Fall of the Assad regime

2024 end of Ba'athist rule in Syria

Fall of the Assad regimePart of the 2024 Syrian opposition offensives in the Syrian civil war, and the Middle Eastern crisis (2023–present)

From top, clockwise:

* Rebels at a statue of Bassel al-Assad, later pulled down
* T-72 abandoned by pro-regime forces
* A destroyed image of Bashar al-Assad
* Opposition and Saudi Arabian flags displayed on a Syrian Army tank
* Ahmed al-Sharaa speaks at Umayyad Mosque

Date| 8 December 2024
Location| Syria
Organised by| Syrian opposition
Outcome|

* End of the Syrian Civil War[disputed – discuss]
* Syrian president Bashar al-Assad flees to Russia following the fall of Damascus[1]
* Collapse of pro-government forces and Ba'athist Syria[2]
* The Syrian opposition takes control of Damascus and most of Syria
* Establishment of the Syrian caretaker government
* Beginning of the Israeli invasion of Syria
* Brief Assad loyalist insurgency in Western Syria

|  |

This article is part of
a series about

Bashar al-Assad

|

* * *

Personal

* Early life
* Family
* Assadism

* * *

President of Syria

* Presidency
* Foreign policy
* Presidential trips
* Occupation of Lebanon
* Cedar Revolution
* Damascus Spring
* Damascus Declaration
* Operation Outside the Box

* * *

Syrian civil war

* Arab Spring
* Syrian revolution
* Arab–Israeli conflict
* War against ISIS
* COVID-19 pandemic
* Regime fall
* Fall of Damascus (2024)
* Proposed handover to Syria

* * *

Governments

* Mero I
* Mero II
* Al-Otari
* Safar
* Hijab
* Al-Halqi I
* Al-Halqi II
* Khamis
* Arnous I
* Arnous II
* Jalali

* * *

Elections

* 2000
* 2007
* 2014
* 2021

* v
* t
* e

* v
* t
* e

Syrian civil war

Timeline

* Background and causes
* Casualties
* Cities
* Terrorism
* Massacres

* v
* t
* e

Civil uprising in Syria (March–August 2011)

* Daraa
* Baniyas
* Homs (May–August 2011)
* Talkalakh
* Rastan and Talbiseh
* 1st Jisr ash-Shughur
* Hama
* Latakia

* v
* t
* e

Start of insurgency in Syria (Sept. 2011 – April 2012)

* Siege of Homs
* 1st Homs offensive
* 1st Idlib Gov.
* Syrian–Turkish border
* Jabal al-Zawiya
* 1st Idlib City
* Saraqib
* 1st Rastan
* Hama Gov.
* Daraa Gov.
* Rif Dimashq Gov.
* 1st Rif Dimashq
* 1st Zabadani
* Douma
* 1st Deir ez-Zor Gov.
* Hatla
* Aleppo Gov.
* Azaz
* 2nd Rastan
* 1st al-Qusayr
* 2nd Idlib Gov.
* Taftanaz

* v
* t
* e

UN ceasefire; Rebel advances (May 2012 – Dec. 2013)

* 3rd Rastan
* Houla
* 1st Northern Homs
* Al-Haffah
* Al-Qubeir
* Al-Tremseh
* 3rd Idlib Gov.
* 1st Damascus
* Bombing
* 1st Aleppo city
* Anadan
* Menagh Air Base
* Base 46
* Khan al-Assal
* 1st Aleppo offensive
* 2nd Aleppo offensive
* Syrian Kurdistan and Kurdish–Islamist conflict
* Hasaka campaign
* Ras al-Ayn
* al-Yaarubiyah
* Tell Hamis and Tell Brak
* Tell Abyad
* Nubl & Al-Zahraa
* 2nd Rif Dimashq (1st Darayya)
* Abu al-Duhur Airbase
* Quneitra Gov.
* 3rd Rif Dimashq
* 1st Yarmouk camp
* 2nd Darayya
* Darayya & Muadamiyat
* Aqrab
* 1st Hama offensive
* Halfaya
* 1st Safira
* Shadadeh
* 2nd Damascus
* 1st Raqqa Gov.
* 1st Raqqa city
* 1st Daraa offensive
* 4th Rif Dimashq
* Jdaidet al-Fadl
* Tadamon
* Ghouta
* 2nd al-Qusayr
* 3rd al-Qusayr
* Eastern Ghouta
* 2nd Hama offensive
* Bayda and Baniyas
* 1st Latakia offensive
* Ma'loula
* Sadad
* 5th Rif Dimashq
* 1st Qalamoun
* Adra

* v
* t
* e

Rise of ISIS in 2014

* Inter-rebel conflict
* Northern Aleppo
* Markada
* 1st Deir ez-Zor offensive
* al-Otaiba ambush
* Maan
* Hosn
* Morek
* 2nd Daraa offensive
* 2nd Latakia offensive
* 4th Idlib Gov.
* Al-Malihah
* 2nd Wadi Deif
* 2nd Qalamoun
* Arsal
* 2nd Deir ez-Zor Gov.
* 1st Shaer gas field
* 1st Eastern Syria
* Tabqa Airbase
* 3rd Hama offensive
* 6th Rif Dimashq
* 1st Quneitra
* 1st Kobanî

* v
* t
* e

U.S.-led intervention, Rebel and ISIL advances (Sept. 2014 – Sept. 2015)

* U.S.-led intervention
* Homs school bombing
* 3rd Daraa offensive
* 2nd Safira
* 2014 Idlib city raid
* Nusra–FSA conflict
* 2nd Shaer gas field
* 1st Al-Shaykh Maskin
* 2nd Deir ez-Zor offensive
* 3rd Aleppo offensive
* An-26 crash
* 4th Daraa offensive
* Southern Syria
* Eastern al-Hasakah offensive
* 1st Sarrin
* Hama/Homs offensive
* Bosra
* 5th Idlib Gov
* 2nd Idlib city
* Al-Fu'ah-Kafriya
* Nasib
* 2nd Yarmouk camp
* 1st Northwestern Syria
* 3rd Qalamoun
* 1st Palmyra
* Western al-Hasakah offensive
* 1st Al-Hasakah city
* Tell Abyad
* Daraa/As-Suwayda
* 2nd Quneitra
* 2nd Sarrin
* 5th Daraa
* 2nd Al-Hasakah city
* 2nd Kobanî
* 4th Aleppo offensive
* 2nd Zabadani
* 2nd Palmyra
* Al-Ghab
* 1st al-Qaryatayn
* Douma market
* 7th Rif Dimashq
* Kuweires offensive

* v
* t
* e

Russian intervention (Sept. 2015 – March 2016)

* Russian intervention
* 3rd Quneitra
* 2nd Northwestern Syria
* 3rd Latakia offensive
* Su-24 shootdown
* 5th Aleppo offensive
* al-Hawl
* 2nd Homs offensive
* 6th Aleppo offensive
* 4th Hama offensive
* Tell Tamer
* Tishrin Dam
* 2nd Al-Shaykh Maskin
* al-Qamishli bombings
* Orontes River
* 3rd Deir ez-Zor offensive
* 1st Sayyidah Zaynab
* 7th Aleppo offensive
* 1st Ithriyah-Raqqa
* Al-Shaddadi
* Homs bombings
* 2nd Sayyidah Zaynab
* Khanasir
* 2nd Tel Abyad
* Al-Tanf
* 2nd Al-Qaryatayn
* 3rd Palmyra
* 2nd Maarat al-Nu'man

* v
* t
* e

Aleppo escalation and Euphrates Shield (March 2016 – February 2017)

* 8th Aleppo offensive
* 6th Daraa
* 9th–11th Aleppo offensives
* Al-Dumayr
* 1st East Ghouta inter-rebel conflict
* 1st Qamishli
* Aleppo bombings
* 8th Rif Dimashq
* 3rd Shaer gas field
* Northern Raqqa
* Jableh & Tartus
* 1st Manbij
* Tokhar
* 2nd Ithriyah-Raqqa
* 9th Rif Dimashq
* 12th–14th Aleppo offensives
* 12th
* 13th
* 14th
* 4th Latakia offensive
* 1st Abu Kamal
* 3rd Qamishli
* Atmeh
* al-Rai
* 3rd Al-Hasakah City
* Operation Euphrates Shield
* Northern al-Bab
* Dabiq
* al-Bab
* 5th Hama offensive
* 1st Western al-Bab
* 1st Eastern Qalamoun
* September bombings
* 4th Quneitra
* Deir ez-Zor airstrike
* Aleppo aid convoy attack
* 15th Aleppo offensive
* Khan al-Shih
* 1st Idlib inter-rebel conflict
* 2nd Western al-Bab
* 16th Aleppo offensive
* 2nd Raqqa Gov.
* 17th Aleppo offensive
* 4th Palmyra
* Wadi Barada
* 1st Syrian Desert
* Azaz bombings
* 5th Palmyra
* 4th Deir ez-Zor offensive
* 18th Aleppo offensive
* 2nd Idlib inter-rebel conflict
* 7th Daraa
* Qaboun
* 8th Daraa

* v
* t
* e

Collapse of the Islamic State in Syria (Feb. – Nov. 2017)

* Eastern Homs offensive
* al-Jina mosque
* 6th Hama offensive
* Tabqa
* Khan Shaykhun
* US Shayrat strike
* Aleppo bus bombing
* April 2017 Turkish airstrikes
* 2nd East Ghouta inter-rebel conflict
* 2nd Syrian Desert
* Maskanah
* East Hama
* 2nd Raqqa city
* 9th Daraa
* Southern Raqqa
* Iranian Deir ez-Zor strike
* Ja'din
* Jobar
* 5th Quneitra
* Central Syria
* 3rd Idlib inter-rebel conflict
* 4th Qalamoun
* 3rd Deir ez-Zor Gov.
* 2nd Eastern Syria
* 5th Deir ez-Zor offensive
* Euphrates Crossing
* Mayadin
* 2nd Abu Kamal
* 7th Hama offensive

* v
* t
* e

Rebels in retreat and Operation Olive Branch
(Nov. 2017 – Sep. 2018)

* 3rd Northwestern Syria
* Eastern Syria insurgency
* Atarib
* Harasta
* Beit Jinn
* 3rd Syrian Desert
* 6th Deir ez-Zor offensive
* 1st Southern Damascus
* Olive Branch
* Afrin
* SDF insurgency
* Khasham
* Feb 2018 Israel–Syria incident
* 10th Rif Dimashq (Douma)
* 4th Idlib inter-rebel conflict
* 2nd Southern Damascus
* U.S.-led missile strikes
* 2nd Northern Homs
* 2nd Eastern Qalamoun
* 3rd Southern Damascus
* Deir ez-Zor SAA-SDF clashes
* House of Cards
* 1st As-Suwayda
* 2nd Southern Syria
* 2nd As-Suwayda
* 3rd As-Suwayda
* 2nd Qamishli

* v
* t
* e

Idlib demilitarization
(Sep. 2018 – April 2019)

* Idlib demilitarization
* 5th Idlib inter-rebel conflict
* 1st Israeli missile strikes
* 2nd Iranian strike
* Northern border clashes
* Daraa insurgency
* Manbij bombing
* Baghuz Fawqani
* U.S. airstrike

* v
* t
* e

First Idlib offensive, Operation Peace Spring, & Second Idlib offensive (April 2019 – March 2020)

* 4th Northwestern
* Tell Rifaat
* Raqqa & Azaz
* Hass
* 2nd Israeli missile strikes
* Peace Spring (2nd Ras al-Ayn)
* Kayla Mueller
* Northern bombings
* 3rd Israeli missile strikes
* Qah
* 5th Northwestern
* Balyun
* Spring Shield
* 2nd U.S. missile strikes
* 10th Daraa

* v
* t
* e

Idlib ceasefire (March 2020 – Nov. 2024)

* 6th Idlib inter-rebel conflict
* Ayn Issa
* Qamishli & Al-Hasakah
* 4th Israeli missile strikes
* 3rd Qamishli
* 11th Daraa
* 7th Idlib inter-rebel conflict
* 3rd Al-Hasakah city
* 1st Aleppo inter-rebel conflict
* Jabal al-Bishrī
* 2nd Aleppo inter-rebel conflict
* Claw-Sword
* Northwestern clashes
* 3rd U.S. missile strikes
* 2nd Northern clashes
* Deir ez-Zor clashes
* 3rd Northern clashes
* Homs drone strike
* Israel–Hezbollah conflict (Iranian consulate airstrike)
* February 2024 airstrikes
* Anti-Turkish riots
* Masyaf raid

* v
* t
* e

Opposition offensives and Assad overthrown (Nov. – Dec. 2024)

* Opposition offensives
* 2nd Aleppo city
* Hospital strike
* 8th Hama offensive
* 19th Aleppo offensive
* 7th Deir ez-Zor offensive
* 3rd Homs offensive
* 6th Palmyra
* Al-Mustariha strike
* 3rd Southern Syria
* 3rd Damascus
* Fall of the Assad regime

* v
* t
* e

Post-Assad era clashes (Dec. 2024 – present)

* Northeastern
* 2nd Manbij
* 2nd Kobani
* 20th Aleppo offensive
* Israeli invasion of Syria
* July 2025 Damascus airstrikes
* Hezbollah–Syria clashes
* Assadist insurgency
* 1st Western clashes
* 12th Daraa
* 2nd Western clashes
* Massacres of Syrian Alawites
* Druze insurgency
* Jaramana
* 4th Southern Syria
* Massacres of Syrian Druze
* 5th Southern Syria
* ISIS insurgency
* Mar Elias Church attack

* v
* t
* e

Syrian War spillover and international incidents

* Lebanon spillover
* Lebanese–Syrian border
* Sidon
* Iranian embassy bombing
* North Lebanon clashes

* * *

* Syrian–Turkish border incidents
* Turkish F4 shootdown
* Reyhanlı bombings
* Turkish occupation of northern Syria
* Kurdish riots

* * *

* Jordanian–Syrian border incidents

* * *

* Israeli–Syrian ceasefire line
* February 2018 incident
* May 2018 incident

* * *

* Iraqi–Syrian border incidents
* Akashat
* al-Shabah
* Western Nineveh
* Western Iraq

* * *

* Spillover in Iran
* 2017 Tehran attacks
* 2017 Deir ez-Zor missile strike
* 2024 Iranian airstrikes in Syria

* * *

* Spillover in Turkey
* Russian Su-24 shootdown
* Andrei Karlov
* Balyun airstrikes
* Kafr Takharim airstrikes

* * *

* Iran–Saudi Arabia proxy conflict

* * *

* Spillover in Europe

* v
* t
* e

Foreign involvement in the Syrian civil war

Foreign intervention on behalf of Syrian Arab Republic

* Russian involvement
* 2015 intervention
* Iranian intervention
* 2017 missile strike
* 2012 Hezbollah involvement

Foreign intervention in behalf of Syrian rebels

* Foreign rebel fighters
* Turkish involvement
* Turkey–Islamic State conflict
* Tomb of Suleyman Shah relocation
* Euphrates Shield
* 2017 airstrikes
* Idlib Governorate operation
* Afrin operation
* 2019 Turkish offensive into north-eastern Syria
* Israel's role

U.S.-led intervention against ISIL

* US intervention
* Timeline
* List of attacks
* 2014 rescue operation
* May 2015 raid
* 2017 missile strikes
* Qatari involvement
* Jordanian intervention
* Operation Martyr Muath
* Lebanon's role
* Saudi involvement
* April 2018 missile strikes
* Dutch involvement
* German intervention
* French intervention
* Australian intervention
* UK intervention

On 8 December 2024, the Assad regime collapsed during a major offensive by opposition forces. The offensive was spearheaded by Hay'at Tahrir al-Sham (HTS) and supported mainly by the Turkish-backed Syrian National Army as part of the ongoing Syrian civil war that began with the Syrian revolution in 2011. The capture of Syria's capital, Damascus, marked the end of the Assad family's rule, which had governed Syria as a hereditary totalitarian dictatorship since Hafez al-Assad assumed power in 1971 after a successful coup d'état.

As a rebel coalition advanced towards Damascus, reports emerged that Bashar al-Assad had fled the capital aboard a plane to Russia, where he joined his family, already in exile, and was granted asylum.[3] Following his departure, opposition forces declared victory on state television. Concurrently, the Russian Ministry of Foreign Affairs confirmed Assad's resignation and departure from Syria.[4][5][6]

The swift fall of the Assad regime was met with shock and surprise throughout the world, including with the Syrian people. Syrian opposition fighters were reportedly surprised at how quickly the Syrian government had collapsed in the wake of their offensive.[7] Analysts viewed the event as a significant blow to Iran's Axis of Resistance due to their use of Assad's Syria as a waypoint to supply arms and supplies to Hezbollah, a key ally.[8][9] Several Western academics and geopolitical commentators likened the regime's collapse to the fall of the Berlin Wall in 1989, comparing the broader geopolitical shifts that occurred after both events.

## Background

[edit]

See also: Presidency of Hafez al-Assad, Presidency of Bashar al-Assad, and Neo-Ba'athism

The Assad family, c. 1993. Front: Anisa Makhlouf and Hafez al-Assad. Rear, left to right: Maher, Bashar, Bassel, Majd, and Bushra al-Assad.

The Assad family had ruled Syria since 1971, when Hafez al-Assad seized power and became the president of Syria under the Syrian Ba'ath Party. After his death in June 2000, he was succeeded by his son Bashar al-Assad.[10][11][12][13]

Hafez al-Assad built his governmental system as a bureaucracy that was marked by a distinct cult of personality. Images, portraits, quotes and praises of Assad were displayed everywhere from schools to public markets and government offices. He was referred to as the "Immortal Leader" and the "Sanctified One" (al-Muqaddas).[14] Assad reorganised Syrian society along militaristic lines, persistently invoked conspiratorial rhetoric on the dangers of foreign-backed plots abetted by fifth columnists, and promoted the armed forces as a central aspect of public life.[15][16][17]

After Hafez al-Assad's seizure of power in 1970, state propaganda promoted a new national discourse based on unifying Syrians under "a single imagined Ba'athist identity," as well as Assadism.[18] Fervently loyalist paramilitaries known as the Shabiha (transl. 'ghosts') deified Assad and pursued psychological warfare against non-conformist populations.[19]

### Bashar al-Assad

[edit]

After Hafez al-Assad's death, his son and successor Bashar al-Assad inherited the existing personality cult, with the party hailing him as the "Young Leader" and "Hope of the People." Drawing influence from North Korea's hereditary leadership model, official propaganda in Syria ascribed divine features to the Assad family, and reveres the Assad patriarchs as the founding fathers of modern Syria.[15][16][17]

In 2011, the United States, European Union, and most Arab League countries called for Assad to resign following the crackdown on Arab Spring protesters during the events of the Syrian Revolution, which led to the Syrian civil war.[20] As of 2022[update] the civil war had killed around 580,000 people, of whom at least 306,000 were non-combatants. According to the Syrian Network for Human Rights, pro-Assad forces caused more than 90% of the civilian deaths.[21] The Assad government perpetrated numerous war crimes during the course of the Syrian civil war,[a] and Assad's army, the Syrian Arab Armed Forces, also carried out several attacks with chemical weapons.[27] The deadliest chemical attack was a sarin gas strike in Ghouta on 21 August 2013, which killed between 281 and 1,729 people.[28][note 1]

In December 2013, the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights Navi Pillay stated that findings from an inquiry by the UN implicated Assad in war crimes. Investigations by the OPCW-UN Joint Investigative Mechanism and OPCW-UN IIT concluded, respectively, that the Assad government was responsible for the 2017 Khan Shaykhun sarin attack and 2018 Douma chemical attack. On 15 November 2023, France issued an arrest warrant against al-Assad over the use of banned chemical weapons against civilians in Syria.[42] Assad categorically denied the allegations, and accused foreign countries, especially the United States, of attempting regime change.[43]

## Opposition takeover

[edit]

### Military advances

[edit]

See also: Fall of Damascus (2024), 2024 Homs offensive, Battle of Aleppo (2024), and 2024 Hama offensive

Map of the 2024 Syrian opposition offensives Abandoned armoured vehicles of Assad's forces.

Planning by anti-Assad forces for an offensive against Aleppo began in late 2023 but was delayed by Turkish objections.[44][45] Turkish president Recep Tayyip Erdoğan sought negotiations with the Assad government, to "determine Syria's future together," but received a negative response, following which he allowed the opposition troops around HTS to begin their offensive.[46][47]

On 7 December 2024, opposition forces secured complete control of Homs following approximately twenty-four hours of concentrated military engagement. The rapid collapse of government defences resulted in the hasty withdrawal of security forces, who destroyed sensitive documentation during their retreat. The capture granted insurgent forces control over critical transportation infrastructure, particularly the highway junction connecting Damascus to the Alawite coastal region, where both Assad's support base and Russian military installations were situated.[48]

Assad-allied Hezbollah forces withdrew from nearby al-Qusayr, evacuating approximately 150 armored vehicles and hundreds of fighters. The reduction in support from key allies, including Russia's diminished involvement due to its focus on its invasion of Ukraine, and Hezbollah's concurrent engagement in conflict with Israel, were believed to contribute to the government's weakened position.[48]

The takeover of Homs by opposition forces prompted widespread public celebrations, with residents participating in street demonstrations. Celebrants chanted anti-Assad slogans including: "Assad is gone, Homs is free" and "Long live Syria, down with Bashar al-Assad", removed government symbols which included portraits of Assad, while opposition fighters conducted victory celebrations including celebratory gunfire.[48]

Abandoned army tank on the highway.

On 7 December, Syrian rebels announced that they started surrounding Damascus after capturing nearby towns, with rebel commander Hassan Abdel Ghani stating that "our forces have begun implementing the final phase of encircling the capital Damascus."[49] The rebels started encircling the capital after capturing Al-Sanamayn, a town 20 kilometres (12 mi) from the southern entrance of Damascus.[50] By the evening, pro-government forces had left the towns on the outskirts of Damascus, including Jaramana, Qatana, Muadamiyat al-Sham, Darayya, Al-Kiswah, Al-Dumayr, Daraa and sites near the Mezzeh Air Base.[51]

The Syrian Army attempted to maintain public order through state media broadcasts, urging citizens to disregard what they termed "false news" aimed at destabilizing national security. Military leadership assured the population of their continued commitment to defending the country, though their ability to do so appeared increasingly limited. Opposition reconnaissance units penetrated the capital's defences, establishing positions in strategic locations throughout the city. Special operations teams conducted unsuccessful searches for Assad within Damascus.[52]

In April 2025, Israeli prime minister Benjamin Netanyahu said that Israeli F-16 fighter jets intercepted Iranian aircraft suspected to be carrying airborne divisions to assist the Assad regime, forcing them to turn back.[53]

### Loss of political control

[edit]

"Victory of the great Syrian revolution and the fall of the criminal Assad regime" on Syrian state TV after Damascus fell to the rebels. This was its sole broadcast for several hours.[54]

In the main square of Jaramana, protestors took down a statue of Hafez al-Assad. In the evening, pro-government forces reportedly withdrew from several suburbs where large-scale protests had broken out.[52]

Senior Assad government officials in Damascus reportedly engaged in negotiations with opposition forces regarding potential defections. These developments coincided with Iranian officials' denial of reports suggesting Assad had fled the country, though sources indicated his whereabouts in Damascus remained unknown. Following the entrance of opposition forces, Assad's presidential guard was no longer deployed at his usual residence. By the early evening of 7 December 2024 rebel forces attempting to find Assad had found no useful intelligence on his whereabouts.[52]

On 8 December, Ha'yat Tahrir al-Sham announced on its official X account that it had released its prisoners from Sednaya Prison in Damascus's periphery, one of Syria's largest detention facilities. The organization deemed the release as a symbolic and strategic victory for its forces in the face of prior human rights abuses, and representative of the downfall of the Assad government's injustices.[55] After its capture in 2024, Tahrir al-Sham published a list of escaped prison staff, who became among the most wanted fugitives in Syria after the Assad family.[56]

The opposition's entry into Damascus met minimal resistance, due to an apparent lack of military dispatches to areas of the city and the rapid dissolution of government defensive positions, allowing the capture of several districts. The Syrian Observatory for Human Rights (SOHR) confirmed that opposition forces successfully seized several critical facilities in Damascus, including the state-media General Organization of Radio and TV building and Damascus International Airport. Their advances also secured control of major transportation arteries and strategic neighbourhoods, particularly the influential Mezzeh district.[57][58]

### Departure of the Assad family

[edit]

First Lady Asma al-Assad had moved to Russia with the couple's three children about a week before opposition forces had begun their advance toward Damascus. Concurrent reports indicated that members of Assad's extended family, including relatives from his sister's lineage, took refuge in the United Arab Emirates. In the days before the opposition's advance, Egyptian and Jordanian officials were reported to have urged Bashar al-Assad to leave the country and form a government-in-exile, although the Egyptian Foreign Ministry and the Jordanian embassy denied doing so.[59][60]

In the early hours of 8 December, Assad departed from Damascus International Airport to Moscow, Russia in a private aircraft,[55][61] after which government troops stationed at the facility were dismissed from their posts.[62] According to Rami Abdel Rahman (SOHR), Bashar al-Assad had "left Syria via Damascus international airport".[63][64] Following efforts by Russian foreign minister Sergey Lavrov to facilitate his departure, Assad, who left under great secrecy, was reported to have gone first to the Russian-operated Khmeimim Air Base near Latakia before proceeding to Moscow.[65] Mikhail Ulyanov (Russia's ambassador to international organizations in Vienna) announced on Telegram that Assad and his family had been granted asylum in Russia.[3][66][67] The Russian government said that Assad resigned the presidency following a personal decision.[68] On 16 December, the Telegram account of the Syrian presidency published a statement attributed to Assad saying that he had gone to a Russian military base in Latakia Governorate "to oversee combat operations" following the fall of Damascus but was evacuated out of the country by Russia after coming under siege from rebel forces, adding that he had no intention of resigning or going into exile.[69]

Apart from Bashar, his brother Maher al-Assad also fled abroad, flying a helicopter to Iraq before proceeding to Russia, while two of their cousins, Ehab and Eyad Makhlouf, tried to flee to Lebanon by car but were reportedly ambushed by rebels who killed Ehab and injured Eyad.[65] On 27 December, Rasha Khazem, the wife of Bashar's cousin Duraid Assad — who is in turn the son of Bashar's uncle Rifaat al-Assad, was arrested along with her daughter Shams in Lebanon while they were attempting to fly out to Egypt. Rifaat was reported to have left via Lebanon the previous day.[70] The Syrian embassy in Beirut was subsequently closed after reports emerged that Rasha and Shams' passports were forged at the office.[71]

Following the departures of members of the Assad family, videos showing groups of people entering and exploring inside Bashar al-Assad's empty residence in al-Maliki were circulated online.[72]

### Dissolution of the Syrian government

[edit]

Following Assad's departure, the Syrian Arab Army Command gave an announcement to its soldiers and officers that they were no longer in service as of 8 December 2024, claiming the Assad government had ceased to exist.[73][74] Rebel forces took control over local TV stations and broadcast a message announcing victory against Assad's forces.[75] At this point, organized resistance to the takeover ceased. Syrian army divisions were reported to be abandoning their uniforms and weapons to change into civilian clothing during and after the fall of Damascus.[76]

Certain figures of the dissolved government, such as Syrian Prime Minister Mohammad Ghazi al-Jalali, remained in Damascus and promised to cooperate with the opposition.[61] However, many members of the government, especially those involved in military activities, have fled the country and their current whereabouts are unknown.[77] Others are believed to be taking refuge in their hometowns in Alawite-majority areas.[78] Besides Bashar al-Assad and his brother Maher, the fugitives include Minister of Defence Ali Mahmoud Abbas, Minister of the Interior Mohammad Khaled al-Rahmoun, the Chief of the General Staff Abdul Karim Mahmoud Ibrahim, and the head of the National Security Office Kifah Moulhem, alongside several others.[77] The new Syrian government has offered rewards for information leading to the capture of fugitives involved in the previous government's military and prison apparatus.[79] On 26 December, Mohammad Kanjo Hassan, the former head of the Syrian Arab Army's field court and chief of military justice was arrested in Tartus for sentencing "thousands of people" to death during the civil war.[78] The SOHR said that nearly 300 Assad loyalists had been arrested nationwide by 29 December.[80]

## Aftermath

[edit]

Syrian President Ahmed al-Sharaa and SDF leader Mazloum Abdi agree to integrate the SDF into the Syrian Arab Republic.

Ministers of the transitional government under President Ahmed al-Sharaa, 29 March 2025

### Political transition

[edit]

Main articles: Syrian caretaker government and Syrian transitional government

HTS leader Ahmed al-Sharaa stated on Telegram that Syrian public institutions would not immediately be given to its military forces, and would instead temporarily be held by Syrian Prime Minister Mohammad Ghazi al-Jalali until the full political transition was completed. Al-Jalali announced in a social media video that he planned to stay in Damascus and cooperate with the Syrian people, while expressing hope that Syria could become "a normal country" and begin to engage in diplomacy with other nations.[61] Al-Sharaa called events "a new chapter in the history of the region" and condemned Syria's role as "a playground for Iranian ambitions," characterized by sectarianism and corruption.[81]

Mohammed al-Bashir, head of the Syrian Salvation Government, was appointed by the Syrian General Command as the new Prime Minister of the Syrian caretaker government on 10 December 2024.[82][83] HTS has assured that they will protect and allow Christians and other minorities to freely practice their religion.[84][85] On 31 December, al-Sharaa met with senior Syrian Christian leaders at the People's Palace.[86]

On 29 January 2025, during the Syrian Revolution Victory Conference in Damascus, the Syrian General Command appointed al-Sharaa as president for the transitional period after he had served as the de facto leader following the fall of the Assad regime.[87] As president, al-Sharaa announced plans to issue a "constitutional declaration" as a legal reference following the repeal of the 2012 constitution of Ba'athist Syria.[88] On 12 February, two major organizations of the former Syrian opposition, the Syrian National Coalition and the Syrian Negotiation Commission, announced their allegiance to the caretaker government.[89]

On 11 March, al-Sharaa signed an agreement with Mazloum Abdi, the commander of the Syrian Democratic Forces (SDF), to incorporate SDF-controlled institutions into the state, establish border crossings, and pledge to fight the remnants of the Assad regime.[90] The deadline for the merger has been set for the end of 2025.[91]

On 13 March, he signed an interim constitution for a transitional period of five years, enshrining Islamic law as a main derivation of jurisprudence and promising to protect the rights of all Syria's ethnic and religious groups.[92] The Interim Constitution sets a presidential system with the executive power at the hands of the president who appoints the ministers,[93] without the position of prime minister.[94]

On 29 March, the Syrian transitional government was announced by al-Sharaa at a ceremony at the Presidential Palace in Damascus,[95] in which the new ministers were sworn in and delivered speeches outlining their agendas.[96] The government replaced the Syrian caretaker government, which was formed following the fall of the Assad regime.[97] The post of prime minister was abolished.[98]

Since then, a number of Western governments have lifted the sanctions on Syria, most notably the United States and the United Kingdom.[99][100]

### Israeli invasion

[edit]

Main article: Israeli invasion of Syria (2024-present)

Israeli-occupied Golan Heights and Israeli invasion of Syria in December 2024

Israel Defence Forces (IDF) initiated military operations in Syria's Quneitra Governorate. Armored units advanced into the buffer zone between the Israeli-occupied Golan Heights and the rest of Syria, targeting areas including Tel Ayouba in the central Quneitra countryside with artillery fire.[101][102] The operation marked the first time in 50 years that Israeli forces crossed the Purple Line, following ceasefire agreements on 31 May 1974 in the aftermath of the Yom Kippur War.[17]

Israeli prime minister Benjamin Netanyahu said that since the Syrian Army had abandoned its positions, the 1974 border agreement with Syria had dissolved, and that to prevent any possible threat he had ordered the IDF to temporarily seize the buffer zone, from which the IDF had withdrawn in 1974, until an agreement was reached with the new government in Syria.[103][104]

Israel carried out airstrikes in Syria, targeting Khalkhala air base, the Mazzeh district of Damascus, and suspected chemical weapon storage sites.[105] Israel claimed to have carried out these airstrikes to prevent the fall of weapons to Syrian rebel groups.[106][107][108]

### Turkish offensive in northern Syria

[edit]

Main article: Turkish offensive in northern Syria (2024–present)

Following the start of the 2024 Syrian opposition offensives, the Turkish Armed Forces and the Turkish-backed Syrian National Army (SNA) launched an offensive against the Kurdish-led Syrian Democratic Forces (SDF).[109] The SDF governs the Democratic Autonomous Administration of North and East Syria (DAANES), a de facto autonomous region in northeast Syria.[110] Turkish officials have called for the elimination of the Kurdish YPG, the SDF's main faction, while Turkish President Recep Tayyip Erdogan has threatened military intervention to force the region's reintegration into Syria.[111][112] The offensive is aimed at expanding Turkish-controlled territory and dismantling Kurdish self-governance in post-Assad Syria.[113][114][110]

On 30 November 2024, the SNA commenced Operation Dawn of Freedom with the objective of cutting off the SDF's supply lines and establishing a corridor connecting al-Bab, which has been under Turkish occupation since 2017, to the SDF-controlled town of Tell Rifaat.[114][109] With the support of the Turkish Air Force, the SNA successfully captured Tel Rifaat and several surrounding villages from Kurdish forces.[115] Turkey and the SNA subsequently launched an offensive against the SDF-controlled city of Manbij, pushing SDF forces eastward beyond the Euphrates river to enable the SNA to advance toward the Kurdish-majority city of Kobani.[109] The SDF has repelled several SNA attempts to invade the Kobani area,[116][117] but the Turkish and SNA bombardment of SDF-controlled territories has continued into 2025.[118][119] The SDF agreed to integrate into state institutions on 10 March 2025.[120]

### Alleged attempt to establish an Alawite state

[edit]

The December 2024 Syrian rebel offensives and the subsequent fall of the Assad regime sparked renewed speculation by some analysts about a potential revival of an Alawite state with Russian backing.[121][15] For a brief period following the rebel takeover of Damascus, Latakia Governorate and Tartous Governorate (the historical territory of the Alawite State), were the only parts of Syria not under rebel control. Some Alawite villages there formed self-defence committees and set up checkpoints,[42] but no expected Assadist national redoubt in the region came to fruition, partly because of the mixed attitudes of the Alawite population towards the HTS-led rebels.[15][42][122]

According to the UK-based war monitor Syrian Observatory for Human Rights (SOHR), Assad sought to establish an Alawite state on the Syrian coast as a fallback plan.[123] This proposed coastal statelet was reportedly intended to serve as a stronghold for his regime in the event of losing control over the rest of the country.[124][125]

Russia, a key ally of Assad, allegedly rejected this plan, viewing it as an attempt to divide Syria. The SOHR claims that Assad subsequently fled to Russia on his plane after facing opposition to the proposal.[124][126]

### Assad loyalist clashes

[edit]

See also: Western Syria clashes and 2025 massacres of Syrian Alawites

Between late November and early December 2024, several clashes took place between Assad loyalists and the forces of the Syrian caretaker government, primarily in Alawite-majority areas of Tartus and Latakia governorates, as well as in the western Hama and Homs governorates.[127][128]

On 8 March 2025, the UK-based SOHR reported that Syrian security forces and pro-government fighters had committed a massacre of more than 740 Alawite civilians during clashes in western Syria in March 2025.[129] There were reports that Alawites who had opposed the Assad regime in the past were also murdered in sectarian attacks.[130]

After the clashes were suppressed, the SDF agreed to integrate into state institutions on 10 March 2025.[120]

### Proposed handover of Bashar al-Assad to Syria

[edit]

Main article: Proposed handover of Bashar al-Assad to Syria

Bashar al-Assad with Vladimir Putin in 2017

Immediately following the fall of Damascus, advancing rebel forces dispatched scouting teams to locate and apprehend Assad, and announced a US$10 million reward for information leading to his capture.[131][132]

The Syrian caretaker government, and later the transitional government, demanded his extradition so that he can be tried for crimes against humanity and potentially other charges stemming mainly from his violent crackdown on the Syrian revolution.[133]

The first request for Russia to hand over Bashar al-Assad reportedly came in January 2025, during the first visit by a Russian delegation to Syria after the fall of the Assad regime. The request was allegedly made by then de facto leader Ahmed al-Sharaa, who later became president, to a Russian delegation led by Deputy Foreign Minister Mikhail Bogdanov.[134] The Kremlin refused to comment on the matter.[135] On 22 March 2025, Al Arabiya reported, citing unnamed sources, that al-Sharaa had asked Russian President Vladimir Putin to hand over Bashar al-Assad for trial in Syria.[136]

On 7 April 2025, Russian Ambassador to Iraq Elbrus Kutrashev told the Islamic Republic News Agency that Assad's settlement in Moscow was conditional on his total withdrawal from media and political activities. He added that the asylum granted to Assad and his family had been personally ordered by Putin and would remain unchanged.[137] In an interview with The New York Times in April 2025, al-Sharaa said that Syrian officials requested Russia to extradite Assad as a condition for allowing their military presence in Syria, but Russia refused.[138]

## Reactions

[edit]

Main article: Reactions to the fall of the Assad regime

### Domestic

[edit]

#### Opposition forces

[edit]

The president of the National Coalition of Syrian Revolutionary and Opposition Forces, Hadi al-Bahra, announced the new government December.[139][140]

Hayat Tahrir al-Sham (HTS), the primary opposition force, declared Syria "liberated". The group issued proclamations via social media platforms announcing the conclusion of what they termed a "dark era" and promised a "new Syria" where "everyone lives in peace and justice prevails". Their statements specifically addressed displaced persons and former political prisoners, extending invitations for their return.[61]

Turkey and Turkish-backed Syrian National Army fighters in northern Syria continued their offensive against U.S.-backed Syrian Democratic Forces forces.[141][142] On 9 December, SNA fighters captured the city of Manbij.[143]

#### Public reactions

[edit]

Syrians celebrate the fall of Assad at the Umayyad mosque, 14 December 2024

Damascus witnessed public celebrations, particularly in the symbolic Umayyad Square, traditionally a centre of government authority housing the by-then evacuated Ministry of Defence and Syrian Armed Forces headquarters. Civilians gathered around abandoned military equipment, with social media footage documenting celebrations including music and public demonstrations.[61][144]

In Lebanon, hundreds of people celebrated in Tripoli and Akkar, in the north of the country, and in Bar Elias, which are mostly populated by Sunni Muslims who oppose Hezbollah and the Assad government, after the fall of Damascus.[145][146] The Syrian Ba'ath party office in Halba was stormed.[147]

### International

[edit]

G20 member states

* Canada: Prime Minister Justin Trudeau urged all parties involved to respect human rights and hailed the end of the government, stating that "The fall of Assad's dictatorship ends decades of brutal oppression". Adding that "A new chapter for Syria can begin here — one free of terrorism and suffering for the Syrian people".[148]
* China: A foreign ministry spokesperson said on 8 December that the Chinese government "is closely following the situation in Syria and hopes that stability will return as soon as possible" and "We urge relevant parties in Syria to ensure the safety and security of the Chinese institutions and personnel in Syria."[149][150][151]
* France: President Emmanuel Macron announced that "the barbaric state has fallen," and expressed France's commitment "to the security of all in the Middle East."[152]
* Germany: Chancellor Olaf Scholz described the situation as "good news". Foreign minister Annalena Baerbock said that Assad "must finally be held accountable" for his atrocities against the Syrian people.[152]
* India: The Indian government called for a peace process.[153]
* Indonesia: Deputy Foreign Minister Anis Matta called on the appropriate parties to protect the safety and security of the Syrian people and guarantees that Indonesia will continue to keep a careful eye on the situation in Syria. He underlined that Indonesia believes Syrians "can start a new and better life" and respects Syria's territorial integrity.[154]
* Japan: Foreign Minister Takeshi Iwaya stated that given the unpredictable Middle East scenario, Japan is closely monitoring the events in Syria with great concern and hopes that the violence would end quickly and that everyone in the country will be able to enjoy their basic human rights, freedom, dignity, and prosperity. He continued reiterating that Japan strongly asks all parties to cease hostilities as soon as possible, abide by international law, especially international humanitarian law, and take the required actions to ease tensions in the region.[155]
* Russia: The Foreign Ministry confirmed that Assad resigned from the presidency and departed Syria for Russia after holding talks with the parties involved in the conflict, adding that "Russia did not take part in these talks."[156][157]
* Saudi Arabia: The Ministry of Foreign Affairs expressed its "satisfaction with the positive steps" in Syria. Saudi Arabia called for "concerted efforts to preserve the unity of Syria and the cohesion of its people."[152]
* South Africa: On 5 December the Department of International Relations stated that the country stood "in solidarity with the Government and people of the Syrian Arab Republic... [and] express[es] our grave concern at the offensive attack in Aleppo and Idlib by Tahrir Al-Sham (HTS), which has been designated as a terrorist organisation by the UN Security Council, and a coalition of foreign mercenaries."[158][159]
* Turkey: President Recep Tayyip Erdoğan expressed hope for peace and stability in Syria after thirteen years of conflict. Foreign minister Hakan Fidan said that "Syria has reached a stage where the Syrian people will shape the future of their own country."[152] Fidan stated at a press conference in Doha that "there was no contact with Assad in his final days," emphasizing that Erdoğan "reached out to the regime to achieve national unity and peace, but Assad rejected it."[160]
* United Kingdom: Prime Minister Keir Starmer said he welcomes the fall of "Assad's barbaric regime" and called for "peace and stability" in Syria.[161] British foreign secretary David Lammy described Bashar as "the rat of Damascus, fleeing to Moscow with his tail between his legs."[162][163]
* United States: President Joe Biden stated in a speech that "for the first time ever neither Russia nor Iran nor Hezbollah could defend this abhorrent regime in Syria," and claimed credit for Assad's overthrow, stating it was largely due to a combination of international sanctions, American military presence in Syria, and support for Israeli military operations against Iran-backed groups in the region.[164] He further said that "some of the rebel groups that took down Assad have their own grim record of terrorism and human right abuses" and his administration will be monitoring them.[165] Deputy Assistant Secretary of Defence for the Middle East Daniel Shapiro said that "no one should shed any tears over the end of the Assad regime", adding that the US would maintain a military presence in eastern Syria "to ensure the enduring defeat of ISIS". President-elect Donald Trump said that "Assad is gone. He fled his country" due to the fact that Assad's "protector," Russia, lost interest in Syria due to its war with Ukraine.[152]

Arab world

* Algeria: The Ministry of Foreign Affairs urged "unity and peace among all Syrian parties to preserve the country's security and stability and the unity and integrity of its territory," and called for dialogue between all parties involved.[166]
* Bahrain: The Ministry of Foreign Affairs confirmed that Bahrain is keeping a close eye on Syria's developments, in keeping with its concerns about security and stability, as well as its desire to protect civilians in compliance with international humanitarian law and maintain Syria's sovereignty, unity, and territorial integrity. It reaffirmed Bahrain's backing for regional and global initiatives to support the Syrian people and their hopes for a prosperous future marked by justice, security, stability, and togetherness.[167]
* Egypt: The Ministry of Foreign Affairs expressed Egypt's support for Syria's "sovereignty, unity, and territorial integrity," calling on all parties in the conflict to initiate a "comprehensive political process" to establish peace.[152]
* Iraq: The government issued an official statement stressing the need to respect the free will of all Syrians, and the importance of Syria's security, territorial integrity, and maintaining its independence.[168]
* Jordan: King Abdullah II stated that Jordan stands with the Syrian people and respects their will and choices.[152]
* Kuwait: In a statement, the Ministry of Foreign Affairs said it is "monitoring, with great interest, the current developments in the sisterly state of Syria, stressing the necessity of maintaining the country's unity." The ministry reaffirmed in a statement released on Sunday the necessity of protecting Syrians and putting an end to violence while also respecting Syria's independence and sovereignty over its regions. The ministry also reaffirmed Kuwait's commitment to helping Syria maintain its national institutions and dialogue in order to achieve stability.[169]
* Lebanon: The Lebanese army said it was reinforcing its presence on its northern and eastern borders with Syria "in light of rapid developments."[156]
* Morocco: Foreign minister Nasser Bourita expressed his support for "any political solution that would guarantee the rights of the Syrian people while preserving their sovereignty over their entire territory".[170]
* Oman: In a statement issued by the Foreign Ministry, Oman stresses the need to respect the will of the brotherly Syrian people and fully preserve Syria’s sovereignty, territorial integrity and unity. Oman calls on all parties to exercise self restraint, to avoid escalation and violence, and to move towards achieving national reconciliation, in a way that meets the aspiration of the Syrian people for security, stability, development and prosperity.[citation needed]
* Palestine: President Mahmoud Abbas of the Fatah-led government based in the West Bank emphasized the necessity of respecting the unity, sovereignty, and territorial integrity of Syria, expressing the full solidarity of the State of Palestine and its people with the brotherly Syrian people.[171] In addition, Hamas, the de facto government of the Gaza Strip, congratulated the Syrian people for achieving their "aspirations for freedom and justice," and said that it "stand[s] strongly with the great people of Syria," their "will," "independence," and their "political choices." Hamas also expressed hope that the new Syrian government would continue "its historical and pivotal role in supporting the Palestinian people."[172]
* Qatar: Foreign minister Sheikh Mohammed bin Abdulrahman Al Thani was critical of Assad's lack of action on societal, economic, and political issues during the periods of reduced fighting throughout the war. In remarks about the state of the Syrian Government Al Thani emphasized the importance of establishing a new political process and engaging in diplomacy with the new Syrian government.[173]
* United Arab Emirates: The Ministry of Foreign Affairs called on all Syrian parties "to prioritize wisdom" and to fulfil "the aspirations and ambitions of all segments of the Syrian population".[174] Anwar Gargash, a diplomatic adviser to President Sheikh Mohammed bin Zayed, said that Assad "failed to use the lifelines thrown to him by various Arab countries" and attributed his government's collapse as a political failure.[152]
* Yemen: The information minister of Yemen's internationally recognized government, Moammar al-Eryani, condemned the Axis of Resistance, which he called Iran's "expansionist project, which used sectarian militias as tools to complete the Persian Crescent" and lauded its collapse. He added that the Yemeni people are "able to thwart the plans of Iran and its Houthi tool to violate their land and tamper with their destiny, just as those plans failed in Syria and Lebanon."[156]

Other states
Lebanese president Joseph Aoun with Syrian president Ahmed al-Sharaa in Egypt, 5 March 2025

* Armenia: The Armenian Foreign Ministry stated that they "stand firmly by the friendly Syrian people in this decisive moment for their history and support the inclusive and peaceful political transition process with a strong belief that tolerance and national unity are the only way to stability and peace in Syria and the entire region."[175]
* Austria: The Austrian government said it was preparing a deportation plan for Syrians living in the country, with interior minister Gerhard Karner adding: "The focus will be on those who have become criminals, those who do not want to adapt to the cultural values in Europe or Austria, or those who do not want to work and therefore only live on social benefits."[176]
* Azerbaijan: The Ministry of Foreign Affairs said that Azerbaijan is keeping an eye on events in Syria, that it supports Syria's sovereignty and territorial integrity, and that it hopes the issues will be settled in accordance with the wishes of the Syrian people and through internal political discussions.[177]
* Cuba: The Ministry of Foreign Affairs declared that they had been closely monitoring the rapidly unfolding events in Syria with a great deal of concern. They demanded that Syria's geographical integrity and sovereignty be maintained.[178]
* French President Emmanuel Macron with Syrian President Ahmed al-Sharaa, 8 May 2025 Cyprus: President Nikos Christodoulides called for a peaceful democratic transition in Syria. He added that Syria's unity, territorial integrity, and sovereignty must be upheld, and a peaceful, inclusive, and Syrian-led political transition is demanded according to UN Security Council Resolution 2254.[179]
* Czech Republic: Prime Minister Petr Fiala said that "Assad's dependence on Russia ultimately failed". He voiced optimism for Syria's future, stressing the value of freedom and stability over anarchy or terrorist control.[180]
* Greece: In accordance with UN Security Council Resolution 2254, the Greek Ministry of Foreign Affairs emphasized in a statement the pressing need for peace and a seamless transition to a democratically legitimated government. The ministry also conveyed the hope that the refugee issue would be resolved and that the safe return of Syrians to their homes would be made possible by the restoration of democratic rule.[181]
* Iran: The Ministry of Foreign Affairs said that "determining Syria's future and making decisions about its destiny are solely the responsibility of the Syrian people."[152]
* Ireland: Taoiseach Simon Harris stated that while the world should be happy that the Assad regime has fallen, action must now be taken to stop tyranny and anarchy from taking its place. He went on to say that Syrians must decide the country's future through free and fair elections and a peaceful transition.[182]
* Israel: Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu welcomed the events and said the end of the Assad government "is a direct result of the blows we have inflicted on Iran and Hezbollah".[183] The IDF maintained close surveillance of the situation, particularly regarding Iranian movements, while also claiming to have supported United Nations forces in repelling attacks by armed groups.[52] Israel invaded Syria's Quneitra Governorate.[101][102]
* Singapore: According to the Ministry of Foreign Affairs' spokesperson, Singapore was keeping a careful eye on events in Syria. An inclusive political process led by Syria is the only way to definitively settle the complex issue in line with UN Security Council Resolution 2254. Syria's independence, sovereignty, and territorial integrity must all be respected in any significant political resolution.[184]
* Spain: Foreign minister José Manuel Albares said that "we want the Syrians to decide their future and we want it to be peaceful, stable and guaranteeing territorial integrity".[185]
*  Switzerland: The Federal Department of Foreign Affairs urged all sides to uphold international humanitarian law and safeguard civilians. Switzerland affirmed it was advocating for peace and harmony in Syria.[186]
* Ukraine: Foreign minister Andrii Sybiha said that Assad's downfall was the inevitable result of relying on Russian support, adding that Russian president Vladimir Putin "always betrays those who rely on him."[152]

Partially recognized states

* Afghanistan: The foreign ministry of the Taliban, the de facto government of the Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan, congratulated the Syrian opposition and "the people of Syria", hoping for "a peaceful, unified and stable system."[152]
* Sahrawi Republic: The Ministry of Foreign Affairs issued a statement indicating that the Sahrawi government was closely following the developments in Syria, expressing its "sympathy and solidarity with the brotherly people of Syria". The Ministry also called for the international community to stand with Syria and its people in their efforts to build democratic institutions, while also expressing concerns over Syria's need to secure its borders and protect its interests "away from any foreign interference".[187] The Sahrawi Republic was recognised by and maintained close relations with the Syrian Arab Republic.

International Governmental Organisations

* European Union: High Representative Kaja Kallas noted that the end of Bashar's "dictatorship is a positive and long-awaited development," adding that it "shows the weakness of Assad's backers, Russia and Iran."[152]
* United Nations: UN special envoy for Syria Geir Pedersen called Assad's downfall "a watershed moment in Syria's history" and expressed hope for "peace, reconciliation, dignity, and inclusion for all Syrians."[152]

## Analysis

[edit]

Senior fellow Natasha Hall at the American think tank Center for Strategic and International Studies attributed the government's collapse to the weakening of Assad's traditional allies, with Russia focused on its war in Ukraine and Iran facing regional challenges. Additionally, she posited that Syria's severe economic conditions, with approximately 90 percent of the population living below the poverty line and many living in displacement camps, contributed to the erosion of government support.[61]

Senior analyst Jerome Drevon from the International Crisis Group remarked that it would be "extremely challenging" for the Syrian opposition to decide on a new governing system in Syria given the diversity of the rebel coalition, noting that while "some groups are more structured, more organized," others are "more local entities."[188]

Russian analysts and media generally blamed Assad for losing the war. Semyon Bagdasarov told Komsomolskaya Pravda that the Ba'athist regime failed to motivate its troops and to unite the various Syrian ethnic and religious group around its cause.[189]

Similarly, political scientist Andrey Kortunov wrote that Assad had failed to unite Syrians and achieve national reconciliation, comparing him to former Afghan President Ashraf Ghani, who was overthrown by the Taliban in 2021.[190] Journalist Vitaly Ryumshin shared this comparison, but partially defended the Syrian government, arguing that the lack of reform was due to economic sanctions on the country and loss of control over the oil resources to the United States and the Kurds.[191]

In a different view, Anton Mardasov, a Russian expert on the Middle East, argued to Nezavisimaya Gazeta that Assad's failure was not due to Western sanctions but because of Al-Assad's failure to deal with the country's problems, specifically mentioning the economic crisis, endemic corruption and nepotism and "the loss of touch with reality and thinking in the paradigm of 50 years ago". Mardasov also told The New York Times that Russia's inability to assist Assad was due to its war with Ukraine.[192][193]

Similarly, Bassam Haddad limits the importance attributed to international actors (mainly Turkey, the US, and Israel) in assisting HTS to topple the regime. According to Haddad, this perspective overlooks the decades of problems in Syria the regime either created itself or failed to address adequately. Haddad argues these to be equally important as the weakening of the Assad regime through US sanctions, Turkish support for the opposition, and Russia's and Iran's preoccupation with other conflicts.[47]

International editor of Moskovskij Komsomolets Andrei Yashlavsky blamed the Syrian Arab Army for failing to resist and argued that the army's ineffectiveness made Russia's attempt to aid Assad futile.[194] Russian military bloggers were particularly outraged by the fall of Syria, with some protesting against the Russian government and others blaming Assad.[195]

## Impact

[edit]

Syrian President Ahmed al-Sharaa with U.S. president Donald Trump and Crown Prince of Saudi Arabia Mohammed bin Salman in Riyadh, Saudi Arabia, 14 May 2025

The fall of Assad triggered a high-stakes geopolitical scramble as regional powers continued vying for influence in the fragmented country. Countries like Saudi Arabia, Egypt, the UAE, Turkey and Qatar pursued competing interests, with Egypt and the Gulf states seeking to prevent the rise of Islamist factions, particularly the Muslim Brotherhood, while Turkey and Qatar back groups sympathetic to these ideologies. Israel, aiming to preserve its security, favours Syria's fragmentation to prevent any dominant hostile force from emerging.[196] The U.S. continues to support Kurdish led groups and countering groups it designated as terrorists.[197]

Assad's government was an important ally of Iran and a long-standing member of the Iranian-led Axis of Resistance.[7][198] Following the rebel capture of Damascus, the Iranian embassy was ransacked, with portraits of Iran's leaders torn down and discarded.[199] Iranian diplomats and Quds Force commanders left Syria in haste.[199] Many Syrians reportedly held Iran and Hezbollah responsible for supporting Assad's oppressive rule.[200] In late 2024, after the fall of the Assad regime, Israel intensified its bombing campaign in Syria, targeting Hezbollah positions and Syrian-Iranian military assets.[47] Moreover, the loss of Syria also disrupted Iran's supply routes to Hezbollah in Lebanon, weakening the group's arsenal and diminishing Iran's strategic foothold in the region.[7] These developments, along with broader regional conflicts, further undermined the Iran-led Axis of Resistance.[47]

Western media also described the fall of Assad as damaging to Russian foreign policy, as it exposed Putin's increasing inflexibility and struggle to keep Russia's allies in Africa (Mali, Burkina Faso and Niger) afloat.[201][202] Observers considered it probable that it would affect Putin's Ukraine strategy following the forced withdrawal of Russian forces from Syria, as well as his influence in Latin America and Africa.[203][204]

Several Western journalists, academics and geo-political analysts compared the fall of the Assad regime to the fall of the Berlin Wall in 1989.[205][206] Meysam Karim Jaffari, a journalist affiliated with Iran's Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps, told reporters from The New York Times newspaper: "The Berlin Wall of unity for the Axis of Resistance has collapsed."[207]

## See also

[edit]

* 2020s portal

* Fall of Saddam Hussein
* Fall of Sheikh Hasina
* Fall of Suharto
* Fall of the Derg regime
* Fall of the Fascist regime in Italy
* 2021 Taliban offensive
* Fall of Saigon
* Fall of Muammar Gaddafi

## Notes

[edit]

1. ^ Sources:[22][16][23][24][25][26]

1. ^

* at least 281 (French intelligence)[29]
* at least 350 (UK intelligence)[30]
* 355 (MSF)[31]
* 494 (Damascus Media Office)[32]
* 502 (SOHR)[33]
* 635 (SRGC)[34]
* 923 (VDC)[35]
* 1,300 (SNC)[36]
* 1,338 (LCC)[37]
* 1,144 (SNHR)[38]
* 1,429 (United States)[39][40]
* 1,729 (FSA)[41]

## References

[edit]

1. ^ "Moscow claims Assad fled as mystery plane leaves Russian air base in Syria". The Jerusalem Post. 8 December 2024. Archived from the original on 8 December 2024. Retrieved 8 December 2024.
2. ^ ""The Authority" controls Aleppo International Airport and many cities and towns in the northern Hama countryside amid a complete collapse of the regime forces" (in Arabic). SOHR. 30 November 2024. Retrieved 30 November 2024.
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5. ^ "Bashar al-Assad Granted Asylum in Russia Amid Syria's Political Upheaval". The Gulf Observer. 9 December 2024. Retrieved 11 December 2024.
6. ^ Fahim, Kareem; Morris, Loveday; Loveluck, Louisa; Miller, Greg; El Chamaa, Mohamad; Eski, Beril (22 December 2024). "How Syria's rebels overcame years of a bloody stalemate to topple Assad". The Washington Post. Archived from the original on 22 December 2024. Retrieved 22 December 2024.
7. ^ a b c "The swift fall of Syria's Assad brings moments inconceivable under his iron rule". AP News. 10 December 2024. Archived from the original on 17 December 2024. Retrieved 19 December 2024.
8. ^ Gambrell, Jon (8 December 2024). "Analysis: Collapse of Syria's Assad is a blow to Iran's 'Axis of Resistance'". AP News. Retrieved 30 December 2024.
9. ^ Burgess, Annika (11 December 2024). "Fall of Assad 'another nail in the coffin' for Iran's Axis of Resistance". ABC News. Retrieved 30 December 2024.
10. ^ Eyal Zisser (2004). "Bashar al-Asad and his Regime – Between Continuity and Change". Orient. Archived from the original on 1 August 2017. Retrieved 2 April 2011.
11. ^ Kmak, Magdalena; Björklund, Heta (2022). Refugees and Knowledge Production: Europe's Past and Present. Abingdon, Oxon: Routledge. p. 73\. doi:10.4324/9781003092421. ISBN 978-0-367-55206-0. S2CID 246668129.
12. ^ Turku, Helga (2018). "3: Long-Term Security Repercussions of Attacking Cultural Property". The Destruction of Cultural Property as a Weapon of War. palgrave macmillan. p. 74\. doi:10.1007/978-3-319-57282-6. ISBN 978-3-319-57282-6.
13. ^ Darke, Diana (2010). Syria (2nd ed.). Bradt Travel Guides. p. 311\. ISBN 978-1-84162-314-6.
14. ^ Pipes, Daniel (1995). Syria Beyond the Peace Process. Washington, D.C.: Washington Institute for Near East Policy. p. 15\. ISBN 0-944029-64-7.
15. ^ a b c d Halasa, Malu; Omareen, Zaher; Mahfoud, Nawara (2014). Syria Speaks: Art and Culture from the Frontline. London: Saqi Books. pp. 125, 147–156, 161. ISBN 978-0-86356-787-2.
16. ^ a b c Pipes, Daniel (1995). Syria Beyond the Peace Process. Washington, D.C.: Washington Institute for Near East Policy. pp. 6, 7, 13–17\. ISBN 0-944029-64-7.
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* v
* t
* e

Hay'at Tahrir al-Sham

General topics|

* Insurgency in Idlib
* Syrian Salvation Government
* Syrian caretaker government

Factions|

* Jaysh al-Sunna
* Liwa al-Haqq (Idlib)
* Katibat Jabal al-Islam
* Nour al-Din al-Zenki Movement
* Al-Nusra Front
* Khorasan Group

Key figures|

* Ahmed al-Sharaa
* Mohammed al-Bashir
* Mustafa al-Mousa
* Hassan Abdel Ghani

Military
operations|

| 2017|

* 2017 al-Jinah airstrike
* Beit Jinn offensive
* Daraa offensive (February–June 2017)
* Daraa offensive (June 2017)
* East Ghouta inter-rebel conflict (April–May 2017)
* Hama offensive (March–April 2017)
* Hama offensive (September 2017)
* Idlib Governorate clashes (January–March 2017)
* Idlib Governorate clashes (July 2017)
* 2017 Jobar offensive
* Qaboun offensive (2017)
* Quneitra offensive (June 2017)
* Southwestern Daraa offensive (February 2017)

|

2018|

* 2018 Southern Syria offensive
* Eastern Qalamoun offensive (April 2018)
* Northern Homs offensive (April–May 2018)
* Rif Dimashq offensive (February–April 2018)
* Southern Damascus offensive (January–February 2018)
* Southern Damascus offensive (March 2018)
* Southern Damascus offensive (April–May 2018)

2019|

* National Front for Liberation–Tahrir al-Sham conflict
* Northwestern Syria offensive (April–August 2019)
* Northwestern Syria offensive (December 2019 – March 2020)
* Idlib demilitarization (2018–2019)

2020|

* Idlib Governorate clashes (June 2020)

2022|

* 2022 Ahrar al-Sham–Levant Front clashes
* Northern Aleppo clashes (October 2022)

2024|

* 2024 Syrian opposition offensives
* Battle of Aleppo (2024)
* 2024 Hama offensive
* 2024 Homs offensive
* Southern Syria offensive (2024)
* Fall of Damascus (2024)
* Deir ez-Zor offensive (2024)

* v
* t
* e

Syrian civil war

Overviews

| Main overviews|

* Syria
* Syrian civil war
* Timeline
* Background and causes
* Syrian government reactions
* Belligerents
* Inter-rebel conflict
* Spillover
* Cities and towns
* Sectarianism and minorities
* Syrian Desert campaign (December 2017 – December 2024)
* 2024 Syrian opposition offensives
* Fall of the Assad regime

|

Effects and ongoing concerns|

* Casualties of the Syrian civil war
* Refugees of the Syrian civil war
* Humanitarian aid during the Syrian civil war
* Human rights violations during the Syrian civil war

Phases and processes|

* Syrian revolution
* Early insurgency phase
* 2012–2013 escalation
* Ceasefires
* Syrian peace process

World reaction|

* International reactions to the Syrian civil war
* Foreign involvement in the Syrian civil war
* Reactions to the fall of the Assad regime

Specific groups and countries|

* Russian involvement
* Russian intervention
* Turkish involvement
* Turkish occupation of northern Syria
* Second Northern Syria Buffer Zone
* Russian-Turkish agreement on Syria
* US intervention in the Syrian civil war
* 2023 attacks on U.S. bases in Iraq and Syria
* Kurdish Area in Syria
* Syrian Democratic Forces
* Rojava conflict
* U.S. task force

Agreements and dialogues|

* Russian-Turkish agreement on Syria
* Relations between Syrian government and Kurdish groups in Syria

Transitional phase|

* Syrian caretaker government
* Syrian transitional government

Timeline

| Background|

* 1963 coup
* 1966 coup
* Corrective Movement
* Islamist uprising
* Latakia protests
* Damascus Spring
* Qamishli riots
* Syrian occupation of Lebanon
* Damascus Declaration
* Human rights in Syria
* 2010s in Syria political history
* Arab Spring

|

2011
Jan–Apr
May–Aug
Sep–Dec|

* Syrian revolution
* Death of Hamza Ali Al-Khateeb
* Siege of Daraa
* Siege of Baniyas
* May Talkalakh siege
* Siege of Rastan and Talbiseh
* June Jisr ash-Shughur operation
* Siege of Hama
* Siege of Homs
* Siege of Latakia
* Deir ez-Zor clashes (2011–2014)
* Rif Dimashq clashes (Nov 2011-Mar 2012)
* Battle of Zabadani
* Battle of Douma
* Daraa Governorate clashes
* Battle of Rastan
* Idlib Governorate clashes
* December Jabal al-Zawiya massacres

2012
Jan–Apr
May–Aug
Sep–Dec|

* January al-Midan bombing
* Battle of Rastan
* First Battle of Idlib
* Battle of al-Qusayr
* Idlib Governorate operation (Apr)
* Battle of Taftanaz
* May Battle of Rastan
* Houla massacre
* Battle of al-Haffah
* Al-Qubeir massacre
* Battle of Tremseh
* Battle of Damascus
* 18 July 2012 Damascus bombing
* Battle of Aleppo
* Battle of Anadan
* Siege of Base 46
* Al-Hasakah Governorate campaign (2012–2013)
* Rif Dimashq offensive (Aug-Oct)
* Darayya massacre
* Battle of Khirbet Al-Joz
* Battle of Maarrat al-Numan
* First siege of Wadi Deif
* Battle of Harem
* Rif Dimashq offensive (Nov 2012–Feb 2013)
* Battle of Darayya
* Aqrab massacre
* Hama offensive
* Halfaya massacre
* Battle of Darayya
* Quneitra Governorate clashes
* Talbiseh bakery massacre

2013
Jan–Apr
May–Dec|

* Battle of Safira
* Battle of Shadadeh
* Damascus offensive
* Raqqa campaign (2012–2013)
* Battle of Raqqa (Mar)
* Daraa offensive
* Rif Dimashq offensive (Mar–Aug)
* Battle of Jdaidet al-Fadl
* Ghouta chemical attack
* Al-Qusayr offensive
* Battle of al-Qusayr
* Bayda and Baniyas massacres
* Hama offensive
* Hatla massacre
* Khan al-Assal chemical attack
* Khan al-Assal massacre
* Adra massacre
* Battle of Ras al-Ayn
* Battle of Tell Abyad
* Rif Dimashq offensive (Sep–Nov)
* Aleppo offensive (Oct–Dec)
* Battle of al-Yaarubiyah
* Battle of Tell Hamis and Tell Brak (Dec–Jan)

2014
Jan–Jul
Aug–Dec|

* First Inter-rebel conflict
* Battle of Markada
* Deir ez-Zor offensive
* Battle of Morek
* Daraa offensive (Feb–May)
* Maan massacre
* Al-Otaiba ambush
* Idlib offensive
* Battle of Hosn
* Latakia Offensive
* Battle of Al-Malihah
* Kafr Zita chemical attack
* Second siege of Wadi Deif
* Qalamoun offensive (Jun–Aug)
* Battle of Arsal
* First Battle of the Shaer gas field
* Eastern Syria offensive
* Battle of Tabqa Airbase
* Northern Aleppo offensive (Feb–Jul)
* Hama Offensive
* Quneitra offensive
* Rif Dimashq offensive (Aug–Nov)
* Siege of Kobanî
* Homs school bombing
* Daraa offensive (Oct)
* Al-Safira offensive
* Idlib Raid
* Second Inter-Rebel Conflict
* Second Battle of the Shaer gas field
* Battle of Al-Shaykh Maskin
* Deir ez-Zor offensive (Dec)

2015
Jan–Jul
Aug–Dec|

* Air Force An-26 crash
* Daraa Offensive (Jan)
* Southern Syria Offensive
* Eastern al-Hasakah offensive
* Battle of Sarrin (Mar–Apr)
* Battle of Sarrin (Jun–Jul)
* Battle of Bosra
* Idlib Offensive
* Second Battle of Idlib
* Battle of Nasib Border Crossing
* Battle of Yarmouk Camp
* Western al-Hasakah offensive
* Palmyra offensive (May)
* Qamishli bombings
* Tell Abyad offensive
* Kobanî massacre
* Quneitra offensive (Jun)
* Palmyra offensive (Jul–Aug)
* Rif Dimashq offensive (Sep)
* Northwestern Syria offensive (Oct–Nov)
* Aleppo offensive (Oct–Dec)
* Al-Hawl offensive
* Homs offensive (Nov-Dec)
* East Aleppo offensive (2015–2016)
* 2015–2016 Latakia offensive
* Tishrin Dam offensive
* Russian Sukhoi Su-24 shootdown

2016
Jan–Apr
May–Aug
Sep–Dec|

* Second Battle of Al-Shaykh Maskin
* Deir ez-Zor offensive (Jan)
* January Sayyidah Zaynab bombings
* Northern Aleppo offensive (Feb)
* Ithriyah-Raqqa offensive (Feb–Mar)
* Al-Shaddadi offensive
* February Homs bombings
* February Sayyidah Zaynab bombings
* Khanasir offensive
* Battle of Tel Abyad
* Battle of Maarrat al-Numan
* Battle of Qamishli (Apr)
* Northern Aleppo offensive (Mar–Jun)
* Palmyra offensive (Mar)
* East Ghouta inter-rebel conflict (Apr–May)
* Rif Dimashq offensive (Apr–May)
* Northern Raqqa offensive (May)
* May Jableh & Tartous bombings
* Ithriyah-Raqqa offensive (Jun)
* Rif Dimashq offensive (Jun–Oct)
* Manbij offensive
* Tokhar massacre
* Southern Aleppo campaign
* Battle of al-Rai (Aug)
* Operation Euphrates Shield
* Aleppo summer campaign
* Western al-Bab offensive (Sep)
* 5 September bombings
* September Deir ez-Zor air raid
* September Urum al-Kubra aid convoy attack
* Aleppo offensive (Sep–Oct)
* Dabiq offensive
* Western al-Bab offensive (Oct–Nov)
* Khan al-Shih offensive (Oct–Nov)
* Raqqa campaign
* Battle of al-Bab
* Aleppo offensive (Nov-Dec)
* Palmyra offensive (Dec)

2017
Jan–Apr
May–Aug
Sep–Dec|

* Wadi Barada offensive (2016–2017)
* January Azaz bombing
* Desert campaign (Dec 16–Apr 17)
* Idlib clashes (Jan–Mar)
* Deir ez-Zor offensive (Jan–Feb)
* Daraa offensive (Feb–Jun)
* Southwestern Daraa offensive (Feb)
* Qaboun offensive
* Palmyra offensive
* East Aleppo offensive (Jan–Apr)
* March Damascus bombings
* Al-Jinah airstrike
* Hama offensive (Mar–Apr)
* Battle of Tabqa
* Khan Shaykhun chemical attack
* Shayrat missile strike
* Aleppo bombing
* April Turkish airstrikes
* East Ghouta inter-rebel conflict (Apr–May)
* Desert campaign (May–Jul)
* Maskanah Plains offensive
* East Hama offensive
* Battle of Raqqa
* Daraa offensive (Jun)
* Southern Raqqa offensive (Jun)
* Jobar offensive (Jun–Aug)
* Quneitra offensive (Jun)
* Idlib clashes (Jul)
* Central campaign
* Qalamoun (Jul–Aug)
* Deir ez-Zor offensive (Sep 17–Mar 18)
* Hama offensive (Sep)
* Northwestern campaign (Oct 17–Feb 18)
* Turkish military operation in Idlib Governorate
* Battle of Harasta
* Eastern campaign (Sep–Dec)
* Euphrates Crossing offensive
* Mayadin offensive
* Battle of Deir ez-Zor (Sep–Nov)
* Abu Kamal offensive
* Beit Jinn offensive

2018
Jan–Apr
May–Aug
Sep–Dec|

* Operation Olive Branch
* Battle of Khasham
* Rif Dimashq offensive (Feb–Apr)
* Southern Damascus offensive (Jan–Feb)
* Syrian Liberation Front–Tahrir al-Sham conflict
* Southern Damascus offensive (Mar)
* Douma chemical attack
* Missile strikes (Apr)
* Northern Homs offensive (Apr–May)
* Eastern Qalamoun offensive (Apr)
* Southern Damascus offensive (Apr–May)
* Deir ez-Zor clashes (Apr)
* Deir ez-Zor offensive (May–Jun)
* As-Suwayda offensive (Jun)
* Southern offensive
* As-Suwayda attacks
* As-Suwayda (Aug-Nov)
* Qamishli clashes (Sep)
* Missile strikes (Sep)
* Northern border clashes

2019
Jan–Apr
May–Aug
Sep–Dec|

* Idlib inter-rebel conflict
* Manbij bombing
* Battle of Baghuz Fawqani
* ISIL insurgency in Deir-ez-Zor
* Dêrik prison escape attempt
* Tell Rifaat clashes
* Northwestern offensive (Apr–Aug)
* June bombings
* Hass refugee camp bombing
* Missile strikes (Aug)
* Turkish offensive into northeast
* Barisha raid
* November bombings
* Israeli missile strikes (Nov)
* Qah missile strike
* Northwestern offensive (Dec 19–Mar 20)
* US airstrikes

2020
Jan–Dec|

* COVID-19 pandemic
* Afrin bombing
* Idlib Governorate clashes
* Kafr-Takharim airstrike
* Ayn Issa clashes
* Deir ez-Zor ambush

2021
Jan–Dec|

* Siege of Qamishli and Al-Hasakah
* Missile strikes (Jan)
* US airstrike (Feb)
* Battle of Qamishli (Apr)
* US airstrike (Jun)
* Daraa clashes
* Tahrir al-Sham–Junud al-Sham conflict

2022
Jan–Dec|

* Battle of al-Hasakah
* Ahrar al-Sham–Levant Front clashes
* Jabal al-Bishrī clashes
* Jarqli airstrikes
* Northern Aleppo clashes (Oct)
* Operation Claw-Sword
* Northwest clashes (Dec)

2023
Jan-Dec|

* Al-Sukhnah attack
* Damascus airstrike
* Hama attack
* Northern border clashes

2024
Jan–Oct
Nov–present|

* Opposition offensives
* Deir ez-Zor offensive
* Battle of Aleppo
* Aleppo University Hospital airstrike
* Southern offensive
* Operation Dawn of Freedom
* Manbij offensive
* Al-Mustariha strike
* Kobani clashes
* Hama offensive
* Homs offensive
* Palmyra offensive
* Fall of Damascus
* Fall of the Assad regime
* Western Syria clashes
* Massacres of Syrian Alawites
* Hezbollah-Syria clashes
* Lebanon–Syria border clashes
* Rif Dimashq clashes
* Massacres of Syrian Druze
* Turkish offensive
* Israeli invasion

2025
Nov 2024
–present|

* Jaramana clashes
* Daraa clashes
* Southern clashes (April–May)
* Mar Elias Church attack
* Southern clashes (July–present)

Spillover|

| Israel and Golan Heights:|

* March 2017 incident
* February 2018 incident
* May 2018 Israel–Iran incidents

|

Iraq:|

* Akashat ambush
* Operation al-Shabah
* April 2014 Iraqi border airstrike

Jordanian border incidents|

* April 2014 Jordanian border airstrike

Lebanon:|

* Lebanese border clashes
* Battle of Sidon
* Iranian embassy bombing in Beirut
* North Lebanon clashes
* Qalamoun (Jul–Aug 2017)

Turkey:|

* December 2011 Turkish border clash
* 2012 Turkish F-4 Phantom shootdown
* 2012 Turkish border clashes
* 2013 Reyhanlı car bombings
* January 2014 Turkish attack in Syria
* Assassination of Andrei Karlov
* Russian Air Force Al-Bab incident
* 2020 Balyun airstrikes
* Operation Spring Shield

Elsewhere:|

* Deir ez-Zor missile strike (Iran)

Belligerents

| Ba'athist regime|

| Politics of Ba'athist Syria|

* Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party – Syria Region
* Ba'ath Brigades
* Syrian Social Nationalist Party
* Arab Socialist Movement
* Syrian Communist Party
* Syrian Communist Party (Unified)

|

Military and militias|

* Lions of Hussein
* Guardians of the Dawn
* Arab Nationalist Guard
* Jaysh al-Muwahhidin
* Sootoro
* Ba'ath Brigades
* National Defence Forces
* Popular Committees
* Golan Regiment
* Syrian Arab Armed Forces
* Eagles of the Whirlwind
* The Islamic Resistance Front in Syria
* Military Council for the Liberation of Syria
* Syrian Popular Resistance
* Syrian Resistance
* Popular Resistance of the Eastern Region
* PFLP-GC
* Jihad Jibril Brigades
* Galilee Forces
* Free Palestine Movement
* Palestinian People's Party
* Liwa Fatemiyoun
* As-Sa'iqa
* al-Quds Brigade
* Palestine Liberation Army

Foreign support|

* Hezbollah involvement
* Iranian involvement
* Liwa Fatemiyoun
* Russian involvement
* medical facility targeting
* military intervention
* Wagner Group
* Russia–Syria–Iran–Iraq coalition
* Popular Mobilization Forces

Opposition|

| Interim government|

* National Coalition
* Local Coordination Committees
* Syrian National Council
* Supreme Council of the Syrian Revolution
* National Coordination Committee for Democratic Change
* Syrian Revolution General Commission
* Syrian Support Group
* Adopt a Revolution
* Syrian Patriotic Group

|

Opposition militias|

* Syrian National Army
* Free Syrian Army
* National Front for Liberation
* Army of Glory
* Authenticity and Development Front
* Army of Free Tribes
* Revolutionary Commando Army
* Muslim Brotherhood in Syria
* Grey Wolves
* Syrian Council of Tribes and Clans

Foreign support|

* US intervention
* Jordanian intervention
* Qatar
* Saudi Arabia
* Turkey

Autonomous Administration
of North and East Syria|

| DFNS Government|

* Democratic Union Party
* Kurdish National Council
* Smaller political parties

|

SDF militias|

* People's Protection Units
* Women's Protection Units
* Anti-Terror Units
* Al-Sanadid Forces
* Army of Revolutionaries
* SDF military councils
* Syriac Military Council
* Liwa Thuwar al-Raqqa
* Northern Democratic Brigade

Support|

* Patriotic Union of Kurdistan
* Kurdistan Workers' Party
* International Freedom Battalion
* Sinjar Resistance Units
* Êzîdxan Women's Units

Islamists|

| Islamic State|

* Military activity of ISIL
* Dokumacılar
* Al-Barakah
* Khalid ibn al-Walid Army
* Yarmouk Martyrs Brigade
* Islamic Muthanna Movement
* Jaysh al-Jihad
* Jund al-Aqsa
* Group of the One and Only
* Liwa Dawud
* Liwa Aqab al-Islami
* Katibah Nusantara
* Katiba al-Bittar al-Libi
* Al-Khansaa Brigade
* Saraya Ansar al-Sunnah

|

al-Qaeda and allies|

* Al-Nusra Front (Jabhat Fatah al-Sham (Khorasan group, Suqour al-Ezz) Jaysh Muhammad in Bilad al-Sham
* Tahrir al-Sham
* Turkistan Islamic Party in Syria
* Caucasus Emirate
* Ajnad al-Kavkaz
* Junud al-Makhdi
* Rouse the Believers Operations Room (Ansar al-Tawhid (Firqat al-Ghuraba), Hurras al-Din, Ansar al-Din Front (Harakat Sham al-Islam), Ansar al-Islam in Kurdistan)
* Jaish al-Haramoun
* Jaysh al-Sunna
* Liwa al-Muhajireen wal-Ansar (Green Battalion)
* Mujahideen Shura Council
* Malhama Tactical
* Katibat al-Tawhid wal-Jihad
* Katibat Jabal al-Islam
* Jama'at Ansar al-Furqan in Bilad al Sham
* Ghuraba al-Sham
* Taliban (Pakistani Taliban, Imam Bukhari Jamaat)
* Fatah al-Islam
* Muhajirin wa-Ansar Alliance (Liwaa al-Umma)

People

* Ammar Abdulhamid
* Ali al-Abdallah
* Adnan al-Aroor
* al-Assad family
* Bashar
* Maher
* Rifaat
* Rami Makhlouf
* Hafez Makhlouf
* Riad al-Asaad
* Hadi al-Bahra
* Anwar al-Bunni
* Fahd Jassem al-Freij
* Suheil al-Hassan
* Haitham al-Maleh
* Moaz al-Khatib
* Kamal al-Labwani
* Hamza al-Khateeb
* Tal al-Mallohi
* Fida al-Sayed
* Riad al-Turk
* Khaled Khoja
* Ammar al-Qurabi
* Suheir Atassi
* Ali Sadreddine Al-Bayanouni
* Aref Dalila
* Farid Ghadry
* Burhan Ghalioun
* Razan Ghazzawi
* Ghassan Hitto
* Salim Idris
* Randa Kassis
* Abdul Halim Khaddam
* Michel Kilo
* Bassma Kodmani
* Ali Habib Mahmud
* Ali Mahmoud Othman
* Ibrahim Qashoush
* Dawoud Rajiha
* Yassin al-Haj Saleh
* Bouthaina Shaaban
* Ahmed al-Sharaa
* Abdulbaset Sieda
* Riad Seif
* Fadwa Souleimane
* Mohamad Anas Haitham Soueid
* Yaser Tabbara
* Razan Zaitouneh
* Rami Jarrah
* Abdurrahman Mustafa
* Fadlallah al-Haji

Related

| Elections|

* 2011 local elections
* 2012 parliamentary election
* 2014 presidential election
* 2015 Northern local elections
* 2016 parliamentary election
* 2017 Northern local elections
* 2017 Northern regional elections
* 2018 local elections
* 2020 parliamentary election
* 2021 presidential election

|

Issues|

* Casualties
* Cities and towns
* Chemical weapons
* Damaged heritage sites
* Foreign involvement
* Human rights violations
* Humanitarian aid
* International demonstrations and protests
* International reactions
* Massacres
* Mass graves
* Refugees
* Sectarianism and minorities
* Status of the Golan Heights
* Spillover in Lebanon
* Syrian government reactions

Peace process|

* Arab League monitors
* Friends of Syria Group
* Kofi Annan peace plan
* UN supervision mission
* Lakhdar Brahimi peace plan
* U.S.–Russia peace proposals
* 39th G8 summit
* UN Security Council Resolution 2118
* Geneva II conference
* 2015 Zabadani cease-fire agreement
* Vienna talks
* 2016 Geneva talks
* Idlib demilitarization (2018–present)
* First Northern Syria Demilitarization Deal
* Second Northern Syria Demilitarization Deal
* Syrian Negotiation Commission
* Syrian Constitutional Committee

Investigations/legal cases|

* Investigations
* International Commission
* Chemical weapons
* War crimes cases
* Germany
* Canada + Netherlands vs Syria

Related topics|

* Exclusive mandate
* Fourth Extraordinary Session of the Islamic Summit Conference
* Syria Files
* Syrian detainee report
* Syrian media coverage
* 2015 European migrant crisis
* Syrian civil war in popular culture

* Category

* v
* t
* e

Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party

* Iraqi-dominated faction
* Syrian-dominated faction

History

| Predecessors|

* Arab Ba'ath
* Arab Ba'ath Movement
* Arab Socialist Movement
* Syrian Committee to Help Iraq

|

Founders|

* Michel Aflaq
* Salah al-Din al-Bitar

Pre-split|

* 1954 Syrian coup d'état
* 14 July Revolution
* 1959 Mosul uprising
* Attempted assassination of Abdul-Karim Qasim
* Ramadan Revolution
* 1963 Syrian coup d'état
* Ba'athist Syria
* Politics
* National Council for the Revolutionary Command
* Ar-Rashid revolt
* November 1963 Iraqi coup d'état
* 1964 Hama riot
* 1966 Syrian coup d'état

Post-split|

* 17 July Revolution
* Ba'athist Iraq
* Revolutionary Command Council
* Members
* Arab Belt
* Corrective Movement
* Union of Arab Republics
* Ba'athist Arabization campaigns in northern Iraq
* 1979 Ba'ath Party Purge
* Assadist–Saddamist conflict
* Faith Campaign
* Iraqi conflict
* De-Ba'athification in Iraq
* Ba'ath Party archives
* Syrian civil war
* Fall of the Assad regime

Leadership

| General Secretaries|

| Pre-split|

* Michel Aflaq
* Munif Razzaz

|

Iraqi-dominated faction|

* Michel Aflaq
* Saddam Hussein
* Izzat Ibrahim al-Douri
* Salah Al-Mukhtar*

Syrian-dominated faction|

* Nureddin al-Atassi
* Hafez al-Assad
* Abdullah al-Ahmar (de facto)
* Bashar al-Assad

Regional Secretaries|

| Iraq|

* Fuad al-Rikabi
* Talib El-Shibib
* Ali Salih al-Sa'di
* Ahmed Hassan al-Bakr
* Saddam Hussein
* Izzat Ibrahim al-Douri
* Mohammed Younis al-Ahmed*

|

Jordan|

* Abdullah Rimawi
* Munif Razzaz
* Akram al-Homsi*

Lebanon|

* Assem Qanso
* Abd al-Majid al-Rafei

Palestine|

* Isam al-Qadi
* Rakad Salem*

Syria|

* Hammud al-Shufi
* Shibli al-Aysami
* Amin al-Hafiz
* Nureddin al-Atassi
* Hafez al-Assad
* Bashar al-Assad

Members of the National Command|

* Hadiya Khalaf Abbas
* Michel Aflaq
* Abdullah al-Ahmar
* Zaki al-Arsuzi
* Bashar al-Assad
* Hafez al-Assad
* Nureddin al-Atassi
* Mansur al-Atrash
* Shibli al-Aysami
* Ali Abdullah Ayyoub
* Ahmed Hassan al-Bakr
* Salah al-Din al-Bitar
* Elias Farah
* Hakem Al-Fayez
* Wahib al-Ghanim
* Amin al-Hafiz
* Akram al-Hourani
* Salah Jadid
* Zuheir Mohsen
* Munif Razzaz
* Fuad al-Rikabi
* Abdullah Rimawi
* Ali Salih al-Sa'di
* Talib El-Shibib
* Khaled Yashruti

Members of the Regional Commands|

| Iraq|

* Humam Abd al-Khaliq Abd al-Ghafur
* Ghanim Abdul-Jalil
* Saad Abdul-Majid
* Jamal Mustafa Abdullah
* Mohammed Younis al-Ahmed
* Salah Omar al-Ali
* Huda Salih Mahdi Ammash
* Salih Mahdi Ammash
* Hussein Al-Awadi
* Tariq Aziz
* Ahmed Hassan al-Bakr
* Adil Abdullah Mahdi Al-Douri
* Izzat Ibrahim al-Douri
* Saadoun Ghaidan
* Fadil Mahmud Gharib
* Mizban Khadr al-Hadi
* Sa'dun Hammadi
* Qusay Hussein
* Saddam Hussein
* Latif Nassif Jassim
* Rashid Taan Kazim
* Adnan Khayr Allah
* Ali Hassan al-Majid
* Muhyi Abdul-Hussein Mashhadi
* Samir Abdul Aziz al-Najim
* Aziz Saleh Al-Numan
* Ghazi Hamoud Al-Obaidi
* Taha Yassin Ramadan
* Fawzi Mutlaq al-Rawi
* Rashid al-Rifai
* Fuad al-Rikabi
* Ali Salih al-Sa'di
* Abd Al-Baqi Abd Karim Al-Sadun
* Muhammad Zimam al-Sadun
* Abdul Khaliq al-Samarra'i
* Abdullah Sallum al-Samarra'i
* Talib El-Shibib
* Nayef Shindakh Thamer
* Khamis Sirhan
* Hardan al-Tikriti
* Yahya Abdallah al-Ubaydi
* Tahir Yahya
* Mohammed Hamza Zubeidi
* Ibrahim Hesqel

|

Lebanon|

* Musa Shuaib

Syria|

* Hadiya Khalaf Abbas
* Abdullah al-Ahmar
* Hussein Arnous
* Bashar al-Assad
* Hafez al-Assad
* Maher al-Assad
* Rifaat al-Assad
* Nureddin al-Atassi
* Shibli al-Aysami
* Ali Abdullah Ayyoub
* Mohammed Saeed Bekheitan
* Muhsen Bilal
* Mahdi Dakhlallah
* Ahmad Diyab
* Ali Duba
* Fahd Jassem al-Freij
* Marwan Habash
* Ibrahim al-Hadid
* Amin al-Hafiz
* Muhammad Ali al-Halabi
* Wael Nader al-Halqi
* Adnan Badr Hassan
* Salim Hatum
* Hilal Hilal
* Mohammad al-Hussein
* Hisham Ikhtiyar
* Salah Jadid
* Abdul-Karim al-Jundi
* Sami al-Jundi
* Abdul Rauf al-Kasm
* Abdul Halim Khaddam
* Imad Khamis
* Ahmad al-Khatib
* Abdul Rahman Khleifawi
* Mohammad Jihad al-Laham
* Ibrahim Makhous
* Zuhair Masharqa
* Muhammad Mustafa Mero
* Muhammad Naji al-Otari
* Abdul Qadir Qaddura
* Hammouda Sabbagh
* Farouk al-Sharaa
* Hikmat al-Shihabi
* Hammud al-Shufi
* Mustafa Tlass
* Hasan Turkmani
* Muhammad Umran
* Salim Yasin
* Yusuf Zuayyin

Yemen|

Ali Ahmad Nasser al-Dhahab

Heads of state|

| Iraq|

* Ahmed Hassan al-Bakr
* Saddam Hussein

|

Syria|

* Amin al-Hafiz
* Nureddin al-Atassi
* Ahmad al-Khatib
* Hafez al-Assad
* Abdul Halim Khaddam (interim)
* Bashar al-Assad

Heads of government|

| Iraq|

* Ahmed Hassan al-Bakr
* Saddam Hussein
* Sa'dun Hammadi
* Mohammed Hamza Zubeidi
* Ahmad Husayn Khudayir as-Samarrai

|

Syria|

* Salah al-Din al-Bitar
* Amin al-Hafiz
* Yusuf Zuayyin
* Nureddin al-Atassi
* Hafez al-Assad
* Abdul Rahman Khleifawi
* Mahmoud al-Ayyubi
* Muhammad Ali al-Halabi
* Abdul Rauf al-Kasm
* Mahmoud Al-Zoubi
* Muhammad Mustafa Mero
* Muhammad Naji al-Otari
* Adel Safar
* Riyad Farid Hijab
* Omar Ibrahim Ghalawanji
* Wael Nader al-Halqi
* Imad Khamis
* Hussein Arnous
* Mohammad Ghazi al-Jalali

* = incumbent

Organization

| Regional branches|

| Iraqi-dominated faction|

* Algeria
* Bahrain
* Egypt
* Iraq
* Regional Command
* Jordan
* Lebanon
* Libya
* Mauritania
* Palestine
* Sudan
* Tunisia
* Yemen

|

Syrian-dominated faction|

* Jordan
* Lebanon
* Mauritania
* Palestine
* South Yemen
* Sudan
* Syria
* Central Command
* History
* National Security Bureau
* Yemen

Newspapers|

* Al-Ba'ath
* Sawt al-Jamahir
* Al-Thawra

Popular fronts|

* National Progressive Front (Iraq)
* National Progressive Front (Syria)

Wings|

| Paramilitary|

* Army of the Men of the Naqshbandi Order
* Ba'ath Brigades
* Fedayeen Saddam
* General Military Council for Iraqi Revolutionaries
* Jeish Muhammad
* National Defense Battalions
* Popular Army
* Supreme Command for Jihad and Liberation

|

Others|

* General Federation of Trade Unions
* General Union of Peasants
* Revolutionary Youth Union

Associated organizations

| Armed groups|

* Al-Abud Network
* Free Iraqi Army
* Rejectionists
* Snake Party

|

Breakaway groups|

* Arab Revolutionary Workers Party
* Arab Socialist Movement
* Damascus branch
* Arab Socialist Revolutionary Ba'ath Party
* Arabic Toilers' Movement
* Al-Awda
* Democratic Socialist Arab Ba'ath Party
* Palestinian Arab Front
* Socialist Lebanon
* Sudanese Ba'ath Party

Political alliances|

| Current|

* Alliance of Palestinian Forces
* Forces of Freedom and Change
* March 8 Alliance
* National Consensus Forces
* National Democratic Alliance
* Palestine Liberation Organization
* Palestinian National and Islamic Forces

|

Former|

* Ahd Bloc
* Front of Patriotic and National Parties
* Lebanese National Movement
* Lebanese National Resistance Front
* National Alliance for the Liberation of Syria
* National Union Front
* Palestinian National Alliance
* Palestinian National Salvation Front
* Rejectionist Front

Political parties|

* Arab Socialist Union Party
* Arab Democratic Union Party
* Democratic Socialist Unionist Party
* Kurdistan Revolutionary Party
* Libyan National Movement
* National Covenant Party
* Popular Unity Party
* Sawab
* Social Democratic Unionists
* Socialist Unionist Party
* Syrian Communist Party
* Bakdash
* Unified
* Syrian Social Nationalist Party
* in Lebanon

Miscellaneous

| Ideology|

* Anti-imperialism
* Anti-Zionism
* Arab nationalism
* Arab socialism
* Assadism
* Ba'athism
* Neo-Ba'athism
* Pan-Arabism
* Progressivism
* Republicanism
* Revolutionary socialism
* Romantic nationalism
* Saddamism
* Secularism
* Socialism
* Vanguardism

|

Literature|

* The Battle for One Destiny
* On the Way of Resurrection

Symbolism|

* Ardulfurataini
* Pan-Arab colors
* Waḥda, Ḥurriyya, Ishtirākiyya

* v
* t
* e

Changes in political power in Syria

Coups d'état|

* March 1949
* August 1949
* December 1949
* 1951
* 1954
* 1961
* March 1963
* 1966
* 1970

Attempted coups|

* 1962
* July 1963
* 1984

Revolutions|

2024

* Politics of Syria

* v
* t
* e

Syria articles

History|

* Timeline
* Years in Syria

Prehistorical Syria|

* Levantine corridor
* Natufian culture
* Halaf culture
* Uruk period
* Abu Hureyra
* Aswad
* Yarmukian culture

Ancient Syria|

* Amorites
* Akkadian Empire
* Arameans
* Canaanites
* Middle Assyrian Empire
* Ebla
* Yamhad
* Qatna
* Mari
* Ugarit
* Aram-Damascus
* Syro-Hittite states
* Neo-Assyrian Empire
* Neo-Babylonian Empire
* Achaemenid Syria
* Seleucid Syria
* Roman Syria
* Palmyrene Empire
* Byzantine Syria

Medieval Syria|

* Muslim conquest (636)
* Caliphal Syria (Bilad al-Sham)
* Tulunid dynasty
* Ikhshidid dynasty
* Zangid dynasty
* Hamdanid dynasty
* Mirdasid dynasty
* Fatimid Syria
* Saljuqid Syria
* Crusader states
* County of Edessa
* Principality of Antioch
* County of Tripoli
* Ayyubid Syria (1174–1260)
* Mamluk Syria (1260–1516)

Early modern Syria|

* Ottoman Syria (1516–1918)

Modern Syria|

* Arab kingdom (1920)
* Haj Fadel Government
* French Mandate
* Syrian Federation (1922–25)
* State of Syria (1925–30)
* Mandatory Republic (1930–46)
* independent First Republic (1946–50)
* Second Republic (1950–1963)
* Ba'athist Syria (1963–2024)
* Civil war
* Post-Assad Syria (2024–present)

Geography|

* Borders
* Cities
* Districts
* Governorates
* Rivers
* Volcanoes

Features|

* Al-Jazira
* Anti-Lebanon Mountains
* Euphrates
* Golan Heights
* Hauran
* Hermon
* Orontes
* Syrian Desert

Related|

* Syria (region)
* Southern Syria
* Fertile Crescent
* Levant

Politics|

* Constitution
* Corruption
* President
* list
* Vice President
* Council of Ministers
* Prime Minister
* list
* Elections
* Foreign relations
* Golan Heights claim
* Iskandaron
* Government ministries
* Human rights
* LGBT
* Judiciary
* Supreme Judicial Council
* Supreme Constitutional Court
* Parliament
* Speakers
* Political parties
* Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party
* national / regional command
* National Progressive Front
* Popular Front for Change and Liberation
* Political status of the Golan Heights
* Nationalism
* Syria (region)
* Terrorism

Military|

* Army
* Air force
* air defense
* Navy
* Chief of the General Staff
* Weapons of mass destruction

Economy|

* Agriculture
* Central Bank
* Companies
* Industry
* International rankings
* Pound (currency)
* Securities Exchange (stock exchange)

Infrastructure|

* Energy and mineral resources
* Electricity sector
* Petroleum industry
* Telecommunications
* Transport
* Water supply and sanitation

Society|

* Censorship
* Demographics
* Education
* Health
* Hunger
* People
* diaspora
* refugees (2011–present)
* women
* Public holidays
* Scouting
* Squatting

Culture|

* Anthem
* Coat of arms
* Cuisine (wine)
* Films
* Flag
* Media
* State
* television
* Music
* Religion
* Smoking

* Outline

* Category

*[v]: View this template
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*[e]: Edit this template
*[c.]: circa
*[transl.]: translation