Female genital mutilation in India

Ritual cutting of female genitals in India

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Female genital mutilation (FGM) is a cultural practice that occurs in several cultures and is practised in India by some Islamic groups.[1] The Dawoodi Bohra is one sect of Islam in India known for their practice of FGM, with other Bohra sects reported as partaking in practices of FGM as well.[2][3] The procedure frequently occurs at the age of seven and involves "all procedures involving partial or total removal of the external female genitalia or other injury to the female genital organs.".[1][4] The process is typically performed by a traditional practitioner using a knife or a blade and can range from Type I to Type IV.[4][5] The consequences of FGM take on a wide range and can span from discomfort to sepsis and have also been correlated with psychological consequences, such as post-traumatic stress disorder.[1]

The topic of FGM has remained highly controversial and has garnered both support and opposition for the practice due to its roots in cultural and religious practices.[1] International efforts have ensued to raise awareness on practices of FGM, and cases have been made to ban such practices in India. In opposition, Dawoodi Bohra women have argued for the procedure, citing their religious and cultural freedoms as means for its authorization. Despite legal efforts to ban FGM practices in India, it has not been recognized as prevalent in India and remains legal.[6]

## Practice

[edit]

Further information: Dawoodi Bohra § Female genital mutilation

India pictured on a globe; one of the leading locations for FGM. Graph outlining the Dahwoodi Bohra sections.

FGM is practised by the Dawoodi Bohra, a sect of Shia Islam with one million members in India.[2] Known as khatna, khafz, and khafd, the procedure is performed on six- or seven-year-old girls and involves the total or partial removal of the clitoral hood.[7][2] The spiritual leader of the Dawoodi Bohra, Mufaddal Saifuddin, clarified that while "[r]eligious books, written over a thousand years ago, specify the requirements for both males and females as acts of religious purity", the Bohras must "respect the law of the land" and refrain from carrying out Islamic female circumcision in countries where it is prohibited.[8] Other Bohra sects including the Sulemani Bohras and the Alavi Bohras,[3] as well as some Sunni communities in Kerala, are reported as practising FGM.[9]

### Consequences

[edit]

Meghana Reddy J, a gynaecologist, reported in 2018 that khatna can lead to complications in later life, including difficult deliveries and urinary infections. In one case a girl had developed sepsis after having had khatna and great effort had been required to revive her.[10]

In conjunction with a small study, the first of its kind in India, twenty Bohras were examined by Sujaat Vali, an obstetrician and gynaecologist, who reported that only a specialist would be able to separate and cut the clitoral hood without also cutting the clitoris, and the clitoris had been cut in most cases examined.[11][12] According to Vali, "[h]alf of them feel some kind of irritation, while 30% either feel discomfort while walking/urinating or have lost sensitivity in the area." The study covered 83 women and 11 men from five Indian states and found that 75 per cent of the respondents' daughters who were at least seven years old had been subjected to FGM.[12]

Although the practice of FGM in India or in the Dawoodi Bohra community has yet to be adequately researched, an informal poll of Dawoodi Bohra women concluded that with Type I FGM, the most commonly used type in Dawoodi Bohra tradition, no health consequences occurred.[13]

## Activism

[edit]

### Opposition and support

[edit]

In November 2011, a 21-year-old law student posted an online petition requesting that Mohammed Burhanuddin, the then religious leader of the Dawoodi Bohras, ban FGM. A spokesman ruled out any change saying "Bohra women should understand that our religion advocates the procedure and they should follow it without any argument."

Two Mumbai-based groups, Sahiyo and We Speak Out, launched a campaign in February 2016 called "Each One Reach One"; the campaign was repeated during Ramadan in 2017. The campaign promoted conversations about female genital cutting.[14][15][16][17] In an online survey of Bohra women, Sahiyo found that khatna had been performed on 80 per cent of participants, with most cut when aged six or seven; 81 per cent wanted the practice to stop.[18][19]

#### The United Nations

[edit]

In 2012 The United Nations declared February 6 as International Day of Zero Tolerance for Female Genital Mutilation.[20] This was done in an effort to raise awareness around FGM.[21] Alongside, declaring this day UN created a joint programme surrounding the ban of FGM. In 2023 they created a theme that partnered with the #MenEndFGM [22] group Called "Partnership with Men and Boys to transform Social and Gender Norms to end FGM."[22]

On 10 December 2016 (Human Rights Day), a group of Dawoodi Bohra women started an online petition calling for FGM to be banned. A similar petition was conducted by the group a year earlier; that petition was submitted to India's Women and Child Development Minister Maneka Gandhi.[23] Also that month, Dawoodi Bohra women petitioned the United Nations demanding that India be recognised as a country where Female Genital Mutilation (FGM) or Female Genital Cutting (FGC) is practised.[24] In September 2017, when the 36th regular session of the United Nations Human Rights Council (UNHRC) was conducting a Universal Periodic Review of India, a written submission on FGM in India was presented at a side event. That was the first time the issue of FGM in India had been raised at the United Nations.[9][25][26]

#### The Dawoodi Bohra Women for Religious Freedom

[edit]

The Dawoodi Bohra Women for Religious Freedom (DBWRF) was established in May 2017 by six Bohra women to support their "beliefs, customs, culture and religious rights". It claims to represent the views of nearly 75,000 women who are followers of Mufaddal Saifuddin. The DBWRF states that the form of FGM practiced by the Dawoodi Bohra is a harmless procedure and not mutilation.[27][28]

DBWRF's stated mission is to "stand for the rights of Dawoodi Bohra women in India" to ensure they have the same freedom as other citizens,[29][30] particularly by defending women who are victimised for their religious beliefs, practices,[31][32] customs and culture. In the face of controversy,[33][34] DBWRF has taken the lead in ensuring that the practice of FGM is protected.[35][36][37][38] In July 2018, senior advocate Abhishek Manu Singhvi represented the DBWRF during proceedings in the Supreme Court and stated that "the practice of khafz is an essential part of the religion as practised by Dawoodi Bohra Community and their right to practise and propagate religion is protected under Articles 25 and 26 of the Constitution of India".[7]

## Misogyny and FGM in India

[edit]

Considering the discord and public aversion to FGM worldwide and specifically in India, it is significant to see the factors that affect and sustain the practice of FGM in India, misogyny being one of the leading factors.

With gender politics in mind, "In India and in the West, there is a tendency to see gender violence and misogyny in India as an expression of 'culture' and 'tradition'"[39] which adds context as to why FGM is heavily unmentioned but also considered a social norm within the Indian Bohra community.

FGM is a social norm in the Indian Bohra community and, "nonconformity to social norms is commonly sanctioned to various degrees with consequences ranging from personal feelings of guilt to social exclusion, stigma, and shame" [40] which furthers the pressure to conform to FGM in order to fit into ones community.

FGM in the Bohra community, "is believed to mark a rite of passage to adulthood, girls are robbed of their sexuality at a very young age just so the Patriarchal culture demands it."[41] Although, individuals within this community believe in this, women that have gone through the process feel as if it's a,"direct attack on a woman's sexuality."[41]

Due to such firm beliefs in this tradition other stances and claims have been made in order to reinforce the pursuit of FGM in the Bohra community. One claim made by many FGM practicing communities is that, "uncut women are prohibited from participating in important religious celebration,"[42] or are considered to, "bring bad luck into the bride's life."[42]

"Understanding the complex social norms and cultural value systems that shape the meaning and significance of the practice within this community is critical to the work of anti-FGC advocates" [43] as it enforces that Bohra women are not dehumanized, and that their culture is still respected despite the practice of FGM.

## Supreme Court

[edit]

Part of the Supreme Court of India.

In May 2017, a public interest litigation (PIL) case was raised in India's Supreme Court. The case was filed by Sunita Tiwari, a lawyer based in Delhi, and sought a ban on FGM in India. The Supreme Court received the petition and sought responses from four states and four central government ministries.[44]

An advocate for the petition claimed the practice violated children's rights under Article 14 (Right to Equality) and Article 21 (Right to Life) of the Constitution of India,[45] while an advocate opposing the petition argued that khafz is an essential part of the community's religion, and their right to practise the religion is protected under Articles 25 and 26.[7]

The Ministry of Women and Child Development reported in December 2017 that "there is no official data or study which supports the existence of FGM in India."[46] Earlier, in May 2017, Women and Child Development Minister Maneka Gandhi announced that the government will ban FGM if it is not voluntarily stopped.[47]

In April 2018 India's Attorney General K. K. Venugopal asked a bench of the Supreme Court to issue directions regarding the case, saying that FGM was already a crime under existing law. The bench adjourned the case and issued notices to Kerala and Telangana, having earlier notified Maharashtra, Gujarat, Rajasthan and Delhi.[45]

In September 2018 the Supreme Court referred the PIL to a five-judge constitution bench at the request of Venugopal and the counsel for the Dawoodi Bohras.[48][49] In November 2019, the Supreme Court decided that the issue of FGM be referred to a larger seven-judge bench and that it be examined alongside other women's rights issues. The court said it was a "seminal issue" regarding the power of the court to decide whether a practice is essential to a religion.[50]

## References

[edit]

1. ^ a b c d Nanda, Anjani; Ramani, Vandanee (31 May 2022). "The Prevalence of Female Genital Mutilation in India". Journal of Student Research. 11 (2). doi:10.47611/jsrhs.v11i2.3285. ISSN 2167-1907.
2. ^ a b c Cantera, Angel L. Martínez (6 March 2018). "'I was crying with unbearable pain': study reveals extent of FGM in India". The Guardian. ISSN 0261-3077. Retrieved 1 December 2023.
3. ^ a b "Female Genital Mutilation: Guide to Eliminating the FGM practice in India" (PDF). Lawyers Collective. 21 May 2017. Archived from the original (PDF) on 6 October 2022. Retrieved 9 November 2018.
4. ^ a b Innocenti, UNICEF Office of Research-. "Changing a Harmful Social Convention: Female Genital Mutilation/Cutting". UNICEF-IRC. Retrieved 28 November 2023.
5. ^ "Female genital mutilation". www.who.int. Retrieved 4 November 2023.
6. ^ "Female Genital Mutilation/Cutting in India: An Urgent Need for Intervention". LSE Human Rights. 6 May 2022. Retrieved 1 December 2023.
7. ^ a b c Neeraj, Vartika (23 July 2018). "Genital Mutilation Plagues Thousands of Bohra Women in India". The Wire. Retrieved 9 November 2018.
8. ^ Das, Mohua (7 June 2016). "Clarifying his stand - Circumcision a religious rite, but abide by law of country: Syedna". The Times of India. Mumbai. Archived from the original on 10 November 2018. Retrieved 9 November 2018.
9. ^ a b Punwani, Jyoti (21 October 2017). "It was a memory I had blocked out, says activist Masooma Ranalvi". The Hindu. Retrieved 9 November 2018.
10. ^ Ravishanker, Reshma (8 February 2018). "Curbing women's sexual desire through genital mutilation: Reality of 'khatna' in India". Retrieved 9 November 2018.
11. ^ Anantnarayan, Lakshmi (31 January 2018). "The Clitoral Hood A Contested Site, Khafd or Female Genital Mutilation/Cutting (FGM/C) in India" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 1 September 2018. Retrieved 9 November 2018.
12. ^ a b Cantera, Angel L Martínez (6 March 2018). "'I was crying with unbearable pain': study reveals extent of FGM in India". The Guardian. Retrieved 9 November 2018.
13. ^ Bootwala, Yasmin (1 September 2019). "A Review of Female Genital Cutting (FGC) in the Dawoodi Bohra Community". Current Sexual Health Reports. 11 (3): 220–227\. doi:10.1007/s11930-019-00213-y. ISSN 1548-3592.
14. ^ "Female genital mutilation in India: Campaign aims to initiate dialogue with Bohras on issue during Ramadan". Firstpost. 30 May 2017. Retrieved 17 November 2023.
15. ^ "Female genital mutilation in India: Campaign aims to initiate dialogue with Bohras on issue during Ramadan". 30 May 2017. Retrieved 9 November 2018.
16. ^ Sahiyo (30 May 2017). "Announcing Each One Reach One 2: Let's discuss Khatna this Ramzan". Retrieved 9 November 2018.
17. ^ Sahiyo (30 May 2017). "Announcing Each One Reach One 2: Let's discuss Khatna this Ramzan". SAHIYO. Retrieved 17 November 2023.
18. ^ STP Team (18 February 2017). "Sahiyo is India's first collective against type of FGM called Khatna in the Dawoodi Bohra community". Retrieved 9 November 2018.
19. ^ Team, S. T. P. "Sahiyo is India's first collective against type of FGM called Khatna in the Dawoodi Bohra community". www.shethepeople.tv. Retrieved 17 November 2023.
20. ^ Nations, United. "International Day of Zero Tolerance for Female Genital Mutilation". United Nations. Retrieved 17 November 2023.
21. ^ "Female genital mutilation". www.who.int. Retrieved 17 November 2023.
22. ^ a b "#MenEndFGM: Partnering with Men and Boys to Transform Social Norms to End Female Genital Mutilation". United Nations Population Fund. Retrieved 17 November 2023.
23. ^ "Human Rights Day: Dawoodi Bohra women launch petition to ban female genital mutilation". Firstpost. 10 December 2016. Retrieved 9 November 2018.
24. ^ Shelar, Jyoti (9 December 2016). "Declare India country with FGM prevalence". The Hindu. Retrieved 9 November 2018.
25. ^ "Campaigners against female genital mutilation call upon UNHRC to address issue". 23 September 2017. Retrieved 9 November 2018.
26. ^ "FGM campaigner knocks at UNHRC doors to address FGM in India". 22 September 2017. Archived from the original on 10 November 2018. Retrieved 9 November 2018.
27. ^ Das, Mohua (2 June 2017). "2 women doctors promote female genital mutilation, may face action". The Times of India. Retrieved 9 November 2018.
28. ^ Julios, Christina (2018). Female Genital Mutilation and Social Media. Routledge. pp. 66–67\. ISBN 9781351717618.
29. ^ "Dawoodi Bohra Women for Religious Freedom". Retrieved 9 November 2018.
30. ^ "Update: 7-judge Constitution Bench to Hear PIL of Sunita Tiwari vs Union of India". www.dbwrf.org. Retrieved 18 November 2019.
31. ^ "WHO's stance and the criminalization of female circumcision: The protection of or violation of human rights?". www.dbwrf.org. Retrieved 18 November 2019.
32. ^ Shelar, Jyoti (6 February 2019). "Khafz: circumcision or FGM?". The Hindu. ISSN 0971-751X. Retrieved 19 November 2019.
33. ^ The Stream - Female cutting among the Bohra community, 26 April 2017, retrieved 24 November 2019
34. ^ "Twitter backlash as tweet promoting FGM is seen 30,000 times". Metro. 20 September 2018. Retrieved 24 November 2019.
35. ^ "Women in India: Egalitarianism from a Bohra Women's Perspective". US Department of State Cables. 19 March 2009.
36. ^ Das, Mohua (2 June 2017). "DBWRF doctors explain difference between female circumcision and FGM". The Times of India. Retrieved 21 November 2019.
37. ^ "Bohra women's group defends 'khafz', says FGM should be banned". Business Standard India. Press Trust of India. 25 August 2018. Retrieved 20 November 2019.
38. ^ India 2016 Human Rights Report (PDF). US Department of State. 2016. p. 38.
39. ^ "Redirecting..." heinonline.org. Retrieved 24 November 2023. `{{cite web}}`: Cite uses generic title (help)
40. ^ O’Neill, Sarah; Pallitto, Christina (July 2021). "The Consequences of Female Genital Mutilation on Psycho-Social Well-Being: A Systematic Review of Qualitative Research". Qualitative Health Research. 31 (9): 1738–1750\. doi:10.1177/10497323211001862. ISSN 1049-7323. PMC 8438768. PMID 34098783.
41. ^ a b "Redirecting..." heinonline.org. Retrieved 24 November 2023. `{{cite web}}`: Cite uses generic title (help)
42. ^ a b Marium Abbas Ali Habibi (2021). "FGM and Sexual Functioning: insights from the Maasai and Bohra community". doi:10.13140/RG.2.2.27168.51204. `{{cite journal}}`: Cite journal requires `|journal=` (help)
43. ^ Taher, Mariya (February 2017). "Understanding Female Genital Cutting in the Dawoodi Bohra Community: An Exploratory Survey". `{{cite journal}}`: Cite journal requires `|journal=` (help)
44. ^ Shelar, Jyoti (11 May 2017). "Waging a legal battle to ban FGM". The Hindu. Retrieved 9 November 2018.
45. ^ a b "Female genital mutilation a crime: Centre to Supreme Court". The Times of India. 20 April 2018. Retrieved 9 November 2018.
46. ^ "No evidence of FGM, India government tells court, appalling activists". Reuters. 29 December 2017. Retrieved 9 November 2018.
47. ^ Gupta, Moushumi Das (29 May 2017). "Govt will end female genital mutilation if Bohras don't: Maneka Gandhi". Hindustan Times. Retrieved 9 November 2018.
48. ^ "SC refers to five-judge bench plea against female genital mutilation". The Times of India. 24 September 2018. Retrieved 30 May 2019.
49. ^ "Female Genital Mutilation Day 8". 24 September 2018. Archived from the original on 30 May 2019. Retrieved 30 May 2019.
50. ^ "Female genital mutilation petition pending before Supreme Court", Hindustan Times, 15 November 2019.

## See also

[edit]

* Prevalence of female genital mutilation by country

* v
* t
* e

Female genital mutilation

Health issues|

* Clitoridectomy
* Dysmenorrhea
* Dyspareunia
* Gishiri cutting
* Husband stitch
* Infibulation
* Keloid scars
* Pelvic inflammatory disease
* Rectovaginal fistula
* Vesicovaginal fistula

By country|

* Prevalence by country
* Laws by country
* FGM in the Gambia
* India
* colonial Kenya
* Kurdistan
* New Zealand
* Nigeria
* Sierra Leone
* Sudan
* United Kingdom
* United States
* Religious views on FGM

Writers/groups|

| Early writers
and activists|

* Raqiya Haji Dualeh Abdalla
* Janice Boddy
* Mary Daly
* Efua Dorkenoo
* Asma El Dareer
* Benoîte Groult
* Rose Oldfield Hayes
* Fran Hosken
* Edna Adan Ismail
* Nawal El Saadawi
* Lilian Passmore Sanderson
* Marion Scott Stevenson
* Hulda Stumpf
* Nahid Toubia
* Amina Warsame

|

Others|

* Fuambai Ahmadu
* Ayaan Hirsi Ali
* Waris Dirie
* Ellen Gruenbaum
* Asha Ismail
* Gerry Mackie
* Molly Melching
* Layli Miller-Muro
* Comfort Momoh
* Alice Walker

Groups|

* Babiker Bedri Scientific Association for Women's Studies
* Equality Now
* FORWARD
* Inter-African Committee on Traditional Practices Affecting the Health of Women and Children
* RAINBO
* Tostan
* Tahirih Justice Center
* Zero Tolerance Day

Media|

| Books|

* Woman at Point Zero (1975)
* Woman, Why Do You Weep? (1982)
* Possessing the Secret of Joy (1992)
* Desert Flower (1998)

|

Films|

* Moolaadé (2004)
* Desert Flower (2009)
* My Body My Rules (2015)

Legislation|

* Matter of Kasinga
* Prohibition of Female Circumcision Act 1985
* Female Genital Mutilation Act 2003
* 2005 (Scotland) Act
* Children Act 1989 (Amendment) (Female Genital Mutilation) Act 2019

Categories|

* Female genital mutilation
* Activists against female genital mutilation

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*[e]: Edit this template