Fascism in Europe

This article is about fascism in Europe up to World War II. For fascism Europe after World War II, see Neo-fascism.

Benito Mussolini and Adolf Hitler, fascist leaders of the Kingdom of Italy, and the Third Reich Part of a series on

Fascism

Principles

* Actual idealism
* Aestheticization of politics
* Anti-communism
* Anti-intellectualism
* Anti-materialism
* Anti-pacifism
* Authoritarianism
* Chauvinism
* Class collaboration
* Corporatism
* Proprietary Corporation
* Counter-Enlightenment
* Cult of personality
* Dictatorship
* Direct action
* Dirigisme
* Eugenics
* Heroic capitalism
* Heroic realism
* Heroism
* Imperialism
* Economic
* Social
* Irrationalism
* Machismo
* Masculinity
* Militarism
* National syndicalism
* Nationalism
* Integral
* Palingenetic
* Ultra
* New Man
* One-party state
* Perpetual war
* Populism
* Proletarian nation
* Propaganda
* Racism
* Reactionary modernism
* Social Darwinism
* Social order
* Spazio vitale
* State capitalism
* Statolatry
* Supercapitalism
* Syncretism
* Third Position
* Totalitarianism

Topics

* Definitions
* Economics
* Ideology
* Martyrs
* Movements
* Mysticism
* Symbolism

Politicians

* al-Gaylani
* Arcand
* Araki
* Balbo
* Bandera
* Bose
* Böszörmény
* Bottai
* Blythe
* Bucard
* Ciano
* Codreanu
* Darnand
* Déat
* Degrelle
* Déroulède
* Doriot
* Engdahl
* Federzoni
* Flores
* Franco
* Frashëri
* Goga
* Hitler
* Hlinka
* Hoornaert
* Ljotić
* de Man
* von Marées
* Monshizadeh
* Mosley
* Mussolini
* Nakano
* O'Duffy
* Quisling
* Pavelić
* Pavolini
* Pelley
* Preto
* Primo de Rivera
* Rodzaevsky
* Saadeh
* Salgado
* Sima
* Starace
* Starhemberg
* Strasser (Gregor)
* Strasser (Otto)
* Szálasi
* Tiso
* Türkeş
* Vallat
* Valois
* Van Severen
* Wilson

Intellectuals

* Ahimeir
* Arthuys
* Bardèche
* Béraud
* Brăileanu
* Brasillach
* Céline
* Chamberlain
* Chesterton
* Civinini
* Cogni
* Collins
* Corradini
* Crainic
* Croce
* Cupcea
* D'Annunzio
* Dilling
* Drieu La Rochelle
* Evola
* Gentile
* Giani
* Gini
* de Gobineau
* Herseni
* Ionescu
* Kita
* Krannhals
* de Lapouge
* Lewis
* Malaparte
* Manuilă
* Marinetti
* Maxence
* Michels
* Mosley
* Ojetti
* Ōkawa
* Olivetti
* Orano
* Panero
* Panunzio
* Pirandello
* Pitt-Rivers
* Pound
* Ramos
* Rebatet
* Reghini
* Rosenberg
* Sadoveanu-Evan
* Saint-Loup
* Savarkar
* Scaligero
* Schmitt
* Schwarz
* Soffici
* Sorel
* Spirito
* Streel
* Thomson
* Ungaretti
* Valois

Literature

* Triumph of Death (1894)
* The Flame (1900)
* The Will to Power (1901)
* Reflections on Violence (1908)
* Fascio Rivoluzionario d'Azione
Internazionalista (1914)
* Prussianism and Socialism (1919)
* "Futurist Manifesto" (1919)
* Fascist Manifesto (1919)
* Das Dritte Reich (1923)
* Mein Kampf (1925)
* Manifesto of the Fascist Intellectuals (1925)
* Frederick the Second (1927)
* My Autobiography (1928)
* The Myth of the Twentieth Century (1930)
* The Outlaws (1930)
* "The Doctrine of Fascism" (1932)
* Twenty-Six Point Program of
the Falange (1934)
* Man, the Unknown (1935)
* For My Legionaries (1936)
* Guide to Kulchur (1938)
* A Warning to the Hindus (1939)
* Gilles (1939)

Organizations

* Arrow Cross Party
* Blackshirts
* Blueshirts
* Brazilian Integralist Action
* British Democratic Party (2013)
* British National Party
* British Union of Fascists
* Stewards
* Canadian Union of Fascists
* Fasci d'Azione Rivoluzionaria
* Fasci Italiani di Combattimento
* Fatherland Front
* FE de las JONS
* FET y de las JONS
* French Popular Party
* Futurist Political Party
* IKL
* Iron Guard
* Kataeb Party
* Kokumin Dōmei
* Lapua Movement
* Mouvement Franciste
* Nasjonal Samling
* National Christian Party
* National Fascist Party
* Nazi Party
* Gestapo
* Hitler Youth
* RAD
* SA
* SS
* National Radical Camp
* National Social Movement
* New Party
* Opera Nazionale Balilla
* Patriotic People's Movement
* Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh
* Ratniks
* Republican Fascist Party
* Revolutionary Mexicanist Action
* Revolutionary Union
* Rexist Party
* Russian Fascist Party
* Silver Legion of America
* Squadrismo
* School of Fascist Mysticism
* Slovak People's Party
* Taisei Yokusankai
* Tōhōkai
* UR Group
* Ustaše
* Ustaše Youth
* Verdinaso
* VFO
* Vlajka
* VNV

Media

* Action
* Ajan Suunta
* The American Review
* Der Angriff
* Arriba
* The Blackshirt
* Buna Vestire
* Critica fascista
* Fashist
* Gândirea
* Gringoire
* Il Popolo d'Italia
* Je suis partout
* La Conquista del Estado
* Le Pays Réel
* L'Idea Nazionale
* Lidel
* Nash Put'
* Nástup
* Neues Volk
* Nippon Fujin
* NS-Frauen-Warte
* Das Schwarze Korps
* Volk en Staat
* Völkischer Beobachter

History

* March on Rome
* Beer Hall Putsch
* Gentile Reform
* Aventine Secession
* Second Italo-Senussi War
* Mukden Incident
* German election of 1932
* Enabling Act
* Austrian Civil War
* Exhibition of the Fascist Revolution
* 1934 Montreux Fascist conference
* Second Italo-Ethiopian War
* 1935 Revolution Day Zócalo Battle
* Spanish Civil War
* Unification Decree
* Battle of Cable Street
* Second Sino-Japanese War
* Marco Polo Bridge Incident
* Japanese war crimes
* Anti-Comintern Pact
* Kristallnacht
* Italian invasion of Albania
* Pact of Steel
* Peasant March
* World War II
* The Holocaust
* Downfall in Italy
* Downfall in Germany
* Surrender of Japan
* Nuremberg trials
* International Military Tribunal for
the Far East

Variants

* Albanian
* Arab
* Argentine
* Nacionalismo
* Orthodox Peronism
* Austrian
* Brazilian
* British
* Christian
* Christian Identity
* Clerical
* Crypto-
* Croatian socialism
* Eco-
* Falangism
* Francoism
* French
* Doriotism
* Pétainism
* Valoisism
* Hindutva
* Hungarism
* Hutu
* Ibañism
* Ilminism
* Irish
* Islamic
* Qutbism
* Khomeinism
* Italian
* Intransigent
* Japanese
* Emperor-system
* Reform bureaucratism
* Statism
* Restoration
* Ultra-
* Jewish/Israeli
* Kahanism
* Revisionist Maximalism
* Nazism
* Austrian
* Esoteric
* Hitlerism
* Strasserism
* Swedish
* Neo-
* Finnish
* Legionarism
* Pan-Turkic
* Rexism
* Romanian
* Legionarism
* National Legionary State
* Neo-
* Romanianism/Stelism
* Russian
* Syndicalist
* Syrian Social Nationalism
* Techno-
* Third Position
* National-anarchism
* National Bolshevism
* Nazi-Maoism
* Ukrainian
* Banderism
* National Shevchenkoism
* Uruguayan
* Marzism
* Revisionism
* Sosism

By continent

* Asia
* Europe
* Bulgaria
* Netherlands
* Russia
* North America
* Canada
* United States
* South America
* Peru
* Uruguay

Related topics

* Anti-fascism
* Axis powers
* Criticism of fascism
* Donald Trump and fascism
* Extremism of the centre
* F-scale
* Fascist as an insult
* Feudal fascism
* Futurism
* Glossary of Fascist Italy
* Lebensphilosophie
* Mediterraneanism
* Para-fascism
* Paramilitary
* Post-fascism
* Proto-fascism
* Red fascism
* Social fascism

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Fascist movements in Europe were the set of various fascist ideologies which were practiced by governments and political organizations in Europe during the 20th century. Fascism was born in Italy following World War I, and other fascist movements, influenced by Italian fascism, subsequently emerged across Europe. Among the political doctrines which are identified as ideological origins of fascism in Europe are the combining of a traditional national unity and revolutionary anti-democratic rhetoric which was espoused by the integral nationalist Charles Maurras[1] and the revolutionary syndicalist Georges Sorel.

The earliest foundations of fascism in practice can be seen in the Italian Regency of Carnaro,[2] led by the Italian nationalist Gabriele D'Annunzio, many of whose politics and aesthetics were subsequently used by Benito Mussolini and his Italian Fasces of Combat which Mussolini had founded as the Fasces of Revolutionary Action in 1914. Despite the fact that its members referred to themselves as "fascists", the ideology was based around national syndicalism.[3] The ideology of fascism would not fully develop until 1921, when Mussolini transformed his movement into the National Fascist Party, which then in 1923 incorporated the Italian Nationalist Association. The INA established fascist tropes such as colored shirt uniforms and also received the support of important proto-fascists like D'Annunzio and nationalist intellectual Enrico Corradini.

The first declaration of the political stance of fascism was the Fascist Manifesto, written by national syndicalist Alceste De Ambris and futurist poet Filippo Tommaso Marinetti and published in 1919. Many of the policies advanced in the manifesto, such as centralization, abolition of the senate, formation of national councils loyal to the state, expanded military power, and support for militias (Blackshirts, for example) were adopted by Mussolini's regime, while other calls such as universal suffrage and a peaceful foreign policy[4] were abandoned. De Ambris later became a prominent anti-fascist. In 1932, "The Doctrine of Fascism", an essay by Mussolini and Giovanni Gentile, provided an outline of fascism that better represented Mussolini's regime.

## Regimes and parties

[edit]

Political parties in Europe often described as fascist or being strongly influenced by fascism include:[5]

* The National Fascist Party/Republican Fascist Party in the Kingdom of Italy and the Italian Social Republic under Benito Mussolini (1922–1945);
* The National Socialist German Workers' Party (Nazi Party) in Nazi Germany under Adolf Hitler (1933–1945) – Based on the ideology of National Socialism, much of which was heavily influenced or taken wholesale from Italian Fascism;
* The National Union in Portugal under António de Oliveira Salazar and Marcelo Caetano (1933–1974) (Salazar rejected the label of fascist criticizing the "exaltation of youth, the cult of force through direct action, the principle of the superiority of state political power in social life, and the propensity for organising masses behind a single leader", however his regime adopted many fascist characteristics with the Legião Portuguesa, the Mocidade Portuguesa, and Corporatism being the most prominent examples; after 1945 Salazar distanced his regime from fascism)[6][7]
* The Fatherland Front in Austria under Engelbert Dollfuss and Kurt Schuschnigg (1934–1938) – Based on the ideology of Austrofascism, which was heavily influenced by Italian fascism.
* The 4th of August Regime in Greece under Ioannis Metaxas (1936–1941) – The Metaxist regime adopted many fascist characteristics with the EON being an example of this. The regime was based around Metaxism, which was influenced by fascism.
* The Falange Española Tradicionalista y de las JONS in Spain under Francisco Franco (1939–1975). – After 1945, Franco's regime distanced itself from fascism; however, it remained highly authoritarian and nationalist, still maintaining some Falangist principles.

There were multiple regimes in the Kingdom of Romania that were influenced by fascism. These include the National Christian Party under Octavian Goga (1938), Party of the Nation under Ion Gigurtu (1940), and the National Legionary State which was led by the Iron Guard under Horia Sima in conjunction with the Romanian military dictatorship under Ion Antonescu (1940–1941). The first two of these regimes were not completely fascist however used fascism to appeal to the growing far-right sympathies amongst the populace.[8] The military dictatorship of Ion Antonescu (1941–1944) is also often considered fascist.

Prior to and during the Second World War, Nazi Germany and its allies imposed numerous anti-democratic regimes and collaborationist dictatorships across German-occupied Europe, whose characterization was authoritarian, nationalist, anti-communist, and staunchly pro-Axis powers:[5]

* The National Partnership in Czechia under Emil Hácha (1939–1945)
* The Slovak People's Party in Slovakia under Jozef Tiso (1939–1945)
* The Vichy Regime supported by collaborationist parties (Marcel Bucard's Mouvement Franciste, Jacques Doriot's French Popular Party, Marcel Déat's National Popular Rally), and Joseph Darnand's Milice in France under Philippe Pétain and Pierre Laval (1940–1944)
* The Ustaše in Croatia under Ante Pavelić (1941–1945)
* The Collaborationist government supported by National Union of Greece and Greek National Socialist Party in Greece under Georgios Tsolakoglou, Konstantinos Logothetopoulos, and Ioannis Rallis (1941–1944)
* The Collaborationist government supported by Dimitrije Ljotić's Yugoslav National Movement in Serbia under Milan Nedić (1941–1944)
* The Nasjonal Samling in Norway under Vidkun Quisling (1942–1945)
* The Arrow Cross Party in Hungary under Ferenc Szálasi (1944–1945)
* Konrad Henlein's Sudeten German Party, Anton Mussert's NSB, Léon Degrelle's Rexist Party, and Staf De Clercq's VNV were also given significant power in occupied Europe.

There were also a number of political movements active in Europe that were influenced in part by some features of Mussolini's regime. These include: Le Faisceau, British Fascists, British Union of Fascists, Imperial Fascist League, Blueshirts, French National-Collectivist Party, Breton National Party, Falange Española, Black Front, National Syndicalist Movement, Verdinaso, Nationale Front, Greek National Socialist Party, Vlajka, National Fascist Community, ONR-Falanga, Patriotic People's Movement, Pērkonkrusts, Union of Bulgarian National Legions, Ratniks and the Russian Fascist Party (based in Manchuria).[5]

Prominent figures associated with European fascism outside of the Axis include Oswald Mosley, Rotha Lintorn-Orman, José Antonio Primo de Rivera, Joris Van Severen, Corneliu Zelea Codreanu, Francisco Rolão Preto, Hristo Lukov, Aleksandar Tsankov, Bolesław Piasecki, Radola Gajda, Eoin O'Duffy, Sven Olov Lindholm, Vihtori Kosola, and Konstantin Rodzaevsky.

Benito Mussolini (left) with Oswald Mosley (right) during the latter's visit to fascist Italy in 1936

Other right-wing/far-right political parties such as the German National People's Party, CEDA, Danish Unity,[9] Zveno, Party of Hungarian Life, Union of Mladorossi and the Fatherland League[9] lacked the ideology of fascism but adopted some fascist characteristics. Far-right politicians like Alfred Hugenberg, José María Gil-Robles, and Gyula Gömbös represent fascism's influence on the right with these leaders adopting an ultra-nationalist and authoritarian rhetoric influenced by Mussolini and later Hitler's successes.

The nationalism espoused by these groups contrasted the internationalist focus of communism; there was little coordination between fascist movements prior to the Second World War; however. there was an attempt at unifying European fascists. The 1934 Montreux Fascist conference was a meeting held by members of a number of European fascist parties and movements and was organised by the Comitati d'Azione per l'Universalità di Roma, which received support from Mussolini. The first conference was open to many perspectives and failed to develop any unity amidst the many ideological conflicts among the delegates. The second conference was equally ineffective and more meetings were attempted.[10]

### Post-World War II

[edit]

Main article: Aftermath of World War II

See also: Category:Neo-Nazism in Europe

In the aftermath of World War II, most fascist regimes or regimes influenced by fascism were dismantled by the Allied forces, with only those in Spain and Portugal surviving, both of which remained neutral during the war.[a][b] Parties, movements or politicians who carried the label "fascist" quickly became political pariahs with many nations across Europe banning any organisations or references relating to fascism and Nazism. With this came the rise of Neo-Fascism, movements like the Italian Social Movement, Socialist Reich Party and Union Movement attempted to continue fascism's legacy but failed to become mass movements.

European fascism influenced movements in the Americas. Both North America and South America would develop fascistic political groups rooted in the local European descended communities. These included the Chilean Nacistas, Brazilian Integralist Action, Argentine Civic Legion, Peruvian Revolutionary Union, National Synarchist Union, Revolutionary Mexicanist Action and the Silver Legion of America along with figures like Plínio Salgado, Gustavo Barroso, González von Marées, Salvador Abascal, Nicolás Carrasco, William Dudley Pelley and Adrien Arcand. Some historians also consider Argentine president Juan Perón and his ideology, Peronism as being influenced by European fascism,[31] however, this has been disputed. Brazilian president, Getúlio Vargas, and his corporate regime known as the "New State" was also influenced by Mussolini's rule. European fascism was also influential in the European diaspora elsewhere in the world, in Australia Eric Campbell's Centre Party and the South African fascist movement, which included Oswald Pirow, being examples of this.

The rise of fascist activities and violence across Europe prompted governments to enact regulations to limit disturbances caused by fascists and other extremists. In a 1937 study, Karl Loewenstein provides the following list of examples:

1. Use of existing criminal codes
2. A ban on subversive movements
3. A ban on para-military wings of parties and political uniforms
4. A ban on offensive weaponry
5. New statutes that ban abuse of parliamentary procedures
6. Bans on incitement and agitation of violence
7. Bans on attempts to wreck meetings and assemblies
8. Prohibitions on certain forms of speech, such as false rumor, disparagement of institutions
9. Bans of publicly exalting criminals
10. Bans on subversive propaganda aimed at the national armed forces
11. Bans on anti-constitutional activities of public officials
12. Creation of police forces that work to suppress anti-democratic movements
13. Bans on secret foreign financial support for extremist parties and foreign propaganda[32][33]

## Fascist electoral performance

[edit]

In the interwar period many parties which in historiography are referred to as fascist, proto-fascist, para-fascist, quasi-fascist, fascist-like, fascistic, fascistoid or fascistized participated in general elections organized in their respective countries. Though in numerous cases the fascist denomination is doubted (e.g. in case of the Belgian Christus Rex or the Greek National Union), electoral results obtained demonstrate their scale of popular support among the population. The best-ever performance of such parties in specific countries is given in the below table.

Outcome of theoretically multi-party elections which were clearly manipulated is ignored as unrepresentative for genuine support which the party enjoyed, e.g. the result of Partito Nazionale Fascista in Italy of 1924.

In case of some countries the lifetime of a fascistoid party did not overlap with reasonably free general elections, though the party might have fared well in other elections, e.g. in local elections in Bulgaria of 1934 Народно социално движение gained 12% of the votes, in local elections of Estonia in 1934 Eesti Vabadussõjalaste Kesklii won absolute majority of seats in 3 largest cities, while in local elections of France in 1938–1939 Parti Social Français garnered some 15% of the votes. Some parties, like National Corporate Party in Ireland or Le Faisceau in France existed so briefly that they hardly managed to take part in any type of elections.

In some countries fascist parties ignored electoral competition, like British Union of Fascists did in case of the UK elections of 1935. At times fascist parties abstained since elections were considered manipulated, like in case of Obóz Narodowo-Radykalny in Polish elections of 1935.

Country  | Party  | best election year  | best electoral result[c]

|
|
|

Austria | Heimatblock | 1930 | 6.2%[34]
Deutsche Nationalsozialistische Arbeiterpartei | 3.0%[34]
Belgium | Rex | 1936 | 11.5%[35]
Vlaams Nationaal Verbond | 7.1%[36]
Bulgaria | Народно социално движение | 1939 | 3.2%
Czechoslovakia | Sudetendeutsche Partei | 1935 | 15.2%
Národní obec fašistická | 2.0%[37]
Руська національно-автономна партія | 0.4%[38]
Danzig | Nationalsozialistische Deutsche Arbeiterpartei | 1933 | 50.1%[39]
Denmark | Danmarks Nationalsocialistiske Arbejderparti | 1939 | 1.8%[40]
Nationalt Samvirke | 1.0%[9]
Dansk Samling | 0.5%[9]
Finland | Isänmaallinen kansanliike | 1937 | 8.3%[41]
Germany | Nationalsozialistische Deutsche Arbeiterpartei | 1932 | 37.0%[42]
Greece | Γενική Λαϊκή Ριζοσπαστική Ένωσις | 1936 | 19.9%
Κόμμα των Ελευθεροφρόνων | 3.9%
Μεταρρυθμιστικό Εθνικό Κόμμα[43] | 1.4%
Εθνική Ένωσις Ελλάδος | 0.0%
Hungary | Nyilaskeresztes Párt | 1939 | 14.4%[44]
Keresztény Nemzeti Szocialista Front | 2.4%
Egyesült Magyar Nemzeti Szocialista Párt | 2.1%
Nemzeti Front | 1.7%
Magyar Nemzeti Szocialista Földmunkás és Munkáspárt | 1.0%
Magyar Nemzeti Szocialista Párt | 0.3%
Népakarat Párt[45] | 0.2%
Magyar Fajvédő Párt | 0.0%
Independents | 3.0%
Iceland | Flokkur Þjóðernissinna | 1934 | 0.7%[46]
Ireland | Irish Monetary Reform Association | 1944 | 0.8%[47]
Ailtirí na hAiséirghe | 0.5%[48]
Italy | Fasci Italiani di Combattimento | 1921 | 6.4%[49]
Latvia | Kristīgā nacionālā savienība | 1922 | 4.2%[50]
Bezpartijiskais nacionālais centrs | 3.7%[50]
Netherlands | Nationaal-Socialistische Beweging in Nederland | 1937 | 4.2%[51]
Zwart Front | 0.2%[52]
Verbond voor Nationaal Herstel | 0.2%[52]
Nationaal-Socialistische Nederlandsche Arbeiderspartij | 0.0%[52]
Norway | Nasjonal Samling | 1933 | 2.2%[53]
Romania | Legiunea Arhanghelul Mihail | 1937 | 15.5%[54]
Partidul Național Creștin | 9.3%[55]
Saar Basin | Nationalsozialistische Arbeiterpartei | 1932 | 6.7%[56]
Spain | Falange Española y de las JONS | 1936 | 0.1%[57]
Sweden | Sveriges Nationella Förbund | 1936 | 0.9%[58]
Nationalsocialistiska Arbetarepartiet | 0.6%[58]
Svenska nationalsocialistiska partiet | 0.1%[58]
Switzerland | Nationale Front | 1935 | 1.5%[59]
Union nationale | 0.3%
Action hélvétique | 0.1%
Nouvel ordre politique national | 0.0%
United Kingdom | New Party | 1931 | 0.2%[60]
Yugoslavia | Југословенски народни покрет „Збор" | 1938 | 1.0%[61]

## Early relationship

[edit]

Mussolini and Adolf Hitler were not always allies. While Mussolini wanted the expansion of fascist ideology throughout the world, he did not initially appreciate Hitler and the Nazi Party. Hitler was an early admirer of Mussolini and asked for Mussolini's guidance on how the Nazis could pull off their own March on Rome.[62] Mussolini did not respond to Hitler's requests as he did not have much interest in Hitler's movement and regarded Hitler to be somewhat crazy.[62] Mussolini did attempt to read Mein Kampf to find out what Hitler's Nazism was, but he was immediately disappointed, saying that Mein Kampf was "a boring tome that I have never been able to read" and claimed that Hitler's beliefs were "little more than commonplace clichés".[62]

Hitler and the Nazi Party in 1922 had praised the rise to power of Mussolini and sought a German-Italian alliance.[63] Upon Mussolini's rise to power, the Nazis declared their admiration and emulation of the Italian Fascists, with Nazi member Hermann Esser in November 1922 saying that "what a group of brave men in Italy have done, we can also do in Bavaria. We've also got Italy's Mussolini: his name is Adolf Hitler".[63]

The second part of Hitler's Mein Kampf ("The National Socialist Movement", 1926) contains this passage:

> I conceived the profoundest admiration for the great man south of the Alps, who, full of ardent love for his people, made no pacts with the enemies of Italy, but strove for their annihilation by all ways and means. What will rank Mussolini among the great men of this earth is his determination not to share Italy with the Marxists, but to destroy internationalism and save the fatherland from it.

— Adolf Hitler, Mein Kampf, p. 622

In a 1931 interview, Hitler spoke admirably about Mussolini, commending Mussolini's racial origins as being the same as that of Germans and claimed at the time that Mussolini was capable of building an Italian Empire that would outdo the Roman Empire and that he supported Mussolini's endeavors, saying:

> They know that Benito Mussolini is constructing a colossal empire which will put the Roman Empire in the shade. We shall put up ... for his victories. Mussolini is a typical representative of our Alpine race...

— Adolf Hitler, 1931.[64]

Mussolini had personal reasons to oppose antisemitism as his longtime mistress and Fascist propaganda director Margherita Sarfatti was Jewish. She had played an important role in the foundation of the fascist movement in Italy and promoting it to Italians and the world through supporting the arts. However, within the Italian fascist movement there were a minority who endorsed Hitler's antisemitism as Roberto Farinacci, who was part of the far-right wing of the party.

There were also nationalist reasons why Germany and Italy were not immediate allies. Habsburg Austria (Hitler's birthplace) had an antagonistic relationship with Italy since it was formed, largely because Austria-Hungary had seized most of the territories once belonging to Italian states such as Venice. Italian irredentist claims sought the return of these lands to Italian rule (Italia irredenta). Although initially neutral, Italy entered World War I on the side of the Allies against Germany and Austria-Hungary when promised several territories (Trentino-Alto Adige/Südtirol, Trieste, Istria and Dalmatia). After the war had ended, Italy was rewarded with these territories under the terms of the 1919 Treaty of Saint-Germain-en-Laye.

In Germany and Austria, the annexation of Alto Adige/South Tyrol was controversial as the province was made up of a large majority of German speakers. While Hitler did not pursue this claim, many in the Nazi Party felt differently. In 1939, Mussolini and Hitler agreed on the South Tyrol Option Agreement. When Mussolini's government collapsed in 1943 and the Italian Social Republic was created, Alto Adige/South Tyrol was annexed to Nazi Greater Germany, but was restored to Italy after the war.

## Racism

[edit]

See also: Italian fascism and racism, Italian racial laws, and Manifesto of Race

The most striking difference between fascist ideologies is the racialist ideology which was the central priority of Nazism, but was not a priority of the other fascist ideologies. Fascism was founded on the principle of nationalist unity which opposed the divisionist class war ideologies of Marxist socialism and communism; therefore, the majority of the regimes viewed racialism as counterproductive to unity, with Mussolini asserting: that "National pride has no need of the delirium of race".[65] Nazism differed from Italian fascism in that it had a stronger emphasis on race in terms of social and economic policies. Though both ideologies denied the significance of the individual, Italian fascism saw the individual as subservient to the state whereas Nazism saw the individual as well as the state as ultimately subservient to the race.[66] However, subservience to the Nazi state was also a requirement on the population. Mussolini's fascism held that cultural factors existed to serve the state and that it was not necessarily in the state's interest to interfere in cultural aspects of society. The only purpose of government in Mussolini's fascism was to uphold the state as supreme above all else, a concept which can be described as statolatry.

Unlike Hitler, Mussolini repeatedly changed his views on the issue of race according to the circumstances of the time. In 1921, Mussolini promoted the development of the Italian race such as when he said this:

> The nation is not simply the sum of living individuals, nor the instrument of parties for their own ends, but an organism comprised of the infinite series of generations of which the individuals are only transient elements; it is the supreme synthesis of all the material and immaterial values of the race.

— Benito Mussolini, 1921[67]

Like Hitler, Mussolini publicly declared his support of a eugenics policy to improve the status of Italians in 1926 to the people of Reggio Emilia:

> We need to create ourselves; we of this epoch and this generation, because it is up to us, I tell you, to make the face of this country unrecognizable in the next ten years. In ten years comrades, Italy will be unrecognizable! We will create a new Italian, an Italian that does not recognize the Italian of yesterday...we will create them according to our own imagination and likeness.

— Benito Mussolini, 1926[67]

In a 1921 speech in Bologna, Mussolini stated the following: "Fascism was born [...] out of a profound, perennial need of this our Aryan and Mediterranean race".[68][69] In this speech, Mussolini was referring to Italians as being the Mediterranean branch of the Aryan race, Aryan in the meaning of people of an Indo-European language and culture.[67] However, Italian fascism initially strongly rejected the common Nordicist conception of the Aryan race that idealized "pure" Aryans as having certain physical traits that were defined as Nordic such as blond hair and blue eyes.[70] The antipathy by Mussolini and other Italian fascists to Nordicism was over the existence of the Mediterranean inferiority complex that had been instilled into Mediterraneans by the propagation of such theories by German and Anglo-Saxon Nordicists who viewed Mediterranean peoples as racially degenerate and thus inferior.[70] Mussolini refused to allow Italy to return again to this inferiority complex.[70]

In a private conversation with Emil Ludwig in 1932, Mussolini derided the concept of a biologically superior race and denounced racism as being a foolish concept. Mussolini did not believe that race alone was that significant. Mussolini viewed himself as a modern-day Roman Emperor, the Italians as a cultural elite and he also wished to "Italianise" the parts of the Italian Empire which he had desired to build.[71] A cultural superiority of Italians, rather than a view of racialism.[71] Mussolini believed that the development of a race was insignificant in comparison to the development of a culture, but he did believe that a race could be improved through moral development, though he did not say that this would make a superior race:

> Race! It is a feeling, not a reality: ninety-five percent, at least, is a feeling. Nothing will ever make me believe that biologically pure races can be shown to exist today. [...] National pride has no need of the delirium of race. Only a revolution and a decisive leader can improve a race, even if this is more a sentiment than a reality. But I repeat that a race can change itself and improve itself. I say that it is possible to change not only the somatic lines, the height, but really also the character. Influence of moral pressure can act deterministically also in the biological sense.

— Benito Mussolini, 1932.;[72][73]

Mussolini believed that a biologically superior race was not possible, but that a more developed culture's superiority over the less developed ones warranted the destruction of the latter, such as the culture of Ethiopia and the neighboring Slavic cultures, such as those in Slovenia and Croatia. He took advantage[how?] of the fact that no undertaking was made with regard to the rights of minorities (such as those that lived in Istria and Trieste's surroundings) in either the Treaty of Rapallo or the Treaty of Rome; and after 1924's Treaty of Rome these same treaties did not make any undertaking with regard to the rights of the minorities that lived in Rijeka.[citation needed] Croatian, Slovene, German and French toponyms were systematically Italianized.

Against ethnic Slovenes, he imposed an especially violent fascist Italianization policy. To Italianize ethnic Slovene and Croatian children, Fascist Italy brought Italian teachers from Southern Italy to the ex Austro-Hungarian territories that had been given to Italy in exchange for its decision to join Great Britain in World War I such as Slovene Littoral and a big part of western Slovenia while Slovene and Croatian teachers, poets, writers, artists, and clergy were exiled to Sardinia and Southern Italy. Acts of fascist violence were not hampered by the authorities, such as the burning down of the Narodni dom (Community Hall of ethnic Slovenes) in Trieste, which was carried out at night by fascists with the connivance of the police on 13 July 1920.

After the complete destruction of all Slovene minority cultural, financial, and other organizations and the continuation of violent fascist Italianization policies of ethnic cleansing, one of the first anti-fascist organizations in Europe, TIGR, emerged in 1927, and it coordinated the Slovene resistance against Fascist Italy until it was dismantled by the fascist secret police in 1941, after which some ex-TIGR members joined the Slovene Partisans.

For Mussolini, the inclusion of people in a fascist society depended upon their loyalty to the state. Meetings between Mussolini and Arab dignitaries from the colony of Libya convinced him that the Arab population was worthy enough to be given extensive civil rights and as a result, he allowed Muslims to join a Muslim section of the Fascist Party, namely the Muslim Association of the Lictor.[74] However, under pressure from Nazi Germany, the fascist regime eventually embraced a racist ideology, such as promoting the belief that Italy was settling Africa in order to create a white civilization there[75] and it imposed five-year prison sentences on any Italians who were caught having sexual or marital relationships with native Africans.[74] Against those colonial peoples who were not loyal, vicious campaigns of repression were waged such as in Ethiopia, where native Ethiopian settlements were burned to the ground by the Italian armed forces in 1937.[76] Under fascism, native Africans were allowed to join the Italian armed forces as colonial troops and they also appeared in fascist propaganda.[citation needed]

At least in its overt ideology, the Nazi movement believed that the existence of a class-based society was a threat to its survival, and as a result, it wanted to unify the racial element above the established classes, but the Italian fascist movement sought to preserve the class system and uphold it as the foundation of an established and desirable culture.[citation needed] Nevertheless, the Italian fascists did not reject the concept of social mobility and a central tenet of the fascist state was meritocracy, yet fascism also heavily based itself on corporatism, which was supposed to supersede class conflicts.[citation needed] Despite these differences, Kevin Passmore (2002 p. 62) observes:

> There are sufficient similarities between Fascism and Nazism to make it worthwhile by applying the concept of fascism to both. In Italy and Germany, a movement came to power that sought to create national unity through the repression of national enemies and the incorporation of all classes and both genders into a permanently mobilized nation.[77]

Nazi ideologues such as Alfred Rosenberg were highly skeptical of the Italian race and fascism, but he believed that the improvement of the Italian race was possible if major changes were made to convert it into an acceptable "Aryan" race and he also said that the Italian fascist movement would only succeed if it purified the Italian race into an Aryan one.[73] Nazi theorists believed that the downfall of the Roman Empire was due to the interbreeding of different races which created a "polluted" Italian race that was inferior.[73]

Hitler believed this and he also believed that Mussolini represented an attempt to revive the pure elements of the former Roman civilization, such as the desire to create a strong and aggressive Italian people. However, Hitler was still audacious enough when meeting Mussolini for the first time in 1934 to tell him that all Mediterranean peoples were "tainted" by "Negro blood" and thus in his racist view they were degenerate.[73]

Relations between Fascist Italy and Nazi Germany were initially poor but they deteriorated even further after the assassination of Austria's fascist chancellor Engelbert Dollfuss by Austrian Nazis in 1934. Under Dollfuss Austria was a key ally of Mussolini and Mussolini was deeply angered by Hitler's attempt to take over Austria and he expressed it by angrily mocking Hitler's earlier remark on the impurity of the Italian race by declaring that a "Germanic" race did not exist and he also indicated that Hitler's repression of Germany's Jews proved that the Germans were not a pure race:

> But which race? Does there exist a German race. Has it ever existed? Will it ever exist? Reality, myth, or hoax of theorists? (Another parenthesis: the theoretician of racism is a 100 percent Frenchman: Gobineau) Ah well, we respond, a Germanic race does not exist. Various movements. Curiosity. Stupor. We repeat. Does not exist. We don't say so. Scientists say so. Hitler says so.

— Benito Mussolini, 1934[78]

## Foreign affairs

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Italian Fascism was expansionist in its desires, it advocated the establishment of a New Roman Empire. Nazi Germany was even more aggressive in expanding its borders in violation of the 1919 Treaty of Versailles. The Nazis murdered the Austrofascist dictator Dollfuss, causing an uneasy relationship in Austria between fascism and Nazism at an early stage. Italian nationalist and pan-German claims clashed over the issue of Tyrol.

In the 1920s, Hitler, with only a small Nazi party at the time, wanted to form an alliance with Mussolini's regime because he recognized the fact that his espousal of pan-German nationalism was seen as a threat by Italy. In his unpublished sequel to Mein Kampf, Hitler attempted to address concerns about Nazism which were widespread among Italian fascists. In the book, Hitler puts the issue of Germans in Tyrol aside by stating that overall, Germany and Italy have more in common than not and as a result, the Tyrol Germans must accept the fact that it is in Germany's interests for Germany to be allied with Italy. Hitler claims that Germany, like Italy, was subjected to oppression by its neighbours and he denounces the Austrian Empire by stating that it oppressed Italy by preventing it from completing its national unification just as France oppressed Germany by preventing it from completing its national unification. In the book, Hitler's denunciation of Austria is important because Italian fascists were skeptical of him due to the fact that he was born in Austria, which Italy had considered its primary enemy for centuries and Italy believed that Germany was an ally of Austria. By declaring that the Nazi movement was not interested in the territorial legacy of the Austrian Empire, the Nazi Party was able to assure the Italian fascists that Hitler, the Nazi movement and Germany were not enemies of Italy.

Despite Hitler's public attempts to display goodwill towards Mussolini, Germany and Italy came into conflict in 1934 when Engelbert Dollfuss, the Austrofascist leader of Italy's ally Austria, was assassinated by Austrian Nazis on Hitler's orders in preparation for a planned Anschluss (annexation of Austria). Mussolini ordered troops to the Austrian-Italian border in readiness for a war against Germany. Hitler backed down by deferring his plans to annex Austria.

When Hitler and Mussolini first met, Mussolini referred to Hitler as "a silly little monkey" before the Allies forced Mussolini to form an alliance with Hitler. Mussolini also reportedly asked Pope Pius XII to excommunicate Hitler. From 1934 to 1936, Hitler continually attempted to win the support of Italy and the Nazi regime endorsed the Italian invasion of Ethiopia (leading to Ethiopia's annexation as Italian East Africa) while the League of Nations condemned Italian aggression. With other countries opposing Italy, the fascist regime had no choice but to draw closer to Nazi Germany. Germany joined Italy by supporting the Nationalists under Francisco Franco with forces and supplies during the Spanish Civil War.

Later, Germany and Italy signed the Anti-Comintern Pact which obligated the two regimes to oppose the Comintern and Soviet communism. By 1938, Mussolini allowed Hitler to carry out the Anschluss in exchange for an official German renunciation of claims to Tyrol. Mussolini supported the annexation of the Sudetenland during the Munich Agreement talks later that year.

In 1939, the Pact of Steel was signed, officially solidifying an alliance between Germany and Italy. The official Nazi newspaper Völkischer Beobachter contained articles which extolled the mutually beneficial results of the alliance:

> Firmly bound together through the inner unity of their ideologies and the comprehensive solidarity of their interests, the German and the Italian people are determined also in future to stand side by side and to strive with united effort for the securing of their Lebensraum [living space] and the maintenance of peace.

— Völkischer Beobachter (May 23, 1939)

Hitler and Mussolini recognized the fact that there were commonalities in their politics and the second part of Hitler's Mein Kampf ("The National Socialist Movement", 1926) contains this passage:

> I conceived the profoundest admiration for the great man south of the Alps, who, full of ardent love for his people, made no pacts with the enemies of Italy, but strove for their annihilation by all ways and means. What will rank Mussolini among the great men of this earth is his determination not to share Italy with the Marxists, but to destroy internationalism and save the fatherland from it.

— Mein Kampf (p. 622)

Both regimes despised France (seen as an enemy which held territories claimed by both Germany and Italy) and Yugoslavia (seen by the Nazis as a racially degenerate Slavic state and holding lands such as Dalmatia claimed by the Italian fascists). Fascist territorial claims on Yugoslav territory meant that Mussolini saw the destruction of Yugoslavia as essential for Italian expansion. Hitler viewed Slavs as racially inferior, but he did not see importance in an immediate invasion of Yugoslavia, instead focusing on the threat from the Soviet Union.

Mussolini favored using the extremist Croatian nationalist Ustaše as a useful tool to tear down the Serbian-ruled Yugoslavia. In 1941, the Italian military campaign in Greece (the Greco-Italian War, called the Battle of Greece for the period after the German intervention) was failing. Hitler reluctantly began the Balkan Campaign with the invasion of Yugoslavia. German, Italian, Bulgarian, Hungarian and Croatian insurgents (under the Axis puppet Independent State of Croatia) decisively defeated Yugoslavia.

In the aftermath, with the exception of Serbia and Vardar Macedonia, most of Yugoslavia was reshaped based on Italian fascist foreign policy objectives. Mussolini demanded and received much of Dalmatia from the Croats in exchange for supporting the independence of Croatia. Mussolini's policy of creating an independent Croatia prevailed over Hitler's anti-Slavism and eventually, the Nazis and the Ustashe regime of Croatia would develop closer bonds due to the Ustashe's brutal effectiveness at suppressing Serb dissidents.

The question of religion also poses considerable conflicting differences as some forms of fascism, particularly the Fatherland Front and National Union that were devoutly Catholic. The occultist and pagan elements of Nazi ideology were very hostile to the traditional Christianity found in the vast majority of fascist movements of the 20th century.

## See also

[edit]

* Anti-fascism
* Far-right politics
* Fascism in Asia
* Fascism in North America
* Fascism in South America
* List of fascist movements by country
* Post–World War II anti-fascism
* Radical right in Europe

## References

[edit]

### Informational notes

[edit]

1. ^ Scholarly opinion varies on whether Salazar's Portuguese National Union regime should be considered fascist or not. Some researchers, such as Juan José Linz,[11] Stanley G. Payne[12] Goffredo Adinolfi, António Costa Pinto,[13] Renzo De Felice,[14] Roger Griffin,[15] Robert Paxton,[16] Howard J. Wiarda, Stephen J. Lee,[17] among others, consider the Portuguese Estado Novo to be conservative authoritarian rather than fascist. The most recent biographers of Salazar, Filipe Ribeiro de Meneses[18] and Tom Gallagher[19] also consider Salazar not to be a fascist. On the other hand scholars like Luis Reis Torgal[20] Fernando Rosas,[21] Avelãs Nunes,[22] Manuel Villaverde Cabral[23] Manuel de Lucena,[24] D.L. Raby,[25] and Eduardo Lourenço[26] consider the Salazar regime to be fascist. Salazar himself criticized fascism which he considered a "pagan Caesarism". For Salazar's own views on Fascism see Salazar, António de Oliveira (2007). Como se levanta um estado. Lisboa: Aromic Books. ISBN 9789899537705.
2. ^ Stanley Payne argues that Spanish fascism was solely Falange Española;[27] Paul Preston agrees that Franco was not fascist by his personal beliefs,[28] but argues that his regime was a fascist one.[29] Ernst Nolte considered Franco's regime to be an example of "early Fascism"[30]
3. ^ typically the share of votes garnered. If this is impossible to calculate, usually due to block-voting on coalition lists, the share of seats in the parliament is given. Only includes multi-party elections.

### Citations

[edit]

1. ^ Carroll, David (21 July 1998). French Literary Fascism. Princeton University Press. ISBN 9780691058467.
2. ^ Sternhell, Zeev; Sznajder, Mario; Ashéri, Maia (8 August 1994). The Birth of Fascist Ideology: From Cultural Rebellion to Political Revolution. Princeton University Press. ISBN 9780691044866 – via Internet Archive.
3. ^ James Gregor, A. (13 August 2006). Mussolini's Intellectuals. Princeton University Press. ISBN 9780691127903.
4. ^ "Tiscali Webspace". webspace.tiscali.it.
5. ^ a b c For coverage of each one see Cyprian Blamires, ed., World fascism: a historical encyclopedia (Abc-Clio, 2006).
6. ^ Lewis 2002, p. 143.
7. ^ Torgal, Luís Reis (September 2009). Estados novos, estado novo: ensaios de história política e cultural vol. I. Imprensa da Universidade de Coimbra. p. 514\. ISBN 978-989-26-0009-3.
8. ^ International Commission on the Holocaust in Romania. "Final Report" (PDF). p. 51\. Archived from the original (PDF) on 29 June 2007.
9. ^ a b c d Widfeldt, Anders (2015). "Quasi-fascist parties and borderline cases". Extreme Right Parties in Scandinavia. Routledge. ISBN 9781134502141.
10. ^ Payne 1995, p. 232.
11. ^ Totalitarian and Authoritarian Regimes. By Juan J. Linz. Boulder, Colorado: Lynne Rienner Publishers, 2000. 343pp, p.226
12. ^ Payne 1995, pp. 212–215.
13. ^ Adinolfi, Goffredo & Pinto, António. (2014). Salazar's 'New State': The Paradoxes of Hybridization in the Fascist Era. 10.1057/9781137384416_7
14. ^ Renzo De Felice, "Ilnomeno Fascista", Storia contemporanea, anno X, n° 4/5, Ottobre 1979, p. 624.
15. ^ Roger Griffin, The Nature of Fascism (London: Routledge, 1993); page 266
16. ^ The Anatomy of Fascism, Robert O. Paxton, Knopf, 2004
17. ^ The European Dictatorships. 1918–1945, (London: 1988), pp. 18
18. ^ Salazar a Political Biography, p.163
19. ^ Gallagher, Tom (2020). SALAZAR : the dictator who refused to die. C HURST & CO PUB LTD. pp. 43–44\. ISBN 978-1787383883.
20. ^ Luís Reis Torgal, 'Salazar and the Portuguese "New State": Images and Interpretations,' Annual of Social History (Godišnjak za društvenu istoriju) 2 (2009): 7–18
21. ^ Rosas, Fernando (2019). Salazar e os Fascismos: Ensaio Breve de História Comparada (in Portuguese). Edições Tinta-da-China.
22. ^ Tipologias de regimes políticos. Para uma leitura neo-moderna do Estado Novo e do Nuevo Estado [1]
23. ^ Cabral, Manuel Villaverde. "Sobre O Fascismo E O Seu Advento Em Portugal: Ensaio De Interpretação a Pretexto De Alguns Livros Recentes." Análise Social, Segunda Série, 12, no. 48 (1976): 873–915. Accessed 26 December 2020. http://www.jstor.org/stable/41008431.
24. ^ 'Reflections on the Fall of the Salazarist Regime and on What Followed,' in Modern Europe after Fascism, 1943–1980, ed. Stein Ugelvik Larsen (Boulder: Social Science Monographs, 1998): 1636–1678
25. ^ D.L. Raby – Fascism and Resistance in Portugal: Communists, liberals, and military dissidents in the opposition to Salazar, 1941–74
26. ^ Eduardo Lourenço – O fascismo nunca existiu, pp. 229
27. ^ Payne, Stanley G. (1961). Falange: a history of Spanish fascism. Stanford, Calif.: Stanford Univ Pr. ISBN 978-0804700597. `{{cite book}}`: ISBN / Date incompatibility (help)
28. ^ Preston, Paul. "Francisco Franco: is it accurate to call the Spanish dictator a fascist?". HistoryExtra. History Extra – The official website for BBC History Magazine. Retrieved 4 January 2021.
29. ^ Preston, Paul (2005) [1990]. "Resisting modernity: fascism and the military in twentieth century Spain". The Politics of Revenge: Fascism and the Military in Twentieth-Century Spain. Routledge. ISBN 0415120004.
30. ^ Lewis 2002, pp. 10–11.
31. ^ Brennan, James P. Peronism and Argentina. Rowman & Littlefield. 1998.
32. ^ Loewenstein, Karl (1937). "Militant Democracy and Fundamental Rights, II". The American Political Science Review. 31 (4): 638–658\. doi:10.2307/1948103. ISSN 0003-0554. JSTOR 1948103. S2CID 146124184.
33. ^ Loewenstein, Karl (1937). "Militant Democracy and Fundamental Rights, I". The American Political Science Review. 31 (3): 417–432\. doi:10.2307/1948164. ISSN 0003-0554. JSTOR 1948164. S2CID 251098494.
34. ^ a b Nohlen & Stöver 2010, p. 196.
35. ^ exactly 11,49%, Payne 1983, p. 134\. In a bi-election of 1937 the party leader, Léon Degrelle, garnered 19% of the vote, Payne 1983, p. 135
36. ^ Exactly 7,12%, Payne 1983, p. 134
37. ^ exactly 2,04%, Milan Nakonečný, Český fašismus, Praha 2006, ISBN 8086226735, p. 428.
38. ^ Votes for the National Unification-led alliance in Subcarpathian Rus', "Elections à la Chambre des Députés faites en mai 1935" (in Czech). 1936. p. 14*–15*.
39. ^ "Die Freie Stadt Danzig Volkstagswahl 1933".
40. ^ Danmarks Nationalsocialistiske Arbejderparti (DNSAP), 1930–1945, [in:] Danmarkhistorien service [accessed 23 Dec 2020]
41. ^ exactly 8,34%, Payne 1983, p. 127
42. ^ exactly 36,99%, Eberhard Kolb, The Weimar Republic, London 2005, ISBN 9780415344418, pp. 224–225
43. ^ Spyros Marchetos. A Slav Macedonian Greek Fascist? Deciphering the Ethnicophrosyne of Sotirios Gotzamanis. p. 9.
44. ^ Nohlen & Stöver 2010, p. 899\. Elections were partially manipulated; some authors speculate that actual support for the party reached 20%, Payne 1983, p. 114
45. ^ Schwarcz, Andreas. A KÉPVISELET MEGKÉSETT MODERNIZÁCIÓJA (PDF). p. 129.
46. ^ exactly 0,70%, Valur Ingimundarson, Iceland. [in:] Cyprian Blamires, Paul Jackson (eds.), World Fascism: A Historical Encyclopedia, vol. 1, New York 2006, ISBN 9781576079416, p. 329
47. ^ First preference votes for Oliver J. Flanagan who stood in Laois–Offaly.
48. ^ First preference votes for the party in Cork Borough, Dublin County, Dublin North-West, Louth, Roscommon, Tipperary and Waterford.
49. ^ fascists ran on a coalition ticket of Blocchi Nazionali. The entire BN obtained 19,1% of the vote, but due to electoral system, the exact percentage of FIC share is impossible to calculate. Out of 105 seats in the parliament obtained by BN, the Fascists controlled 35 (33% of total BN seats). The 33% is applied to the 19,1% share of the votes, to arrive at the 6,4% estimated Fascist share of the votes received
50. ^ a b "Latvijas Republikas Saeimas vēlēšanu iznākumi" (PDF). 1923. p. 10\. Archived from the original (PDF) on 26 May 2019. Retrieved 26 January 2024.
51. ^ Payne 1983, p. 128; in provincial elections of 1935 the party gained 7,9% of the vote
52. ^ a b c "Tweede-Kamerverkiezingen – 26 mei 1937".
53. ^ exactly 2,16%, Payne 1983, p. 126
54. ^ Kurt Treptow, Alegerile din decembrie 1937 și instaurarea dictaturii regale, [in:] Romania and World War II, Iași 1996, pp 42–43
55. ^ Dolf Sternberger, Bernhard Vogel, Dieter Nohlen & Klaus Landfried (1978) Die Wahl der Parlamente: Band I: Europa, Zweiter Halbband, pp1062–1064
56. ^ "Das Saargebiet Landesratswahl 1932".
57. ^ out of 72m votes cast (each voter was entitled to a number of votes), FE gained 82.939 votes. Jose Antonio Primo de Rivera competed in 13 electoral districts, totalling 24.017 votes, Roberto Villa García, Manuel Álvarez Tardío, 1936\. Fraude y violencia en las elecciones del Frente Popular, Madrid 2017, ISBN 9788467049466, pp. 580–599
58. ^ a b c "RIKSDAGSMANNAVALEN ÅREN 1941—1944" (PDF). DE GODKÄNDA VALSEDLARNAS FÖRDELNING PÅ PARTIER. Statistics Sweden. 1945. p. 44*. Archived from the original on 24 September 2015.
59. ^ Thomas T Mackie, Richard Rose, The International Almanac of Electoral History, London 1991, ISBN 9780333452790, p. 424
60. ^ out of 20,699,000 votes cast, the New Party gained some 36,000, Bret Rubin, The Rise and Fall of British Fascism: Sir Oswald Mosley and the British Union of Fascists,, [in:] Intersections 11/2 (2010), p. 343
61. ^ exactly 1,01%, Wayne S. Vucinich, Interwar Yugoslavia, [in:] Wayne S. Vucinich, (ed.), Contemporary Yugoslavia: Twenty Years of Socialist Experiment, Berkeley 1969, p. 26
62. ^ a b c Mack Smith 1983, p. 172.
63. ^ a b Christian Leitz. Nazi Foreign Policy, 1933–1941: The Road to Global War. London, England; New York City, USA: P. 10.
64. ^ Richard Breiting, Adolf Hitler, Édouard Calic (ed.). Secret conversations with Hitler:the two newly-discovered 1931 interviews. John Day Co., 1971. Pp. 77.
65. ^ Montagu, Ashley (1997). Man's Most Dangerous Myth: The Fallacy of Race. Rowman Altamira. ISBN 0-8039-4648-1.
66. ^ Grant, Moyra. Key Ideas in Politics. Nelson Thomas 2003. p. 21
67. ^ a b c Gillette 2001, p. 39.
68. ^ Gillette 2001, p. 11.
69. ^ Neocleous, Mark. Fascism. Minneapolis, Minnesota, USA: University of Minnesota Press, 1997. p. 35
70. ^ a b c Gillette 2001, p. 188.
71. ^ a b "Mussolini's Cultural Revolution: Fascist or Nationalist?". jch.sagepub.com. 8 January 2008.
72. ^ Montagu, Ashley (4 February 1997). Man's Most Dangerous Myth: The Fallacy of Race. Rowman Altamira. ISBN 978-0-8039-4648-4.
73. ^ a b c d Gillette 2001, p. 42.
74. ^ a b Sarti 1974, p. 190.
75. ^ Sarti 1974, p. 189.
76. ^ Sarti 1974, p. 191.
77. ^ "School of History, Archaeology and Religion". Cardiff University.
78. ^ Gillette 2001, p. 45.

### Bibliography

[edit]

* Atkins, Stephen E. (2004). Encyclopedia of modern worldwide extremists and extremist groups. Greenwood.
* Blamires, Cyprian, ed. (2006). World fascism: a historical encyclopedia (5th ed.). ABC-CLIO. ISBN 978-1-57607-940-9.
* Blinkhorn, Martin (2014). Fascism and the Right in Europe 1919–1945. Routledge.
* Costa Pinto, António (2000). The Blue Shirts – Portuguese Fascists and the New State (PDF). Social Science Monographs, Boulder – Distributed by Columbia University Press, NY. ISBN 088033-9829.
* Davies, Peter; Lynch, Derek, eds. (2005). The Routledge companion to fascism and the far right (PDF). Routledge.
* Davies, Peter J.; Jackson, Paul (2008). The far right in Europe: an encyclopedia (PDF). Greenwood.
* Eatwell, Roger (1996). Fascism: A History. New York: Allen Lane.
* Gillette, Aaron (2001). Racial Theories in Fascist Italy. Routledge. ISBN 9780203164891. OCLC 437078975.
* Griffin, Roger (21 December 2015). Nature of fascism (1st ed.). Routledge. ISBN 978-1138174085.
* Lewis, Paul H (2002). Latin fascist elites : the Mussolini, Franco, and Salazar regimes. Praeger. p. 187\. ISBN 978-0275978808.
* Mack Smith, Denis (1983). Mussolini: A Biography. New York: Vintage Books.
* Morgan, Philip (2003). Fascism in Europe, 1919–1945.
* Nelis, Jan; Morelli, Anne; Praet, Danny, eds. (2015). Catholicism and Fascism in Europe 1918–1945. Georg Olms Verlag. ISBN 9783487421278.
* Nohlen, Dieter; Stöver, Philip (2010). Elections in Europe: a data handbook. Baden-Baden: Nomos Verl.-Ges. ISBN 9783832956097.
* Paxton, Robert O. (2004). The anatomy of fascism (1st ed.). New York: Knopf. ISBN 1-4000-4094-9.
* Payne, Stanley. G. (1983). Fascism. Comparison and Definition. Madison. ISBN 9780299080648.
* Payne, Stanley G. (1995). A History of Fascism, 1914–1945 (First ed.). Univ of Massachusetts Press. ISBN 978-0870232213.
* Payne, Stanley G. (1999). Fascism in Spain, 1923-1977. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press. ISBN 978-0-299-16560-4.
* Sarti, Roland (1974). The Ax Within: Italian Fascism in Action. New Viewpoints.
* Wiarda, Howard J. (1977). Corporatism and Development: The Portuguese Experience (First ed.). Univ of Massachusetts Press. ISBN 978-0870232213.

* v
* t
* e

Fascism

Themes

| Core tenets|

* Actual idealism
* Aestheticization of politics
* Anti-communism
* Anti-intellectualism
* Anti-materialism
* Anti-pacifism
* Authoritarianism
* Chauvinism
* Class collaboration
* Conspiracism
* Corporatism
* Cult of personality
* Dictatorship
* Direct action
* Dirigisme
* Economic interventionism
* Eugenics
* Heroic capitalism
* Heroic realism
* Heroism
* Imperialism
* Indoctrination
* Irrationalism
* Machismo
* Masculinity
* Militarism
* National syndicalism
* Nationalism
* Integral
* Palingenetic
* Ultra
* New Man
* One-party state
* Perpetual war
* Populism
* Proletarian nation
* Propaganda
* Racism
* Reactionary modernism
* Social Darwinism
* Social interventionism
* Social order
* State capitalism
* Statolatry
* Supercapitalism
* Syncretism
* Third Position
* Totalitarianism

|

Topics|

* Definitions
* Economics
* Fascism and ideology
* Fascism worldwide
* Symbolism

Variants

* Arab
* Argentine
* Nacionalismo
* Orthodox Peronism
* Austrian
* Banderism
* Brazilian
* British
* Christian
* Christian Identity
* Mexican synarchism
* Clerical
* Crypto
* Eco
* English
* Falangism
* French
* Doriotism
* Pétainism
* Neo-Pétainism
* Jeune Nation
* L'Œuvre Française
* Valoisism
* Hindutva
* Hungarism
* Hutu
* Irish
* Islamic
* Ziaism
* Italian
* Intransigent
* Japanese
* Emperor-system
* Statism
* Restoration
* Ultra
* Jewish/Israeli
* Kahanism
* Revisionist Maximalism
* Korean
* Ilminism
* Nyulaiteu
* Latvian
* Mystical
* Nazism
* Austrian
* Esoteric
* Hitlerism
* Neo-Nazism
* Russian
* Strasserism
* Swedish
* Neo
* Finnish
* NRx
* Pan-Turkic
* Rexism
* Polish
* Romanian
* Legionarism
* Neo-Legionarism
* Romanianism/Stelism
* Russian
* Neo-Eurasianism
* Syndicalist
* Syrian Social Nationalism
* Techno
* Third Positionism
* National-anarchism
* National Bolshevism
* Nazi-Maoism
* Uruguayan
* Marzism
* Revisionism
* Sosism
* Ustašism

Movements

| Africa|

* Afrikaner Weerstandsbeweging
* Coalition for the Defence of the Republic
* Greyshirts
* Muslim Association of the Lictor
* National Revolutionary Movement for Development
* Ossewabrandwag
* Radio Télévision Libre des Mille Collines
* Republican Democratic Movement
* Young Egypt Party (1933)

|

Asia|

* Abhinav Bharat
* Al-Muthanna Club
* Aria Party
* Azerbaijan National Democrat Party
* Azure Party
* Black Dragon Society
* Brit HaBirionim
* Concordia Association
* Grey Wolves
* Golden Square
* Hindu Mahasabha
* Iran-e-No Party
* Jewish National Front
* Kach
* Kataeb Party
* Kenkokukai
* Kokumin Dōmei
* Korea Nationalist Party
* Korean National Youth Association
* Lehi
* Liberal Party (South Korea)
* Nasyonal Aktivite ve Zinde İnkişaf
* National Socialism Association
* National Socialist Japanese Workers' Party
* Nationalist Movement Party
* Nationalist Task Party
* National Will Party
* Nation Party of Iran
* Otzma Yehudit
* Pan-Iranist Party
* Palestine Arab Party
* Patrol 36
* Progress Party (Iran)
* Philippine Falange
* Rastakhiz Party
* Rastriya Prajatantra Party
* Reform bureaucrats
* Religious Zionist Party
* Sakurakai
* Sangh Parivar
* Akhil Bharatiya Vidyarthi Parishad
* Bharatiya Gau Raksha Dal
* Bharatiya Janata Party
* Bharatiya Janata Yuva Morcha
* Bharatiya Jana Sangh
* Bharatiya Kisan Sangh
* Bharatiya Mazdoor Sangh
* Bharat Vikas Parishad
* Ekal Vidyalaya
* Hindu Makkal Katchi
* Hindu Munnani
* Hindu Swayamsevak Sangh
* Jammu Praja Parishad
* Muslim Rashtriya Manch
* Ram Janmabhoomi Nyas
* Rashtra Sevika Samiti
* Rashtriya Sikh Sangat
* Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh
* Akhil Bharatiya Itihas Sankalan Yojana
* Seva Bharati
* Vidya Bharati
* Vanavasi Kalyan Ashram
* Vishva Hindu Parishad
* Bajrang Dal
* Durga Vahini
* SUMKA
* Syrian Social Nationalist Party
* Tōhōkai
* Tsagaan Khas
* Turkish Union Party
* Wang Jingwei Kuomintang

Northern / Northwestern Europe|

* Academic Karelia Society
* Ailtirí na hAiséirghe
* Autonome Nationalisten
* Bases Autónomas
* Black Front (Netherlands)
* Blood & Honour
* Blueshirts
* Breton Social-National Workers' Movement
* British Democratic Party
* British Fascists
* Britain First
* British League of Ex-Servicemen and Women
* British Movement
* British National Party (1960)
* British National Party
* British People's Party (1939)
* British People's Party (2005)
* British Union of Fascists
* The Britons
* La Cagoule
* Casuals United
* Centre Party '86
* Clerical People's Party
* Dutch Defence League
* Dutch Fascist Union
* English Defence League
* European Defence League
* English National Association
* European Liberation Front
* Le Faisceau
* Fédération d'action nationale et européenne
* Finnish National Socialist Labor Organisation
* Finnish People's Organisation
* Finnish-Socialist Workers' Party
* Flemish National Union
* French National-Collectivist Party
* French Nationalist Party
* French Popular Party
* General Dutch Fascist League
* Greater Britain Movement
* Groupe Collaboration
* Heathen Front
* Imperial Fascist League
* International Third Position
* Jeune Nation
* Lalli Alliance of Finland
* Lapua Movement
* League of Saint George
* Les Identitaires
* Mouvement d'Action Civique
* Mouvement Franciste
* Nasjonal Samling
* National Action (UK)
* National Alliance (Sweden)
* National Corporate Party
* National Fascisti
* National Front (UK)
* National League of Sweden
* Nationalist Party
* National Popular Rally
* National Rally
* National Socialist Bloc
* National Socialist Dutch Workers Party
* National Socialist Front
* National Socialist League
* National Socialist Movement (UK, 1962)
* National Socialist Movement (United Kingdom)
* National Socialist Movement in the Netherlands
* National Socialist Movement of Norway
* National Socialist Union of Finland
* National Socialist Workers' Party (Sweden)
* National Socialist Workers' Party of Denmark
* National Socialists of Finland
* National Syndicalists
* National Union (Netherlands)
* National Union (Portugal)
* New Party
* Nipsters
* Nordic League
* The Nordic Realm Party
* Nordic Resistance Movement
* Northern League
* Norwegian Defence League
* Nouvelle Droite
* GRECE
* L'Œuvre Française
* Official National Front
* Order of Flemish Militants
* Order of Nine Angles
* Organisation of National Socialists
* Parti Communautaire National-Européen
* Party of Finnish Labor
* Party of the Swedes
* Patriotic Alternative
* Patriotic People's Movement
* Patriotic People's Movement (1993)
* Pērkonkrusts
* Phalange Française
* Ragnarock
* Rebelles Européens
* Rexist Party
* Rising Finland
* Scottish Democratic Fascist Party
* Scottish Protestant League
* Skrewdriver
* Skullhead
* Stormers
* Terre et Peuple
* Third Way (France)
* Third Way (UK)
* Union Movement
* Verdinaso
* Vigrid
* White Aryan Resistance
* World Union of National Socialists

Central Europe|

* Action Front of National Socialists/National Activists
* Arrow Cross Party
* Artgemeinschaft
* Austrian Nazism
* Black Front (Germany)
* Bund Deutscher Osten
* Christian National Socialist Front
* Deutsche Reichspartei
* Eidgenössische Sammlung
* Falanga
* Free German Workers' Party
* German Faith Movement
* German National Movement in Liechtenstein
* German National Socialist Workers' Party (Czechoslovakia)
* German Party (Slovakia)
* German Social Union
* Honor
* Hungarian National Front
* Hungarian National Socialist Agricultural Labourers' and Workers' Party
* Hungarian National Socialist Party
* Combat League of German Socialists
* Kotlebists – People's Party Our Slovakia
* Landser
* Liechtenstein Homeland Service
* National Democratic Party (Austria)
* National Democratic Party of Germany
* National Fascist Community
* National Front (Hungary)
* National Front (Switzerland)
* National Movement of Switzerland
* National Radical Camp
* National Radical Camp (1993)
* National Revival of Poland
* National Union (Switzerland)
* Nationalist Front (Germany)
* Nazi Party
* Greater German People's Community
* Nazi Germany
* National Socialist Freedom Movement
* National Socialist Working Association
* New Order
* Nipsters
* No Colours Records
* PC Records
* Positive Christianity
* German Christians
* Republic Movement
* The Right (Germany)
* Rock-O-Rama Records
* Shield and Sword
* Slovak People's Party
* Socialist Reich Party
* Stahlgewitter
* Sudeten German Party
* The Third Path
* United Hungarian National Socialist Party
* Vlajka
* Volksdeutsche Bewegung
* Volkssozialistische Bewegung Deutschlands/Partei der Arbeit
* Wiking-Jugend

Southern Europe|

* ADÑ–Spanish Identity
* Albanian Fascist Party
* Balli Kombëtar
* Brothers of Italy
* CEDADE
* Democratic Fascist Party
* European Nation State
* Fasci d'Azione Rivoluzionaria
* Fasci Italiani di Combattimento
* Fascio d'Azione Rivoluzionaria
* Falange
* Sección Femenina
* La Falange (1999)
* Falange Auténtica
* Falange Española
* Falange Española Auténtica
* Falange Española de las JONS
* Falange Española de las JONS (1976)
* Falange Española Independiente
* Falangist Movement of Spain
* Freethinkers' Party
* Imperium Europa
* Italian fascism
* National Fascist Party (Italy)
* Italian Social Republic
* Republican Fascist Party
* Italian Social Movement
* Juntas de Ofensiva Nacional-Sindicalista
* Juntas Españolas
* National Alliance (Spain)
* National Alliance July 18
* National Democracy (Italy)
* National Democracy (Spain)
* National Front (Spain, 1986)
* National Front (Spain, 2006)
* National Union (Italy, 1923)
* National Union (Spain)
* New Force (Italy)
* New Force (Spain)
* Republican Social Movement
* The Right (Italy)
* Sammarinese Fascist Party
* Spanish Military Union
* Struggle of the People
* Student Action
* Terza Posizione
* Tricolour Flame
* Unidad Falangista Montañesa
* Youth Front

Eastern and Southeastern Europe|

* Autochthonous Croatian Party of Rights
* Bosnian Movement of National Pride
* Bulgarian National Socialist Workers Party
* Croatian Liberation Movement
* Croatian National Resistance
* Croatian Party of Rights
* Crusade of Romanianism
* Ethnic National Union
* Eurasia Movement
* Eurasia Party
* Format18
* For the Native Language!
* Front of National Revolutionary Action
* German Party
* German People's Party
* Golden Dawn
* Greek National Socialist Party
* Hosank
* Iron Guard
* Kolovrat
* LEPEN
* Liberal Democratic Party of Russia
* Lithuanian Nationalist Union
* National Agrarian Party
* National Bolshevik Front
* National Bolshevik Party
* National-Christian Defense League
* National Christian Party
* National Fascist Movement
* National Italo-Romanian Cultural and Economic Movement
* National Party – Greeks
* National Socialist Patriotic Organisation
* National Socialist Society
* National Social Movement
* National Romanian Fascio
* National Renaissance Front
* National Salvation Front
* Nokturnal Mortum
* National Socialism / White Power
* Obraz
* Occupy Pedophilia
* Order of Nine Angles
* Organization of Ukrainian Nationalists
* The Other Russia of E. V. Limonov
* Pamyat
* Patriotic Alliance
* People's Party
* Progressive Socialist Party of Ukraine
* Ratniks (Bulgaria)
* Romanian Front
* Russian Imperial Movement
* Russian Fascist Party
* Russian National Unity
* Russian Women's Fascist Movement
* Serbian Action
* Serbian Radical Party
* Steel Shield
* Svoboda
* Union of Bulgarian National Legions
* Ustaše
* Ustaše in Australia
* Croatian Revolutionary Brotherhood
* Yugoslav Radical Union
* ZBOR

North America|

* Fascism in Canada
* Aryan Guard
* Aryan Nations
* Canadian Association for Free Expression
* Canadian Union of Fascists
* Citizens for Foreign Aid Reform
* Heritage Front
* Parti national social chrétien
* Fascism in the United States
* American Front
* American Nazi Party
* Betar US
* Creativity
* Fascist League of North America
* German American Bund
* Goyim Defense League
* Hammerskins
* Identity Evropa
* League of the South
* National Alliance (United States)
* National Renaissance Party
* Nationalist Social Club-131
* National Socialist Legion
* National Socialist Liberation Front
* National Socialist Movement
* National States' Rights Party
* National Vanguard
* Nationalist Front (United States)
* Patriot Front
* Proud Boys
* Rise Above Movement
* Silver Legion of America
* Christian Party (United States, 1930s)
* Traditionalist Worker Party
* Vanguard America
* Volksfront
* White Aryan Resistance
* Wotansvolk
* Revolutionary Mexicanist Action
* Mexican Democratic Party
* Mexican Fascist Party
* National Pro Patria Party
* National Synarchist Union
* Nationalist Front of Mexico
* Order of Nine Angles

Oceania|

* Action Zealandia
* Antipodean Resistance
* Australia First Movement
* Australia First Party
* Australian Defence League
* Australian National Socialist Party
* Centre Party
* Lads Society
* National Action (Australia)
* National Socialist Network
* National Socialist Party of Australia
* Progressive Nationalist Party
* Reclaim Australia
* True Blue Crew
* United Patriots Front

South America|

* Agrarian Labor Party
* Argentine Anticommunist Alliance
* Argentine Fascist Party
* Argentine Nationalist Action
* Argentine Patriotic League
* Bolivian Socialist Falange
* Brazilian Integralism
* Brazilian Integralist Action
* Brazilian Integralist Front
* Falangism in Latin America
* Female Peronist Party
* Iron Guard (Argentina)
* Nacionalismo
* National Fascist Party (Argentina)
* National Fascist Union
* Nationalist Liberation Alliance
* National Liberation Movement
* National Socialist Movement of Chile
* National Universitary Concentration
* New Triumph Party
* Patriot Front (Argentina)
* Popular Dignity
* Popular Freedom Alliance
* Popular Representation Party
* Popular Socialist Vanguard
* Republican League
* La Resistencia Dios, Patria y Familia
* Revolutionary Union
* Tacuara Nationalist Movement

People

| Australia|

* Campbell (Eric)
* Campbell (Graeme)
* Cottrell
* Groot
* Mills
* Saleam

|

Austria|

* Dollfuss
* Miklas
* Pfrimer
* Planetta
* Schuschnigg
* Seyss-Inquart
* Starhemberg

Belgium|

* Daye
* Declercq
* Degrelle
* Denis
* Elias
* Eriksson
* Hermans
* Lagrou
* Poulet
* Severen
* Streel
* van de Wiele

Croatia|

* Boban
* Francetić
* Kraljević
* Kvaternik
* Luburić
* Pavelić
* Pavičić
* Rover
* Servatzy

Finland|

* Helanen
* Isotalo
* Kalsta
* Konkka
* Kosola
* Orko
* Simojoki
* Somersalo
* Törni
* Varjonen

France|

* Augier
* Bardèche
* Benoist-Méchin
* Béraud
* Brasillach
* Bucard
* Châteaubriant
* Déat
* Déroulède
* Dior
* Doriot
* La Rochelle
* Lagardelle
* Laval
* Pétain
* Rebatet
* Valois
* Vial

Germany|

* Abetz
* Andrae
* Baeumler
* Berchtold
* Berger
* Best
* Brunner
* Bühler
* Darré
* Falkenhausen
* Hocke
* Feder
* Forster
* Frank
* Franz V
* Gesche
* Goebbels
* Göring
* Graf
* Greiser
* Günther
* Hanke
* Heiden
* Hess
* Heydrich
* Himmler
* Hitler
* Klintzsch
* Kuhn
* Ludendorff
* Maurice
* Müller
* Niekisch
* Ploetz
* Rahn
* Reitsch
* Renthe-Fink
* Ribbentrop
* Rieger
* Rosenberg
* Schmitt
* Schreck
* Skorzeny
* Strasser (Gregor)
* Strasser (Otto)
* Streicher
* Terboven
* Thadden
* Krosigk
* Zündel

Greece|

* Dragoumis
* Kasidiaris
* Koryzis
* Lagos
* Michaloliakos
* Papadopoulos

India|

* Adityanath
* Advani
* Bose
* Godse
* Golwalkar
* Hedgewar
* Modi
* Mukherjee
* Savarkar
* Thakur
* Vajpayee

Iran|

* Forouhar
* Kashani
* Monshizadeh
* Pezeshkpour
* Teymourtash

Israel|

* Ahimeir
* Ben-Ari
* Ben-Gvir
* Eldad
* Eliyahu
* Goldstein
* Gopstein
* Greenberg
* Ha'ivri
* Heruti
* Kahane
* Marzel
* Natan-Zada
* Stern
* Yeivin

Italy|

* Acerbo
* Alfieri
* Ambris
* D'Annunzio
* Azara
* Badoglio
* Balbo
* Torrente Ballester
* Bastianini
* Bianchi
* Boni
* Bono
* Boselli
* Bottai
* Ciano (Costanzo)
* Ciano (Galeazzo)
* Cogni
* Corradini
* Freda
* Gentile
* Giuriati
* Gozi
* Grandi
* Graziani
* Guidi
* Malaparte
* Marinetti
* Michels
* Morgagni
* Mussolini
* Olivetti
* Panunzio
* Papini
* Pavolini
* Rauti
* Ricci
* Ridruejo
* Rocco
* Rossoni
* Sarfatti
* Soffici
* Spirito
* Volpi

Japan|

* Akao
* Araki
* Chō
* Hashimoto
* Honjō
* Kita
* Kodama
* Matsuoka
* Nonaka
* Ōkawa
* Sasakawa

Romania|

* Antonescu
* Bacaloglu
* Codreanu
* Crainic
* Cuza
* Gigurtu
* Goga
* Manoilescu
* Moța
* Ogoranu
* Sima

Russia|

* Astroŭski
* Borovikov
* Ilyin
* Kaminski
* Martsinkevich
* Milchakov
* Oktan
* Prilepin
* Prokhanov
* Rodzaevsky

Spain|

* Arrese
* Bau Nolla
* Bilbao Eguía
* Carrero Blanco
* Fernández-Cuesta
* Franco
* Franco y Polo
* Giménez Caballero
* Primo de Rivera
* Ramos
* Sánchez Mazas
* Serrano Suñer

Ukraine|

* Bandera
* Biletsky
* Dontsov
* Gubarev
* Klyachkivsky
* Lebed
* Rebet
* Samchuk
* Shukhevych
* Stetsko
* Tyahnybok
* Vitrenko

United Kingdom|

* Beckett
* Chamberlain
* Chesterton
* Lake
* Leese
* Mosley (Diana)
* Mosley (Oswald)
* Pankhurst
* Pearson
* Ramsay
* Robinson
* Southgate
* Tyndall
* Wellesley

United States|

* Auernheimer
* Collins
* Fuentes
* Joyce
* Pelley
* Pound
* Yockey

Other|

* Burdi
* Celmiņš
* Martínez
* Quisling
* Ramírez
* Riva-Agüero y Osma
* Šešelj
* Szálasi

Works

| Literature|

* 1776 Returns
* La Conquista del Estado
* The Culture of Critique
* Defiance
* Did Six Million Really Die?
* The Doctrine of Fascism
* Essentials of Hindutva
* Fascist Manifesto
* For My Legionaries
* The Foundations of Geopolitics: The Geopolitical Future of Russia
* The Fourth Political Theory
* Hitlers Zweites Buch
* Hutu Ten Commandments
* Imperium: The Philosophy of History and Politics
* An Investigation of Global Policy with the Yamato Race as Nucleus
* Kokutairon and Pure Socialism
* The Last Will of a Russian Fascist
* Manifesto of Race
* Manifesto of the Fascist Intellectuals
* Mein Kampf
* My Autobiography
* My Life
* The Myth of the Twentieth Century
* OPROP!
* Our Race Will Rule Undisputed Over The World
* Protestantische Rompilger
* A Racial Program for the Twentieth Century
* Uncomfortable Questions for Comfortable Jews
* A Warning to the Hindus
* Who Are the Mind Benders?

|

Periodicals|

* Action
* Ajan Suunta
* L'Alba
* El Alcázar
* The American Review
* Der Angriff
* Arriba
* The Blackshirt
* La Conquista del Estado
* The Daily Stormer
* Deutsche Allgemeine Zeitung
* Das Deutsche Mädel
* La Difesa della Razza
* Eleftheros Kosmos
* The European
* Fashist
* Fashizmi
* La France au travail
* Fritt Folk
* Fronten
* Gândirea
* Gioventù Fascista
* Golden Dawn
* Hamaas
* Hrvatski Domobran
* Je suis partout
* Kangura
* Kansallissosialisti
* Limonka
* Masada2000
* Münchener Beobachter
* Nash Put'
* Nástup
* Nation Europa
* Neue Anthropologie
* Neues Volk
* Het Nieuwe Volk
* Norsk-Tysk Tidsskrift
* Novopress
* Norsk-Tysk Tidsskrift
* Organiser
* Panchjanya
* Panzerbär
* Parole der Woche
* Le Pays Réel
* Der Pimpf
* Il Popolo d'Italia
* Das Reich
* Revue d'histoire du fascisme
* Das Schwarze Korps
* Sfarmă-Piatră
* Signal
* Siniristi
* Spearhead
* Der Stürmer
* Türkische Post
* Der Umbruch
* Vairas
* Vlajka
* Volk en Staat
* Völkischer Beobachter
* Die Wehrmacht
* Wochenspruch der NSDAP

Film|

* L'Armata Azzurra
* Bengasi
* Condottieri
* The Daughter of the Samurai
* Erbkrank
* Europa: The Last Battle
* The Great Appeal
* The Old Guard
* Raza
* Scipio Africanus: The Defeat of Hannibal
* Der Sieg des Glaubens
* The Siege of the Alcazar
* Lo squadrone bianco
* Tag der Freiheit: Unsere Wehrmacht
* Triumph of the Will

Music|

* Fashwave
* Hindutva pop
* National Socialist black metal
* Nazi punk
* Rock Against Communism
* White power music

Other|

* Allach
* StoneToss

Related topics|

* Art of the Third Reich
* Fascist architecture
* Heroic realism
* Nazi architecture
* Nazism and cinema

Organizations

| Institutional|

* Ahnenerbe
* Chamber of Fasces and Corporations
* Grand Council of Fascism
* Imperial Way Faction
* Italian Nationalist Association
* National Socialist League of the Reich for Physical Exercise
* Quadrumvirs

|

Activist|

* Adelaide Institute
* Agrarian Trade Union Federation
* The Britons
* Casuals United
* DeVlag
* European Social Movement
* Finnish Realm Union
* Francisco Franco National Foundation
* Friends of New Germany
* German American Bund
* GRECE
* The Link
* Mladorossi
* National Party of Europe
* National Policy Institute
* National Popular Consciousness
* Panzerfaust Records
* Popular Force Party
* Right Club
* Russian Fascist Organization

Youth|

* Adler und Falke
* Albanian Lictor Youth
* Arab Lictor Youth
* Bharatiya Janata Yuva Morcha
* Blue-and-Blacks
* Ethiopian Lictor Youth
* Fascist Union of Youth
* Frente de Juventudes
* Al-Futuwwa
* Gioventù Italiana del Littorio
* Great Japan Youth Party
* Hitler Youth
* Faith and Beauty Society
* Deutsches Jungvolk
* Jungmädelbund
* League of German Girls
* Jeunesse Populaire Française
* Juventudes de Acción Popular
* Korean National Youth Association
* Levente
* Mocidade Portuguesa
* Nationale Jeugdstorm
* National League of Sweden
* National Socialist Liberation Front
* National Youth (Sweden)
* National Youth (Italy)
* National Youth Alliance
* National Youth Organisation (Greece)
* Opera Nazionale Balilla
* Österreichisches Jungvolk
* Patriotic/Eureka Youth League
* Union of Fascist Little Ones
* Union of Young Fascists – Vanguard (boys)
* Union of Young Fascists – Vanguard (girls)
* Ustaše Youth
* Wiking-Jugend
* Youth Front

Paramilitary and terrorist|

* Abhinav Bharat
* Albanian Fascist Militia
* Atomwaffen Division
* Azov Brigade
* Bajrang Dal
* Black Brigades
* Black Legion
* Blackshirts
* Blueshirts (Canada)
* Blueshirts (Ireland)
* Column 88
* Combat Terrorist Organization
* Confederation of the Nation
* Corpul Muncitoresc Legionar
* Croatian Defence Forces
* Croatian National Resistance
* Croatian Revolutionary Brotherhood
* Bugojno group
* Einsatzgruppen
* Fasci di Azione Rivoluzionaria
* Falange Armata
* Falange Militia
* Flemish Guard
* Flemish Legion
* Frontbann
* Goldshirts
* Greenshirts
* Hilfspolizei
* Hitler Youth
* Greyshirts
* Heimwehr
* Hirden
* Hlinka Guard
* Hungarian National Defence Association
* Impuzamugambi
* Interbrigades
* Interahamwe
* Iron Wolf
* Jewish Defense League
* Jewish Defense Organization
* Kataeb Regulatory Forces
* Lăncieri
* Legion Wasa
* Lehava
* Lehi
* Levente
* Makapili
* Mano Blanca
* Misanthropic Division
* National Republican Guard
* New Guard
* Ostmärkische Sturmscharen
* Rodobrana
* Russian Imperial Movement
* Russian National Unity (2000)
* S14
* Schutzstaffel
* Serbian Volunteer Corps
* Sicarii
* Sich Battalion
* Silver Shirts
* Sturmabteilung
* Sudetendeutsches Freikorps
* Terror Against Terror
* Third Klan
* Ukrainian Insurgent Army
* Ukrainian People's Militsiya
* Ustaše Militia
* Volkssport
* Walloon Guard
* Walloon Legion
* Waffen-SS
* Wagner Group
* Rusich Group
* Weerbaarheidsafdeling
* Werwolf
* Westland New Post
* Yokusan Sonendan
* Youth Front

Student|

* Akhil Bharatiya Vidyarthi Parishad
* Avanguardia Giovanile Fascista
* Frente de Estudiantes Sindicalistas
* German Student Union
* National Socialist German Students' League
* Sindicato Español Universitario
* Student Action

International|

* Axis powers
* NSDAP/AO
* ODESSA

History

| 1900s|

* Herero and Nama genocide and the Holocaust

|

1910s|

* Arditi
* Fascio
* Fasci d'Azione Rivoluzionaria
* Armenian genocide and the Holocaust

1920s|

* March on Rome
* Corfu incident
* Acerbo Law
* Beer Hall Putsch
* Aventine Secession
* Italian economic battles
* Le Faisceau
* 28 May 1926 coup d'état
* Libyan genocide

1930s|

* March of the Iron Will
* November 1932 German federal election
* March 1933 German federal election
* Enabling Act
* Austrian Civil War
* July Putsch
* 1934 Montreux Fascist conference
* Romani Holocaust
* 4th of August Regime
* Anti-Comintern Pact
* Spanish Civil War

1940s|

* World War II
* Nazi crimes against the Polish nation
* The Holocaust
* Genocide of Serbs in the Independent State of Croatia
* End in Italy
* Nuremberg Trials
* Tokyo Trials

Lists

* Anti-fascists
* Books about Hitler
* British fascist parties
* Fascist movements by country (A-F
* G-M
* N-T
* U-Z)
* Nazi ideologues
* Nazi leaders
* Secretaries of Italian fascist parties
* Speeches by Hitler
* SS personnel

Related topics

* Authoritarian conservatism
* Chiangism
* Francoism
* Khomeinism
* Maurrassisme
* Pinochetism
* Putinism
* Ziaism
* Alt-right
* Alt-lite
* Alt-right pipeline
* Alt-tech
* Identitarian movement
* Anti-fascism
* Bahutu Manifesto
* Berlusconism
* Conservative Revolution
* Criticism of fascism
* Europe a Nation
* Fascist (epithet)
* Fascist mysticism
* Feudal fascism
* F-scale (personality test)
* Garveyism
* Germanisation
* of Poles during the Partitions
* Italianization
* of South Tyrol
* Japanization
* Morenazi
* Neosocialism
* Para-/semi-fascism
* Post-fascism
* Proto-fascism
* Red fascism
* Red–green–brown alliance
* Roman salute
* Saffronisation
* Sansepolcrismo
* Scientific racism
* Aryanism
* Nordicism
* Social fascism
* Sorelianism
* Synarchism
* Szeged Idea
* Trumpism
* Donald Trump and fascism
* Völkisch movement
* Women in Nazi Germany

* Category

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Fascism by continent

* Africa
*   * Asia
*   * Europe
* North America
* Americas
* South America
* Oceania
*   *

* v
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List of fascist movements by country

* Argentina
* Australia
* Bolivia
* Brazil
* Bulgaria
* Canada
* Chile
* China
* Colombia
* Costa Rica
* Croatia
* Cuba
* Ecuador
* Finland
* France
* India
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* Japan
* Lebanon
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* Mexico
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* New Zealand
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* Pakistan
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* Poland
* Romania
* Russia
* Slovenia
* South Korea
* Spain
* Switzerland
* Syria
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* United Kingdom
* United States
* Uruguay
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