Exodus (poem)

10th-century Old English poem

Exodus

The first page of Exodus in MS Junius 11.

Author(s)| Unknown
Language| Old English
Manuscript(s)| Junius manuscript (Oxford, Bodleian Library, MS Junius 11)
Genre| Heroic poetry
Verse form| Alliterative
Length| 590 lines
Subject| Israelite's escape from Egypt
Setting| Egypt/Red Sea
Period covered| From the tenth Egyptian plague to the defeat of Pharaoh by the Red Sea
Sources| Book of Exodus, Easter liturgy

Exodus is the title given to an Old English alliterative poem in the 10th century Junius manuscript (Oxford, Bodleian Library, MS Junius 11). Exodus is not a paraphrase of the biblical book, but rather a re-telling of the story of the Israelites' flight from Egyptian captivity and the Crossing of the Red Sea in the manner of a "heroic epic", much like Old English poems Andreas, Judith, or even Beowulf. It is one of the densest, most allusive and complex poems in Old English, and is the focus of much critical debate.[citation needed]

## Style and imagery

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Exodus brings a traditional "heroic style" to its biblical subject-matter. Moses is treated as a general, and military imagery pervades the poem. The destruction of the Egyptians in the Red Sea is narrated in much the same way as a formulaic battle scene from other Old English poems, including a 'Beast of Battle' motif very common in the poetry. According to Malcolm Godden, the allusion to battle within the poem is a way to illustrate that God defends his chosen people.[1]

The main story is suspended at one point to tell the stories of Noah and Abraham's sacrifice of Isaac. Some scholars consider this change of subject a feature of the "epic style" comparable with the similar digressions in Beowulf, while others have proposed it is a later interpolation. Edward B. Irving edited the poem twice, in 1955 and 1981: the first edition excerpted the Noah and Abraham portion as a separate poem; on later reflection, Irving recanted, admitting it was an integrated part of the Exodus poem. There appears to be justification in patristic sermons for connecting the crossing of the Red Sea with these topics.[citation needed]

## Allegory

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In recent decades, attention has shifted away from the "heroic" aspects of Exodus to consider its densely allusive structure and possible typology. Peter J. Lucas, for instance, has argued that the poem is an allegorical treatment of the Christian fight with the devil. The Crossing of the Red Sea has been seen as echoing the baptismal liturgy and prefiguring the entrance into Heaven. The Pharaoh may be associated with Satan through some subtle verbal echoes.[citation needed]

The Egyptians are seen as being associated with the Devil because they are attempting to keep the Israelites from reaching God. In the poem, the Israelites are being led across the path through the Red Sea by a pillar of cloud which is described as a “segle” (sail). Maxwell Luria argues that the sail represents a symbolic sea-voyage. This sea-voyage then represents the Israelites weathering their storm with the help of God's protection.[2] The Red Sea is seen as representing baptismal waters and the crossing of the Israelites as the first Christian salvation. However, J. E. Cross also argues that the poem is not simply symbolic for baptism, because the “Crossing” also occurs “as a brief illustration together with other examples of saving by water”. He argues that there are too many unrelated events in the poem for it to truly serve as a baptismal allegory. However, the journey of the Israelites in the poem may be taken as a metaphor for the life of man, since life can be “extended…as a pilgrim’s progress on land or as a voyage by sea”.[3] It seems especially possible that this equation was intended when one looks back at the other symbols of stormy weather and salvation. Furthermore, the Egyptians are referred to as “landsmen” while the Israelites are called “sea-faring” and being led by God's “sail,” which gives strength to the idea that the Israelites are making their way toward salvation.[original research?]

In the Old English version of the poem, Moses is said to have parted the sea with a “green” staff, a description which does not appear in the Latin script. According to Luria, the cross which Jesus was nailed to was also described as being “green,” and therefore he equates this with meaning that Moses was pious, while others, such as the Egyptians, represented “dry wood” or impious people.[2]

Within the poem, allusions to both Noah and Abraham are made. Noah, who built an ark to survive the great flood, and Abraham, who was willing to sacrifice his son, Isaac, both represent a symbol of Christian salvation. Luria argues that like Moses, Noah also represents a type of Christ-like figure. Similarly, Isaac may represent a Christ-like figure, since he was a son who was to be sacrificed as well. The poem hinges on the emphasis that “faith is the key to salvation”.[4] The faithful Israelites made it across the Red Sea, while the faithless Egyptians perished in the water. J.E. Cross describes how Aelfric, an Anglo-Saxon abbot, once gave a sermon over Exodus, in which he too describes the poem as being allegorical. Aelfric believed that Egypt represented the world, the Pharaoh represented the Devil, the Red Sea represented baptism, the Egyptians represented sins, and the pillar of cloud represented Christ.[5]

## Similarities with other poems

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There are similar metaphors and lines in other Old English literature, which shows that Exodus was influential to the Anglo-Saxons.[6] The poem centers largely around the concept of water and the sea, and consequently contains many synonyms and metaphors for those concepts. Similar themes of a sea-voyage also occur in The Seafarer, Christ II, and The Wanderer. One particular line from Exodus also appears in The Seafarer: “atol yða gewealc” – “the horrible rolling waves”.

## References

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1. ^ Godden, Malcolm (1991). The Cambridge Companion to Old English Literature. Cambridge University Press.
2. ^ a b Luria, Maxwell (1981). "The Old English "Exodus" as a Christian Poem: Notes towards a Reading". Neophilologus: 600–606.
3. ^ Cross, J.E. (1960). "Allegorical Tradition and the Old English Exodus". Neophilologus: 122–127.
4. ^ Luria p. 604
5. ^ Cross p. 123
6. ^ Medievalists.net (13 December 2015). "The Story of Exodus: The Anglo-Saxon Version". Medievalists.net. Retrieved 1 June 2021.

## Further reading

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### Editions

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* Foys, Martin and Fairbanks-Ukropen, eds. (2019) Old English Poetry in Facsimile Project]. Center for the History of Print and Digital Culture. Madison. Edited to digital facsimile images.
* Lucas, P.J., ed. (1994). Exodus (Rev. ed.). London: University of Exeter Press. ISBN 978-0859893831.
* Tolkien, J.R.R., ed. & tr. (1981). The Old English Exodus. Oxford: Clarendon Press. ISBN 978-0198111771.`{{cite book}}`: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
* Irving, E.B., ed. (1953). The Old English Exodus. New Haven: Yale University Press.
Supplements:
* Irving, E.B. (1972). "New Notes on the Old English Exodus". Anglia. 90: 289–324\. ISSN 0340-5222.
* Irving, E.B. (1974). "Exodus Retraced". In Burlin, R.B.; Irving, E.B. (eds.). Old English Studies in Honour of John C. Pope. Toronto: U of Toronto P. ISBN 978-0802021328.
* Krapp, George, ed. (1931). The Junius Manuscript. The Anglo-Saxon Poetic Records. Vol. 1\. New York: Columbia UP. pp. 90–107. ISBN 9780231087650. `{{cite book}}`: ISBN / Date incompatibility (help)
* Love, Damian, tr. (2002). "The Old English Exodus. A Verse Translation". Neophilologus. 86: 621–639\. doi:10.1023/A:1019681904919. ISSN 0028-2677.`{{cite journal}}`: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
* Bradley, S.A.J., tr. (1982). Anglo-Saxon Poetry. London: Everyman. ISBN 978-0460875073.`{{cite book}}`: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)

### Criticism

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* Anlezark, Daniel (2005). "Connecting the Patriarchs: Noah and Abraham in the Old English Exodus". Journal of English and Germanic Philology. 104 (2): 171–188.
* Earl, J.W. (2002). "Christian Traditions and the Old English Exodus". In Liuzza, R.M. (ed.). The Poems of MS Junius 11: Basic Readings. London: Routledge. pp. 137–72. ISBN 978-0815338628.
* Lucas, Peter J. (1970). "The Cloud in the Interpretation of the OE Exodus". English Studies. 51: 297–311\. doi:10.1080/00138387008597382.
* Sigelwara Land is an essay by J. R. R. Tolkien that appeared in two parts, in 1932 and 1934. It deals with the Old English word used for the ancient Aethiopians.

## External links

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* Edition of the poem, Old English at the University of Virginia.
* Edition of the poem, The Labyrinth: Resources for Medieval Studies, Georgetown University.
* Bodleian Library

* v
* t
* e

Book of Exodus media

Art|

* The Crossing of the Red Sea (1482)
* Crossing of the Red Sea (1542)
* The Crossing of the Red Sea (1634)
* The Adoration of the Golden Calf (1634)
* The Manna (c. 1638)
* Moses Breaking the Tablets of the Law (1659)
* The Fifth Plague of Egypt (1800)
* Victory O Lord! (1871)
* Dance Around the Golden Calf (1910)

Film|

| Biblical|

* The Ten Commandments (1923)
* The Moon of Israel (1924)
* The Ten Commandments (1956)
* Moses und Aron (1973)
* Moses the Lawgiver (1974)
* Moses (1995)
* The Prince of Egypt (1998)
* The Exodus Decoded (2006)
* The Ten Commandments (2006)
* The Ten Commandments (2007)
* Exodus: Gods and Kings (2014)
* The Ten Commandments: The Movie (2016)
* Seder-Masochism (2018)

|

Modern settings|

* The Abominable Dr. Phibes (1971)
* The Reaping (2007)
* Exodus (2007)

Musical|

* Les Dix Commandements (2000)
* The Ten Commandments: The Musical (2004)
* The Prince of Egypt (2015)

Opera|

* Mosè in Egitto (1818)
* Moïse et Pharaon, ou Le passage de la mer rouge (1827)
* Moses und Aron (1951)

Music|

* Israel in Egypt (1739)
* Creeping Death (1984)
* Exodus (2002)
* Plague Songs (2006)

Television|

* "Duke and the Great Pie War" (2005)
* "Moe and the Big Exit" (2007)
* Os Dez Mandamentos (2015 telenovela)

Literature|

* Exodus (10th century)
* Moon of Israel (1918)
* Moses, Man of the Mountain (1939)
* The Tables of the Law (1944)

* v
* t
* e

Old English poetry

Poems|

| Nowell Codex|

* Beowulf
* Judith

|

Junius MS|

* Genesis A, B
* Exodus
* Daniel
* Christ and Satan

Vercelli Book|

* Andreas
* "The Fates of the Apostles"
* "Soul and Body I"
* Dream of the Rood
* Elene
* "Homiletic Fragment I"

Exeter Book|

* "Christ I"
* "Christ II"
* "Christ III"
* "Guthlac A, B"
* "Azarias"
* "The Phoenix"
* "Juliana"
* "The Wanderer"
* "The Gifts of Men"
* "Precepts"
* "The Seafarer"
* "Vainglory"
* "Widsith"
* "The Fortunes of Men"
* "Maxims I"
* "The Order of the World"
* "The Rhyming Poem"
* "The Panther"
* "The Whale"
* "The Partridge"
* "Soul and Body II"
* "Deor"
* "Wulf and Eadwacer"
* Riddles 1–59
* "The Wife's Lament"
* "The Judgment Day I"
* "Resignation"
* "The Descent into Hell"
* "Alms-Giving"
* "Pharaoh"
* "The Lord's Prayer I"
* "Homiletic Fragment II"
* Riddle 30b
* Riddle 60
* "The Husband's Message"
* "The Ruin"
* Riddles 61–95

Metrical charms|

* "Æcerbot"
* "Against a dwarf"
* "Against a Wen"
* "A Journey Charm"
* "For a Swarm of Bees"
* "For Loss or Theft of Cattle"
* "For Delayed Birth"
* "For Water-Elf Disease"
* "Nine Herbs Charm"
* "Wið færstice"

Chronicle poems|

* "Battle of Brunanburh"
* "Capture of the Five Boroughs"
* "The Coronation of Edgar"
* "The Death of King Edgar"
* "The Death of Alfred"
* "The Death of Edward"
* "The Rime of King William"

Other poems|

* "Metres of Boethius"
* "Paris Psalter" (BNF MS 8824)
* "Finnsburh Fragment"
* "Waldere A, B"
* "The Battle of Maldon"
* "Durham"
* "Rune poem"
* Solomon and Saturn
* "The Menologium"
* "Maxims II"
* "Proverb from Winfrid's time"
* "Judgment Day II"
* "An Exhortation to Christian Living"
* "A Summons to Prayer"
* "The Lord's Prayer II"
* "The Gloria I"
* "The Lord's Prayer III"
* "The Creed"
* "Old English Psalms" (fragments)
* "The Kentish Hymn"
* "Psalm 50"
* "The Gloria II"
* "A Prayer"
* "Thureth"
* "Aldhelm"
* "The Seasons for Fasting"
* Cædmon's "Hymn"
* "Bede's Death Song"
* "Leiden Riddle"
* "Latin-English Proverbs"
* Metrical Preface and Epilogue to Alfred's Hierdeboc
* Metrical Preface to Wærferth's translation of the Dialogues
* Metrical Epilogue to CCCC MS 41
* Brussels Cross
* Ruthwell Cross

Poets|

* Aldhelm
* Cædmon
* Cynewulf

Other|

* Alliterative verse
* Beasts of battle
* Kennings
* On Translating Beowulf
* Scop

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