Extinct languages of the Marañón River basin

Extinct languages of the Andes

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Pre-Inca languages in the 16th century.

The Marañón River basin, at a low point in the Andes which made it an attractive location for trade between the Inca Empire and the Amazon basin, once harbored numerous languages which have been poorly attested or not attested at all. Those of the middle reaches of the river, above the Amazon basin, were replaced in historical times by Aguaruna, a Jivaroan language from the Amazon which is still spoken there. The languages further upriver are difficult to identify, due to lack of data. The region was multilingual at the time of the Conquest, and the people largely switched to Spanish rather than to Quechua, though Quechua also expanded during Colonial times.

In Ecuador, at the province of Loja, were Palta, Malacato, Rabona, Bolona, and Xiroa. Historical sources suggest these were closely related, and there is some evidence that Palta (see) was a Jivaroan language. The name Xiroa may be a variant of Jivaro. Rabona is attested by a few words, some of which seem to be Jivaroan, but others of which appear to be Candoshí; since these are plant names, they say little about the classification of the language, and Adelaar (2004:397) leaves it unclassified. Bolona is essentially unattested.

North of the basin were Puruhá (scarcely attested), Cañar (known primarily from characteristic place names), Panzaleo (sometimes classified as Paezan), Caranqui (until the 18th century, seemingly Barbacoan), and Pasto (Barbacoan). Apart possibly from Panzaleo, these languages have elements in common, such as a final syllable -pud and onsets mwe-, pwe-, bwe-. Those suggest that they may have been related, and possibly were all Barbacoan. Adelaar (2004:397) finds this more likely than a proposal that Puruhá and Cañar were Chimuan languages (see).

In Peru, and further up in the Andes there were also numerous languages. Apart from Mochica and Cholón, the languages of northern Peru are largely unrecorded; the attested Marañón languages are Patagón (Patagón de Perico), Bagua (Patagón de Bagua), Chacha (Chachapoya), Copallén, Tabancale, Chirino, and Sácata (Chillao).

## Patagón

[edit]

Patagón

Patagón de Perico
Native to| Peru
Region| Marañón River basin
Extinct| (date missing)

Language family

Cariban

* (unclassified)
* Patagón

Language codes
ISO 639-3| None (`mis`)
Glottolog| `pata1255`

Patagón (Patagón de Perico, not to be confused with the Chonan languages of Tierra del Fuego and Patagonia): Four words are recorded, tuná 'water', anás 'maize', viue 'firewood', coará 'sheep' (evidently the word for 'sloth'). These suggest that Patagón was one of the Cariban languages, and therefore, like Aguaruna, from the Amazon (Adelaar 2004:405–406).

## Bagua

[edit]

Bagua

Patagón de Bagua
Native to| Peru
Region| Marañón River basin
Extinct| (date missing)

Language family

Cariban

* (unclassified)
* Bagua

Language codes
ISO 639-3| None (`mis`)
Glottolog| `bagu1249`

Bagua

Bagua (Patagón de Bagua) is attested by three words, tuna 'water', lancho 'maize', nacxé 'come here'. Tuna 'water' suggests it may be a Cariban language, like Patagón de Perico, but is insufficient evidence for classification.[1]

## Chacha

[edit]

Chacha

Native to| Peru
Region| Marañón River basin
Ethnicity| Chachapoyas
Extinct| (date missing)

Language family

unclassified (Cholon?
Cahuapanan?)

Language codes
ISO 639-3| None (`mis`)
Glottolog| `chac1253`

Chacha

Chacha is the name sometimes given to the language of the Chachapoya culture.[2] The Chachapoya, originally from the region of Kuelap to the east of the Marañón, were conquered by the Inca shortly before the Spanish conquest, and many were deported after the Inca Civil War. They sided with the Spanish and achieved independence for a time, but were then deported again by the Spanish, where most died of introduced disease. Their language is essentially unattested apart from toponyms and several hundred family names. Family names are mostly short and have been distorted through adaptation to Quechua; the only one which can be identified is Oc or Occ [ox], which according to oral history means 'puma' or 'bear' (Adelaar 2004:407). It may have been Cahuapanan.[3]

Chachapoya toponyms ending in -gach(e), -gat(e), -gote are found near water. Between the town of Cajamarca and the Marañón river is a similar toponymic element, attested variously as -cat(e), -cot(e), -gat(e), -got(e), with -cat found further across a wider area of northern Peru.[4] This may be the Cholón word for water; the place name Salcot or Zalcot is found three times in Cajamarca, as well as being the name of a Cholón village meaning 'black water'.

## Copallén

[edit]

Copallén

Native to| Peru
Region| Marañón River basin
Extinct| (date missing)

Language family

unclassified (Cholon?)

Language codes
ISO 639-3| None (`mis`)
Glottolog| `copa1238`

Four words are attested from Capallén (Copallín): quiet [kjet] 'water', chumac 'maize', olaman 'firewood', ismare 'house'. The word for water resembles the toponymic element -cat, posited to be an otherwise unknown language of the region. However, this is insufficient to identify Copallén as a Cholónan language.[5] It was spoken in villages of Llanque, Las Lomas, and Copallen, department of Cajamarca.[6]

## Tabancale

[edit]

Tabancale

Aconipa, Tabancal
Native to| Peru
Region| Marañón River basin
Extinct| (date missing)

Language family

unclassified (isolate?)

Language codes
ISO 639-3| None (`mis`)
Glottolog| `taba1269`

Five words of Tabancale (Tabancal, Aconipa) are recorded: yema 'water', moa 'maize', oyme 'firewood', lalaque [lalake] 'fire', tie 'house'. These do not correspond to any known language or family, so Tabancale is unclassified and potentially a language isolate. It was spoken in Aconipa, department of Cajamarca.[6]

## Chirino

[edit]

Chirino

Native to| Peru
Region| Marañón River basin
Ethnicity| Chirino
Extinct| (date missing)

Language family

Candoshi

* Chirino

Language codes
ISO 639-3| None (`mis`)
Glottolog| None

The Chirino were one of the principal peoples of the area. Based on the four words which were recorded, yungo 'water', yugato 'maize', xumás 'firewood', paxquiro [paʃˈkiɾo] 'grass', their language would appear to be related to Candoshi (Torero 1993, Adelaar 2004:406).

## Sácata

[edit]

Three words of the language of Sácata (Zácata), apparently that of the Chillao people, are recorded: unga 'water', umague [umaɡe] 'maize', chichache 'fire'. Connections have been suggested with Candoshí (the word for water is similar to that of Chinino) and Arawakan, but the evidence is insufficient.[7]

## Vocabulary

[edit]

The following is a vocabulary table for Patagón, Bagua, Chacha, Copallén, Tabancale, Chirino, and Sácata combined from data given in the sections above:

| water | maize | firewood | fire | house | sheep | grass | come here | puma, bear

|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|

Patagón  | tuná | anás | viue |  |  | coará |  |  |
Bagua  | tuna | lancho |  |  |  |  |  | nacxé |
Chacha  | -gach(e), -gat(e), -gote (?) |  |  |  |  |  |  |  | oc, occ [ox]
Copallén  | quiet [kjet] | chumac | olaman |  | ismare |  |  |  |
Tabancale  | yema | moa | oyme | lalaque [lalake] | tie |  |  |  |
Chirino  | yungo | yugato | xumás |  |  |  | paxquiro [paʃˈkiɾo] |  |
Sácata  | unga | umague [umaɡe] |  | chichache |  |  |  |  |

## See also

[edit]

* List of unclassified languages of South America
* List of extinct languages of South America
* List of indigenous languages of South America
* Classification of indigenous languages of the Americas
* Omurano language

## Notes

[edit]

1. ^ Hammarström, Harald; Forkel, Robert; Haspelmath, Martin, eds. (2017). "Bagua". Glottolog 3.0. Jena, Germany: Max Planck Institute for the Science of Human History.
2. ^ Hammarström, Harald; Forkel, Robert; Haspelmath, Martin, eds. (2017). "Chacha". Glottolog 3.0. Jena, Germany: Max Planck Institute for the Science of Human History.
3. ^ Campbell, Lyle (2024-06-25), "Indigenous Languages of South America", The Indigenous Languages of the Americas (1 ed.), Oxford University PressNew York, pp. 182–279, doi:10.1093/oso/9780197673461.003.0004, ISBN 978-0-19-767346-1, retrieved 2025-04-18
4. ^ Ramón, Gabriel; Andrade Ciudad, Luis (2021). "LA "LENGUA GUZMANGO" EN CAJAMARCA COLONIAL: CONTEXTO Y PERSPECTIVAS". Chungará (Arica) (ahead): 0–0\. doi:10.4067/S0717-73562021005002101. ISSN 0717-7356.
5. ^ Hammarström, Harald; Forkel, Robert; Haspelmath, Martin, eds. (2017). "Copallen". Glottolog 3.0. Jena, Germany: Max Planck Institute for the Science of Human History.
6. ^ a b Loukotka, Čestmír (1968). Classification of South American Indian languages. Los Angeles: UCLA Latin American Center.
7. ^ Hammarström, Harald; Forkel, Robert; Haspelmath, Martin, eds. (2017). "Sacata". Glottolog 3.0. Jena, Germany: Max Planck Institute for the Science of Human History.

## References

[edit]

* Adelaar, Willem F. H.; & Muysken, Pieter C. (2004). The Languages of the Andes. Cambridge Language Surveys. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-36275-7.
* Jiménez de la Espada, Marcos (1965) [1881–1887]. Relaciones geográficas de Indias: Perú. Madrid.`{{cite book}}`: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
* Loukotka, Čestmír. (1968). Classification of South American Indian Languages, ed. Wilbert, Johannes. Los Angeles: University of California (UCLA), Latin American Center.
* Rivet, Paul. (1934). "Population de la province de Jaén. Equateur." In Congrès international des sciences anthropologiques et ethnologiques: compte-rendu de la première session, pp. 245–7. London: Royal Institute of Anthropology.
* Taylor, Anne Christine. (1999). "The Western Margins of Amazonia from the Early Sixteenth to the Early Nineteenth Century". In Salomon and Schwartz. (1999). The Cambridge History of the Native Peoples of South America, part 2, pp. 188–256.. Cambridge University Press,
* Torero Fernández de Córdova, Alfredo A. (1993). "Lenguas del nororiente peruano: la hoya de Jaén en el siglo XVI", Revista Andina 11, 2, pp. 447–72. Cuzco: Centro Bartolomé de Las Casas.

* v
* t
* e

Indigenous language families and isolates of South America

Based on Campbell 2024 classification

Language families
and isolates|

* Arawakan

| Je–Tupi–Carib ?|

* Cariban
* Tupian

| Macro-Jê sensu stricto|

* Jê
* Jabutian *
* Kamakã †
* Krenakan *
* Maxakalian
* Jaikó †
* Karajá
* Ofayé *
* Rikbaktsá *

|

Eastern Brazil|

* Karirian †
* Chiquitano
* Guató *
* Purí–Coroado †
* Taruma *
* Xukurú †
* Yaté

Orinoco (Venezuela)|

* Otomacoan †
* Sáliban
* Ticuna–Yuri
* Yanomaman
* Arutani *
* Betoi †
* Guamo †
* Hodï
* Máku †
* Sapé †
* Warao
* Yaruro

Andes (Colombia and Venezuela)|

* Jirajaran †
* Paezan
* Timotean †
* Tiniguan *
* Andaquí †
* Cofán
* Camsá

Amazon (Colombia, Japurá–Vaupés area)|

* Andoque–Urequena
* Boran
* Guajiboan
* Kakwa-Nukak
* Nadahup
* Puinave
* Tucanoan
* Witotoan

Pacific coast (Colombia and Ecuador)|

* Barbacoan
* Chibchan
* Chocoan
* Esmeralda †
* Yurumanguí †

Pacific coast (Peru)|

* Cañari–Puruhá †
* Mochica †
* Sechura †
* Tallán †
* Catacaoan †

Amazon (Peru)|

* Cahuapanan
* Chicham
* Hibito–Cholon †
* Pano–Tacanan
* Peba–Yagua
* Zaparoan
* Candoshi
* Munichi †
* Omurano †
* Taushiro *
* Tequiraca †
* Urarina
* Waorani

Amazon (west-central Brazil)|

* Arawan
* Harákmbut–Katukinan
* Muran
* Matanawí †
* Trumai *

Mamoré–Guaporé|

* Bororoan
* Chapacuran
* Mosetenan
* Nambikwaran
* Aikanã
* Arara do Rio Branco †
* Canichana †
* Cayubaba
* Itonama *
* Irantxe
* Kanoê *
* Kwazá *
* Leco †
* Movima
* Yuracaré

Andes (Peru, Bolivia, and Chile)|

* Araucanian
* Aymaran
* Quechuan
* Uru–Chipaya
* Culle †
* Kunza †
* Puquina †

Chaco–Pampas|

* Charruan *
* Chonan †
* Guaicuruan
* Huarpean †
* Lule–Vilelan †
* Matacoan
* Mascoyan
* Zamucoan
* Guachí †
* Payaguá †

Far South (Chile)|

* Qawasqaran *
* Chono †
* Yaghan †

Proposed groupings|

* Duho
* Macro-Andean
* Macro-Arawakan
* Macro-Chibchan
* Macro-Jibaro
* Macro-Otomákoan
* Macro-Paesan
* Macro-Panoan
* Macro-Puinavean
* Mura–Matanawí
* Macro-Warpean
* Arutani–Sape
* Bora–Witoto
* Esmeralda–Yaruroan
* Je–Tupi–Carib
* Katembri–Taruma
* Mataco–Guaicuru
* Maya–Yunga–Chipayan
* Moseten–Chonan
* Quechumaran
* Saparo–Yawan
* Chimuan
* Tequiraca–Canichana
* Wamo–Chapakura
* Sechura–Catacao
* Amerind

Unclassified|

* Aguano †
* Anserma †
* Arma †
* Baenan †
* Bagua †
* Cabixi †
* Caimbé †
* Catuquinaru †
* Chachapoya †
* Comechingón †
* Copallen †
* Diaguita †
* Gamela †
* Gorgotoqui †
* Himarimã
* Humahuaca †
* Isolado do Tanarú †
* Kambiwá †
* Kapinawá †
* Katembri †
* Majena †
* Malibu †
* Mure †
* Natú †
* Otí †
* Pankararú †
* Palta †
* Panche †
* Paratió †
* Patagón †
* Pijao †
* Querandí †
* Quingnam †
* Ramanos †
* Sacata †
* Sanavirón †
* Sinú †
* Tapajó †
* Tarairiú †
* Truká †
* Tremembé †
* Tuxá †
* Wakoná †
* Wamoé †
* Wasu †
* Xokó †

Linguistic areas|

* Chaco
* Mamoré–Guaporé
* Amazonian

Countries|

* Argentina
* Bolivia
* Brazil
* Colombia
* Chile
* Ecuador
* Paraguay
* Peru
* Venezuela
* Guyana
* Suriname
* French Guiana

Lists|

* Languages
* Extinct languages
* Marañón River basin
* Unclassified languages
* Classification
* Linguistic areas

† indicates an extinct language, italics indicates independent status of a language, bold indicates that a language family has at least 6 members, * indicates moribund status
*[v]: View this template
*[t]: Discuss this template
*[e]: Edit this template
*[†]: Extinct