europe and less than one-fourth of those from Northwest European stocks were foreign born."
16. ^ James Muir (2016). "Keeping Canada British: The Ku Klux Klan in 1920s Saskatchewan by James M. Pitsula (review)". University of Toronto Quarterly (Volume 85 ed.). University of Toronto Press. pp. 541–542. "Similarly, a broad spectrum of people, from J. S. Woodsworth to John Diefenbaker, accepted as truth the imagined superiority of British people and northwestern Europeans over central and southern Europeans, let alone Africans, Asians, and North American indigenous people."
17. ^ Kevin Woodger (2017), "Whiteness and Ambiguous Canadianization: The Boy Scouts Association and the Canadian Cadet Organization", Journal of the Canadian Historical Association (Volume 28 ed.), Canadian Historical Association, pp. 95–126, "Indeed, the 1969 Canadian Scout Handbook section on "Canada's National Origins," which purported to outline Canada's contemporary ethnic and racial composition, continued to emphasize the British and French as the two founding nations, while detailing the myriad different national origins of northwestern, Eastern and Southern European Canadians."
18. ^ David Goutor (2008). Guarding the Gates: The Canadian Labour Movement and Immigration, 1872-1934. UBC Press. ISBN 978-0774813655. "From 1903 to 1914, more than one-quarter of all immigrants came from continental Europe, with a pronounced increase in the migration of Ukrainians, Poles, Italians and other eastern and southern Europeans ... a growing proportion of eastern and southern Europeans were brought in to do the rough, unskilled work in Canada's flourishing railway, mining, lumbering, and manufacturing sectors."
19. ^ Wallace, Birgitta. "L'Anse aux Meadows". The Canadian Encyclopedia. Retrieved June 4, 2020.
20. ^ Exploration | The Canadian Encyclopedia
21. ^ Corporation, British Broadcasting. "BBC – History – Scottish History". www.bbc.co.uk.
22. ^ Bennett, Ethel M. G. (1979) [1966]. "Desportes, Hélène". In Brown, George Williams (ed.). Dictionary of Canadian Biography. Vol. I (1000–1700) (online ed.). University of Toronto Press.
23. ^ Marquis, G. E.; Allen, Louis (January 1, 1923). "The French Canadians in the Province of Quebec". The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science. 107: 7–12. doi:10.1177/000271622310700103. JSTOR 1014689. S2CID 143714682.
24. ^ "Des millions de Québécois sont des descendants des Filles du roi" [Millions of Quebecers are descendants of the King's Daughters]. Le Journal de Montréal (in French). May 7, 2018. "(translation) No less than 3,555,591 individuals spread over 15 generations are descendants of one of these women sent by King Louis XIV to populate New France."
25. ^ Little Dutch (Deutsch) Church National Historic Site of Canada. Canadian Register of Historic Places. Retrieved 17 April 2021.
26. ^ Jonathan Dembling. "Gaelic in Canada: new evidence from an old census." In Cànan & Cultar/Language & Culture: Rannsachadh na Gàidhlig 3, edited by Wilson McLeod, James Fraser and Anja Gunderloch, 203-14. Edinburgh: Dunedin Academic Press, 2006.
27. ^ Lehmann 1986, p. 371.
28. ^ Reaman 1957, p. xviii.
29. ^ Werner Bausenhart, German Immigration and Assimilation in Ontario, 1783-1918, Legas, 1989
30. ^ "Waterloo Township". Waterloo Region Museum Research. Region of Waterloo. 2013. Archived from the original on February 27, 2017. Retrieved March 13, 2017.
31. ^ Bassler 2013.
32. ^ Lehmann 1986.
33. ^ "Religion in Waterloo North (Pre 1911)". Waterloo Region. 2015. Retrieved March 21, 2017.
34. ^ Campbell & Bryce 1911, p. 131.
35. ^ Thomas P. Power, ed., The Irish in Atlantic Canada, 1780–1900 (Fredericton, NB: New Ireland Press, 1991)
36. ^ O’Driscoll, Robert; Reynolds, Lorna, eds. (1988). The Untold story: The Irish in Canada. Vol. II. Celtic Arts of Canada. Celtic Arts of Canada. p. 711\. ISBN 978-0-9217-4500-6.
37. ^ a b c d e f "Serbian Historical Sketch" (PDF). Archives of the Government of Ontario. 1972. Archived from the original (PDF) on January 31, 2022.
38. ^ Tomović 2002, p. 114.
39. ^ a b c Tomović 2002, p. 53.
40. ^ a b c Mandres 2020, p. 101.
41. ^ a b Powell 2005, p. 267.
42. ^ The Canadian Family Tree: Canada's Peoples (Third, reprint ed.). Corpus Information Services. 1979. p. 198\. ISBN 978-0-91921-714-0.
43. ^ Bloomfield, Foster & Forgay 1993, p. xiii.
44. ^ "Religion in Waterloo North (Pre 1911)". Waterloo Region. 2015. Retrieved March 21, 2017.
45. ^ Bosnian immigration - North American Immigration
46. ^ "The Pier 21 Story" (PDF). pier21.ca. Archived (PDF) from the original on February 7, 2014. Retrieved August 13, 2019.
47. ^ Vuković 1998, p. 10.
48. ^ Mandres 2020, pp. 101–102.
49. ^ a b Mandres 2020, p. 102.
50. ^ Macedonian immigrants have also been subsumed under the heading of Bulgarian immigrants, especially as regards the first wave, because in that period the history and population of the two countries was not as distinct as it is today. Until World War II, most people who today identify themselves as Macedonian Canadians claimed a Bulgarian ethnic identity and were recorded as part of the Bulgarian ethnic group (Magocsi, p. 287). Hence the Bulgarian community in Canada is deeply linked to the Macedonian Canadians. The Bulgarian Diaspora in Canada: Stories of Immigration, Glavanakova, Alexandra; Andreev, Andrey, 2010, CEACS, Brno, Czech Republic; Migrating Memories: Central Europe in Canada, Volume 2 – Oral Histories. (ed.) Rodica Albu, 2010; ISBN 978-86-7746-255-0.
51. ^ Magocsi, Paul R. (1999). Encyclopedia of Canada's peoples – Paul R. Magocsi, Multicultural History, pp. 287–292, University of Toronto Press, 1999, ISBN 0-8020-2938-8. Multicultural History Society of Ontario. ISBN 9780802029386. Retrieved May 11, 2011 - via Google Books.
52. ^ South Slavic immigration in America, Twayne Publishers. A division of G. K. Hall & Co., Boston, George Prpic, John Carroll University, 1976, Chapter 18, The Bulgarians and Macedonians. p. 212 ..."The smallest of the South Slavic ethnic groups in America are the Bulgarians. One branch of them are the Macedonians."...
53. ^ a b Raska, Jan (2014). "Contested Ethnic Identity: The Case of Macedonian Immigrants in Toronto, 1900-1996 by Chris Kostov (review)". Canadian Ethnic Studies. 46 (3): 140–142. doi:10.1353/ces.2014.0037. ISSN 1913-8253. S2CID 145517102.
54. ^ Danforth, Loring M. (April 6, 1997). The Macedonian Conflict: Ethnic Nationalism in a Transnational World, Page 87 by Loring M. Danforth. Princeton University Press. ISBN 0691043566. Retrieved May 11, 2011 - via Google Books.
55. ^ Mandres 2020, pp. 100–103.
56. ^ Mandres 2020, pp. 103–107.
57. ^ Mandres 2020, pp. 111–114.
58. ^ Lehmann 1986, pp. 186–194, 198–204.
59. ^ Day, Richard J.F. (2000). Multiculturalism and the History of Canadian Diversity. Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 149-150.
60. ^ Valee, F. Vertical Mosaic Archived November 28, 2011, at the Wayback Machine. The Canadian Encyclopedia. Historica Dominion. Retrieved on: 2011-09-22.
61. ^ Anctil, Pierre (2017). Histoire des Juifs du Québec. Montréal: Boréal. pp. 259–324. ISBN 978-2-7646-3511-7. OCLC 1033501070.
62. ^ Tulchinsky, Gerald (2008). Canada's Jews : a People's Journey. University of Toronto Press. pp. 401–426. ISBN 978-1-4426-8748-6. OCLC 1076409494.
63. ^ Abramson, Zelda; Lynch, John R (2019). The Montreal Shtetl: Making Home After the Holocaust. Toronto: Between the Lines.
64. ^ Anderson, Grace M; Higgs, David (1976). A future to inherit: the Portuguese communities of Canada. McClelland and Stewart. ISBN 0-7710-0711-6. OCLC 246045617.
65. ^ a b c d e f g Peter S. Li, Cultural Diversity in Canada: The Social Construction of Racial Differences (Justice Canada, 2000), p. 2: "Table 1: Population by Ethnic Origin, Canada 1921-1971".
66. ^ a b c d e f g "Ethnic origins: Census of Canada (Page: 17)" (PDF). Retrieved March 5, 2020.
67. ^ a b Government of Canada, Statistics Canada (March 30, 2022). "Ethnic or Cultural Origin Reference Guide, Census of Population, 2021". www12.statcan.gc.ca. Retrieved October 28, 2022.
68. ^ a b c d e "Canada Year Book 1922-23: Racial Origin" (PDF). Census and Statistics Office of Canada. 1921. pp. 158–59.
69. ^ a b c d e f g h i Canada - Origins according to the censuses. 1871, 1881, 1901, 1911 AND 1921. (Page: 134-135)
70. ^ a b Government of Canada, Statistics Canada (April 3, 2013). "Sixth census of Canada,1921. v. 1. Population: number, sex and distribution, racial origins, religions". www12.statcan.gc.ca. Retrieved September 24, 2022.
71. ^ Government of Canada, Statistics Canada (April 3, 2013). "Seventh census of Canada, 1931". www12.statcan.gc.ca. Retrieved September 24, 2022.
72. ^ Government of Canada, Statistics Canada (April 3, 2013). "Eighth census of Canada,1941 = Huitième recensement du Canada". www12.statcan.gc.ca. Retrieved September 24, 2022.
73. ^ Government of Canada, Statistics Canada (April 3, 2013). "Ninth census of Canada, 1951 = Neuvième recensement du Canada". www12.statcan.gc.ca. Retrieved September 24, 2022.
74. ^ Government of Canada, Statistics Canada (April 3, 2013). "1961 Census of Canada : population : vol. I - part 2 = 1961 Recensement du Canada : population : vol. I - partie 2. Ethnic groups". www12.statcan.gc.ca. Retrieved September 24, 2022.
75. ^ Government of Canada, Statistics Canada (April 3, 2013). "1971 Census of Canada : population : vol. I - part 3 = Recensement du Canada 1971 : population : vol. I - partie 3. Ethnic Groups". www12.statcan.gc.ca. Retrieved September 24, 2022.
76. ^ Government of Canada, Statistics Canada (April 3, 2013). "1981 Census of Canada : volume 1 - national series : population = Recensement du Canada de 1981 : volume 1 - série nationale : population. Ethnic origin". www12.statcan.gc.ca. Retrieved September 23, 2022.
77. ^ a b Government of Canada, Statistics Canada (June 4, 2019). "Data tables, 1996 Census Population by Ethnic Origin (188) and Sex (3), Showing Single and Multiple Responses (3), for Canada, Provinces, Territories and Census Metropolitan Areas, 1996 Census (20% Sample Data)". www12.statcan.gc.ca. Retrieved September 23, 2022.
78. ^ a b Government of Canada, Statistics Canada (December 23, 2013). "Ethnic Origin (232), Sex (3) and Single and Multiple Responses (3) for Population, for Canada, Provinces, Territories, Census Metropolitan Areas and Census Agglomerations, 2001 Census - 20% Sample Data". www12.statcan.gc.ca. Retrieved September 23, 2022.
79. ^ Government of Canada, Statistics Canada (January 23, 2019). "Ethnic Origin (264), Single and Multiple Ethnic Origin Responses (3), Generation Status (4), Age Groups (10) and Sex (3) for the Population in Private Households of Canada, Provinces, Territories, Census Metropolitan Areas and Census Agglomerations, 2011 National Household Survey". www12.statcan.gc.ca. Retrieved September 23, 2022.
80. ^ Government of Canada, Statistics Canada (June 17, 2019). "Ethnic Origin (279), Single and Multiple Ethnic Origin Responses (3), Generation Status (4), Age (12) and Sex (3) for the Population in Private Households of Canada, Provinces and Territories, Census Metropolitan Areas and Census Agglomerations, 2016 Census - 25% Sample Data". www12.statcan.gc.ca. Retrieved September 23, 2022.
81. ^ Government of Canada, Statistics Canada (October 26, 2022). "Ethnic or cultural origin by gender and age: Canada, provinces and territories, census metropolitan areas and census agglomerations with parts". www12.statcan.gc.ca. Retrieved October 26, 2022.
82. ^ a b c Multiculturalism and Immigration in Canada: An Introductory Reader By Elspeth Cameron (Page: 73-73)
83. ^ a b c Statistics Canada Distribution of the population, by ethnic group, census years 1941, 1951 and 1961
84. ^ Government of Canada, Statistics Canada (June 1, 1993). "1991 Census of Canada: Data tables – Population by Ethnic Origin (188) and Sex (3), Showing Single and Multiple Responses (3), for Canada, Provinces, Territories and Census Metropolitan Areas, 1991 Census (20% Sample Data)". www12.statcan.gc.ca. Retrieved September 20, 2019.
85. ^ Government of Canada, Statistics Canada (February 17, 1998). "1996 Census of Canada: Data tables – Population by Ethnic Origin (188) and Sex (3), Showing Single and Multiple Responses (3), for Canada, Provinces, Territories and Census Metropolitan Areas, 1996 Census (20% Sample Data)". www12.statcan.gc.ca. Archived from the original on August 12, 2019. Retrieved September 20, 2019.
86. ^ Statistics Canada: 2001 Census Topic-based tabulations: Ethnic Origin (232), Sex (3) and Single and Multiple Responses (3) for Population, for Canada, Provinces, Territories, Census Metropolitan Areas and Census Agglomerations, 2001 Census - 20% Sample Data
87. ^ Government of Canada, Statistics Canada (April 2, 2008). "Statistics Canada: Ethnocultural Portrait of Canada Highlight Tables, 2006 Census". www12.statcan.gc.ca. Archived from the original on August 12, 2019. Retrieved September 20, 2019.
88. ^ Government of Canada, Statistics Canada (May 8, 2013). "2011 National Household Survey: Data tables – Ethnic Origin (264), Single and Multiple Ethnic Origin Responses (3), Generation Status (4), Age Groups (10) and Sex (3) for the Population in Private Households of Canada, Provinces, Territories, Census Metropolitan Areas and Census Agglomerations, 2011 National Household Survey". www12.statcan.gc.ca. Archived from the original on January 10, 2019. Retrieved September 20, 2019.
89. ^ a b c "Census Profile, 2021 Census of Population". Statistics Canada. February 9, 2022.
90. ^ Population by Mother Tongue (27), Showing Age Groups (13), 1991 Canadian census
91. ^ Population by Mother Tongue (27), Showing Age Groups (13), 1996 Census of Canada
92. ^ Population by Mother Tongue (27), Showing Age Groups (13), 2001 Census of Canada
93. ^ Population by Mother Tongue (27), Showing Age Groups (13), 2006 Census of Canada "File not found | Fichier non trouvé". Archived from the original on July 1, 2013. Retrieved July 20, 2020.
94. ^ "Statistics Canada – Census Profile, 2011". February 8, 2012. Archived from the original on May 16, 2016. Retrieved January 4, 2020.
95. ^ a b c Immigrant Population by Selected Places of Birth (84) and Sex (3), for Canada, Provinces, Territories and Census Metropolitan Areas, 1986-1996 Censuses (20% Sample Data), 1996 Census of Canada
96. ^ Place of birth for the immigrant population by period of immigration, 2006 counts and percentage distribution, for Canada, provinces and territories - 20% sample data, 2001 Census of Canada
97. ^ Topic-based tabulations|Place of birth for the immigrant population by period of immigration, 2006 counts and percentage distribution, for Canada, provinces and territories - 20% sample data, 2006 Census of Canada "File not found | Fichier non trouvé". Archived from the original on July 1, 2013. Retrieved July 20, 2020.
98. ^ "Citizenship (5), Place of Birth (236), Immigrant Status and Period of Immigration (11), Age Groups (10) and Sex (3) for the Population in Private Households of Canada, Provinces, Territories, Census Metropolitan Areas and Census Agglomerations, 2011 National Household Survey". May 8, 2013. Archived from the original on June 15, 2017. Retrieved January 6, 2020.
99. ^ "Data tables, 2016 Census". Statistics Canada. October 25, 2017. Archived from the original on February 18, 2020. Retrieved January 4, 2020.
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1. ^ 1996-present census populations are potentially inaccurate, due to the creation of the "Canadian" ethnic origin category.[b]

1. ^ a b 1981-2016: Statistic includes all persons that did not make up part of a visible minority or an indigenous identity.

2021: Statistic includes all persons belonging to the "White" population group.[1][2]
2. ^ All citizens of Canada are classified as "Canadians" as defined by Canada's nationality laws. However, "Canadian" as an ethnic group has since 1996 been added to census questionnaires for possible ancestry. "Canadian" was included as an example on the English questionnaire and "Canadien" as an example on the French questionnaire. The majority of respondents to this selection are from the eastern part of the country that was first settled, and are Anglophones and Francophones that no-longer self identify with their ethnic ancestral origins. This response is attributed to either multiple ethnic origins or the multi-generational distance from their ancestral lineage.
Source 1: Jack Jedwab (April 2008). "Our 'Cense' of Self: the 2006 Census saw 1.6 million 'Canadian'" (PDF). Association for Canadian Studies. Archived from the original (PDF) on October 2, 2011. Retrieved March 7, 2011. ""Virtually all persons who reported "Canadian" in 1996 had English or French as a mother tongue, were born in Canada and had both parents born inside Canada. This suggests that many of these respondents were people whose families have been in this country for several generations. In effect the "new Canadians" were persons that previously reported either British or French origins. Moreover in 1996 some 55% of people with both parents born in Canada reported Canadian (alone or in combination with other origins). By contrast, only 4% of people with both parents born outside Canada reported Canadian. Thus the Canadian response did not appeal widely to either immigrants or their children."(Page 2)"
Source 2: Don Kerr (2007). The Changing Face of Canada: Essential Readings in Population. Canadian Scholars' Press. pp. 313–317. ISBN 978-1-55130-322-2.
3. ^ All European responses (including multiple origins).
4. ^ All European-origin responses, including: "British Isles origins" (10,647,625), "French origins" (5,628,815), and "European origins" (8,472,015).[77]
5. ^ All European-origin responses, including: "British Isles origins" (9,971,615), "French origins" (4,710,580), and "European origins" (8,731,955).[78]

### Bibliography

[edit]

* Bassler, Gerhard P. (July 30, 2013). "German Canadians". The Canadian Encyclopedia. Historica Canada. Retrieved April 16, 2021.
* Bloomfield, Elizabeth; Foster, Linda; Forgay, Jane (1993). Waterloo County to 1972: an annotated bibliography of regional history. Waterloo: Waterloo Regional Heritage Foundation. ISBN 9780969693604.
* Campbell, Wilfred; Bryce, George (1911). The Scotsman in Canada. The Musson Book Company.
* Lehmann, Heinz (1986). Bassler, Gerhard P. (ed.). The German Canadians 1750–1937: Immigration, Settlement & Culture. Translated by Bassler, Gerhard P. Jesperson Press. ISBN 978-1-55081-308-1.
* Mandres, Marinel (2020). "An Unprecedented Dichotomy: Impacts and Consequences of Serbian Internment in Canada during the Great War". In Hinther, Rhonda L.; Mochoruk, Jim (eds.). Civilian Internment in Canada: Histories and Legacies. University of Manitoba Press. pp. 99–114. ISBN 978-0-88755-845-0.
* Powell, John (2005). Encyclopedia of North American Immigration. Infobase Publishing. ISBN 9781438110127. Retrieved April 20, 2013.
* Reaman, George Elmore (1957). The Trail of the Black Walnut (revised ed.). Toronto: McClelland and Stewart. ISBN 0-7710-7351-8.
* Tomović, Vladislav A. (2002). Canadian Serbs: A History of Their Social and Cultural Traditions (1856-2002). Batlik. ISBN 978-0-92064-240-5.
* Vuković, Sava (1998). History of the Serbian Orthodox Church in America and Canada 1891–1941. Kragujevac: Kalenić.

## Further reading

[edit]

* Allen, Willow Samara. "Learning to become white girls in a settler colonial context: Exploring the racial socialization of white Euro-Canadian women." Settler Colonial Studies 10.3 (2020): 378–402.
* Bramadat, Paul; David Seljak (2009). Religion and Ethnicity in Canada. University of Toronto Press. ISBN 9781442610187.
* Bramadat, Paul; David Seljak (2008). Christianity and Ethnicity in Canada. U of Toronto Press. p. 247\. ISBN 9780802095848.
* Haig-Brown, C.; Nock, D.A. (2006). With Good Intentions: Euro-Canadian and Aboriginal Relations in Colonial Canada. UBC Press. ISBN 978-0-7748-1138-5.
* Kallen, Evelyn (2003). Ethnicity and Human Rights in Canada: A Human Rights Perspective on Ethnicity, Racism, and Systemic Inequality. Oxford UP. ISBN 9780195417425.
* Kralt, John. "Country of Birth of Parents And Ethnic Origins \- A Comparison of Reporting Patterns in the 2001 Census,"
* Magocsi, Paul R. (1999). Encyclopedia of Canada's peoples. Society of Ontario, University of Toronto Press. ISBN 978-0-8020-2938-6.; 1300pp; comprehensive scholarly coverage of every group
* McLean, Lorna R. "Education, identity, and citizenship in early modern Canada." Journal of Canadian Studies/Revue d'études canadiennes 41.1 (2007): 5-30.
* Resnick, Philip (2005). The European Roots Of Canadian Identity. Peterborough, Ont.: Broadview Press. ISBN 978-1-55111-705-8.
* Yedlin, Tova (1985). Central and East European Ethnicity in Canada: Adaptation and Preservation. Central and East European Studies Society of Alberta. ISBN 9780888649539.

### Statistical

[edit]

* Statistics Canada (2008). Canada Year Book (CYB) annual 1867-1967. Ottawa: Federal Publications (Queen of Canada).
* Statistics Canada (October 27, 2010). Canada Year Book. Ottawa: Federal Publications (Queen of Canada). Catalogue no 11-402-XPE.

* v
* t
* e

Ethnic origins of people in Canada

Canada|

* Indigenous
* First Nations
* by band
* Inuit
* Métis
* Canadian ethnicity
* French Canadians
* Acadians
* Québécois
* British
* English
* Scottish
* Welsh
* Newfoundlander
* Irish Canadians
* Black Loyalist

Africa|

| Horn of Africa|

* Eritrean
* Ethiopian
* Somali

|

North Africa|

* Berber
* Algerian
* Libyan
* Moroccan
* Tunisian
* Coptic
* Egyptian

East Africa|

* South Sudanese
* Sudanese

Southern Africa|

* South African
* Zimbabwean

West Africa|

* Ghanaian
* Nigerian
* Igbo
* Yoruba

Americas|

| North America|

* American
* Mexican

|

Caribbean|

* Barbadian
* Cuban
* Dominican
* Guyanese
* Haitian
* Jamaican
* Puerto Rican
* Trinidadian and Tobagonian

Central and South America|

* Argentine
* Brazilian
* Chilean
* Colombian
* Guatemalan
* Peruvian
* Salvadoran
* Uruguayan
* Venezuelan

Asia|

| Central Asia|

* Afghan
* Kazakh
* Tajik
* Tatar
* Uzbek

|

East Asia|

* Chinese
* Hong Kong
* Japanese
* Korean
* Mongolian
* Taiwanese
* Tibetan

South Asia|

* Bangladeshi
* Indian
* Anglo-Indian
* Tamil
* Nepali
* Pakistani
* Punjabi
* Romani
* Sri Lankan

Southeast Asia|

* Cambodian
* Filipino
* Indonesian
* Laotian
* Malaysian
* Singaporean
* Thai
* Vietnamese

West Asia|

* Arab
* Iraqi
* Jordanian
* Lebanese
* Palestinian
* Saudi
* Syrian
* Yemeni
* Armenian
* Assyrian
* Azerbaijani
* Iranian
* Jewish
* Israeli
* Kurdish
* Turkish

Europe|

| Central Europe|

* Austrian
* Czech
* German
* Hungarian
* Polish
* Slovak
* Slovenian
* Swiss

|

Eastern Europe|

* Belarusian
* Russian
* Ukrainian

Northern Europe|

* Nordic and Scandinavian
* Danish
* Finnish
* Icelandic
* Norwegian
* Swedish
* Estonian
* Latvian
* Lithuanian

Southeast Europe|

* Albanian
* Bosnian
* Bulgarian
* Croatian
* Greek
* Macedonian
* Montenegrin
* Romanian
* Serbian
* Yugoslav

Southern Europe|

* Italian
* Maltese
* Portuguese
* Spanish
* Basque

Western Europe|

* Belgian
* Flemish
* British
* Cornish
* English
* Scotch-Irish
* Scottish
* Welsh
* Dutch
* French
* Acadians
* Breton
* Québécois
* Irish
* Luxembourger

Oceania|

* Australian
* Hawaiian
* New Zealander

* v
* t
* e

White people

* Bold refers to countries, regions and territories in which the majority ethnic group is generally considered to be people of white European descent.

European emigration
by location|

| Africa|

* Algeria
* Angola
* Botswana
* Democratic Republic of the Congo
* Kenya
* Malawi
* Morocco
* Namibia
* Reunion
* South Africa
* Tunisia
* Zambia
* Zimbabwe

|

Asia|

* Pakistan

North America|

* Bahamas
* Barbados
* Bermuda
* Canada
* Caribbean
* Cayman Islands
* Costa Rica
* Cuba
* Dominica
* Dominican Republic
* El Salvador
* Guatemala
* Haiti
* Honduras
* Jamaica
* Mexico
* Panama
* Trinidad and Tobago
* United States
* California
* Los Angeles
* San Francisco
* Hawaii
* Louisiana
* Maryland
* Baltimore
* Southern United States
* Puerto Rico
* Saint Kitts and Nevis

South America|

* Argentina
* Bolivia
* Brazil
* Chile
* Colombia
* Paraguay
* Peru
* Suriname
* Uruguay
* Venezuela

Oceania|

* Australia
* New Caledonia
* Hawaii
* New Zealand

Historical concepts|

* Apartheid
* Aryan
* Blanqueamiento
* Castas
* Peninsulares
* Criollos
* First white child
* Honorary whites
* Play the white man
* Pre-modern conceptions of whiteness
* Settler colonialism
* White Australia policy
* The White Man's Burden
* White gods

Sociological
phenomena and theories|

* Acting white (Passing as white)
* Missing white woman syndrome
* Skin whitening
* White flight
* White guilt
* White privilege
* Whiteness studies
* Whitewashing in art
* Whitewashing in film
* White savior
* White demographic decline
* White people terms
* White supremacy
* Reverse racism

Negative stereotypes of Whites|

* In the United States
* Appalachian stereotypes
* Hillbilly
* Mountain whites
* Poor Whites
* Redlegs
* Rednecks
* White trash
* Karen
* Angry white male
* Becky
* Basic
* White monkey

White identity politics|

* US definitions of whiteness
* One-drop rule
* Alt-right
* Christian Identity
* European New Right
* Great Replacement
* Identitarian movement
* Non-Hispanic whites
* Old Stock
* Americans
* Canadians
* Quebeckers
* White Anglo-Saxon Protestants
* White ethnic
* White genocide conspiracy theory
* White Hispanic
* White identity
* White nationalism
* White pride
* White supremacy

* Race
* European native population
* Commons

*[Pop.]: Population
*[%]: percentage
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