Ferdinand Marcos

President of the Philippines from 1965 to 1986

For his son, Ferdinand Marcos Jr., see Bongbong Marcos.

In this Philippine name, the middle name or maternal  family name is Edralin and the surname or paternal family name is Marcos.

Ferdinand Marcos

Marcos in 1982

10th President of the Philippines
In office
December 30, 1965 – February 25, 1986
Prime Minister|

* Himself (1978–81)
* Cesar Virata (1981–86)

Vice President|

* Fernando Lopez (1965–72)
* Abolished (1972–84)
* Vacant (1984–86)

Preceded by| Diosdado Macapagal
Succeeded by| Corazon Aquino
3rd Prime Minister of the Philippines
In office
June 12, 1978 – June 30, 1981
Preceded by| Office re-established;

position previously held by Pedro Paterno

Succeeded by| Cesar Virata
Secretary of National Defense
In office
August 28, 1971 – January 3, 1972
President| Himself
Preceded by| Juan Ponce Enrile
Succeeded by| Juan Ponce Enrile
In office
December 31, 1965 – January 20, 1967
President| Himself
Preceded by| Macario Peralta
Succeeded by| Ernesto Mata

Political offices 1949‍-‍65

9th President of the Senate of the Philippines
In office
April 5, 1963 – December 30, 1965
President| Diosdado Macapagal
Preceded by| Eulogio Rodriguez
Succeeded by| Arturo Tolentino
Senate Minority Leader
In office
January 25, 1960 – January 22, 1962
Preceded by| Ambrosio Padilla
Succeeded by| Estanislao Fernandez
Senator of the Philippines
In office
December 30, 1959 – December 30, 1965
Member of the House of Representatives from Ilocos Norte's 2nd district
In office
December 30, 1949 – December 30, 1959
Preceded by| Pedro Albano
Succeeded by| Simeon M. Valdez
6th President of the Liberal Party
In office
January 21, 1961 – April 1964
Preceded by| Diosdado Macapagal
Succeeded by| Cornelio Villareal

Personal details
Born|

Ferdinand Emmanuel Edralin Marcos

(1917-09-11)September 11, 1917
Sarrat, Ilocos Norte, Philippines[a]
Died| September 28, 1989(1989-09-28) (aged 72)
Honolulu, Hawaii, US
Resting place|

* Ferdinand E. Marcos Presidential Center, Batac, Ilocos Norte (1993‍-‍2016)
* Libingan ng mga Bayani, Taguig, Metro Manila (since 2016; disputed)[1][2][3]

Political party| Kilusang Bagong Lipunan (1978–89)
Other political
affiliations|

* Liberal (1946–64)
* Nacionalista (1964–78)

Spouses|

Carmen Ortega (common‑law)

(before 1954)​

[4]

Imelda Romualdez

(m. 1954)​

Children| 9, including Imee, Bongbong, Irene, and Aimee
Parents|

* Mariano Marcos (father)
* Josefa Edralin (mother)

Relatives| Marcos family
Alma mater| University of the Philippines Manila (LL.B)
Occupation|

* Jurist
* lawyer
* politician

Signature|
Nicknames|

* Apo Lakay
* Ferdie
* Macoy

Military service
Allegiance|

* Philippines
* United States[b]

Years of service| 1942–1945
Rank|

* First lieutenant
* Major

Unit|

* 21st Infantry Division (USAFFE)
* 14th Infantry Regiment (USAFIP-NL)

Battles/wars| World War II

Ferdinand Marcos's voice

Speaking in a Press Conference requesting the Armed Forces of the Philippines to "disperse the crowd without shooting them" as a response to mass protests against his presidency
(Recorded on February 24, 1986)

|  | This article is part of a series
about
Ferdinand Marcos

|

* Early life
* Military career
* Stonehill scandal
* Prime Minister

* * *

Presidency

* Executive orders
* Cult of personality
* Economy
* Monopolies
* Cronies
* Coco Levy Fund scam
* Gintong Alay
* Timeline
* Communist insurgency
* Moro conflict

First term

* 1965 election
* 1st Inauguration
* balance of payments crisis

Second term

* 1969 election
* campaign
* 2nd Inauguration
* First Quarter Storm
* Plaza Miranda bombing
* Vietnam War

Martial law

* Proclamation No. 1081
* Human rights abuses
* Torture
* Rolex 12
* Escalante Massacre
* Chico River Dam Project
* Masagana 99
* Bataan Nuclear Power Plant
* Journalism
* Resistance
* Religious
* Indigenous
* Workers
* Protest art
* Protest music

Third and fourth terms

* 1981 election and referendum
* 3rd inauguration
* Assassination of Benigno Aquino Jr.
* 1986 election
* 4th inauguration
* People Power Revolution

* * *

Family

* Mariano (father)
* Pacifico (brother)
* Imelda (wife)
* Bongbong (son)
* Imee (daughter)
* Irene (daughter)
* Aimee (daughter)

Unexplained wealth

* Overseas landholdings
* Marcos mansions
* Marcos jewels
* Tallano gold conspiracy theory

* * *

Legacy

* Burial
* Historical distortion
* Bust
* Solid North
* Marcos Japanese ODA scandal
* Operation Big Bird
* Marcos in film
* Nonoy Marcelo's Tadhana: History of the Filipino People

* * *

Related

* "Conjugal dictatorship"
* Edifice complex

* * *

* Category

* v
* t
* e

Ferdinand Emmanuel Edralin Marcos Sr.[c] (September 11, 1917 – September 28, 1989) was a Filipino lawyer, politician, dictator, and kleptocrat who served as the tenth president of the Philippines from 1965 to 1986. He ruled the country under martial law from 1972 to 1981, granting himself expanded powers under the 1973 Constitution. Marcos described his philosophy as "constitutional authoritarianism". He was deposed in 1986 by the People Power Revolution and was succeeded as president by Corazon Aquino.

Marcos gained political success by exaggerating his actions in World War II, claiming to have been the "most decorated war hero in the Philippines".[7][8][9][10] — United States Army documents described his claims as "fraudulent" and "absurd".[11][12] After the war, he became a lawyer. He served in the Philippine House of Representatives from 1949 to 1959 and the Philippine Senate from 1959 to 1965. He was elected president in 1965. He presided over an economy that grew during the beginning of his 20-year rule,[13] but ended in the loss of livelihood and extreme poverty for almost half the Philippine population,[14][15] combined with a debt crisis.[16][15] He pursued infrastructure development funded by foreign debt,[17][18] making him popular during his first term, although the aid triggered an inflation crisis that led to social unrest in his second term.[19][20] Marcos placed the Philippines under martial law on September 23, 1972,[21][22] shortly before the end of his second term. Martial law was ratified in 1973 through a fraudulent referendum.[23] He ruled the country under martial law from 1972 to 1981.[24] During this period, the constitution was revised and media outlets were silenced.[25][26] Marcos also oversaw a violent crackdown against the political opposition,[27][28] Muslims,[29] suspected communists,[30][31] and ordinary citizens.[28]

After his election to a third term in the 1981 presidential election and referendum, Marcos's popularity suffered due to the economic collapse that began in 1983 and the public outrage over the assassination of public opposition leader Senator Benigno "Ninoy" Aquino Jr. that year. This discontent, the resulting resurgence of the opposition in the 1984 parliamentary election, and the discovery of documents exposing his financial accounts and false war records led Marcos to call a snap election in 1986. Allegations of mass electoral fraud, political turmoil, and human rights abuses led to the People Power Revolution of February 1986, which ultimately removed him from power.[32] To avoid what could have been a military confrontation in Manila between pro- and anti-Marcos troops, Marcos was advised by US President Ronald Reagan through Senator Paul Laxalt to "cut and cut cleanly".[33] Marcos then fled with his family to Hawaii.[34] He was succeeded as president by Aquino's widow, Corazon "Cory" Aquino.[35][36][37] Many people who rose to power during the Marcos era remained in power after his exile, including Fidel Ramos, a general who became president.[38]

According to source documents provided by the Presidential Commission on Good Government (PCGG),[39] the Marcos family stole US$5 billion–$10 billion from the Central Bank of the Philippines.[40][41] The PCGG also maintained that the Marcos family enjoyed a decadent lifestyle,[42][43] taking billions of dollars from the Philippines between 1965 and 1986.[44] Upon his legacy, Marcos is widely regarded as among the most controversial figures in the Philippines,[45][46] with its governmental rule formed an kleptocracy[47] under Marcos's dictatorial regime was widely condemned,[48][49][50] and his regime was infamous for corruption,[51][52][53] extravagance,[54][55][56] and brutality.[57][58][25] His wife, Imelda Marcos, made infamous in her own right by excesses that characterized her and her husband's "conjugal dictatorship",[59][60][61] is the source of the term Imeldific.[62] Two of their children, Imee and Bongbong, became active in Philippine politics, with Bongbong being elected president in 2022. Ferdinand and Imelda Marcos held the Guinness World Record for the largest-ever theft from a government for decades,[63] although Guinness took the record down from their website while it underwent periodic review a few weeks before the 2022 Philippine presidential elections.[64]

## Early life

[edit]

Main article: Marcos family

Ferdinand Marcos (right) with his family in the 1920s

Ferdinand Emmanuel Edralin Marcos was born on September 11, 1917, in the town of Sarrat, Ilocos Norte, to Mariano Marcos (1897–1945) and Josefa Edralin (1893–1988).[65] Mariano Marcos was a lawyer and congressman from Ilocos Norte, Philippines.[66] He was executed by Filipino guerillas in 1945 as a Japanese propagandist and collaborator during World War II. Drawn and quartered with the use of carabaos, his remains were left hanging on a tree.[67][68][69] Josefa Marcos was a schoolteacher who outlived her husband – dying in 1988, two years after the Marcos family left her in Malacañang Palace, they fled into exile after the 1986 People Power Revolution, one year before her son Ferdinand's death.[70]

Marcos claimed that he was a descendant of Antonio Luna, a Filipino general during the Philippine–American War,[71] a claim since debunked by genealogist Mona Magno-Veluz.[72] He also claimed that his ancestor was a 16th-century pirate, Limahong (Chinese: 林阿鳳), who used to raid the coasts of the South China Sea.[73][74] He is a Chinese mestizo descendant.[75]

## Education

[edit]

Marcos studied law at the University of the Philippines (UP) in Manila, attending the College of Law. He excelled in both curricular and extra-curricular activities, joining the university's swimming, boxing, and wrestling teams. He was an accomplished orator, debater, and writer for the student newspaper. While attending the UP College of Law, he joined Upsilon Sigma Phi, where he met his future colleagues in government and some of his staunchest critics.[76][page needed][77][page needed]

Marcos attended the Reserve Officers' Training Corps (ROTC) He served as an ROTC battalion commander and was commissioned as a third lieutenant (apprentice officer) in the Philippine Constabulary Reserve. He was a member of the rifle team and a national rifle champion.[78]

When he sat for the 1939 Bar Examinations, he was a top scorer with a score of 92.35%.[79] He graduated cum laude and was in the top ten of his class: future Chief Justice Felix Makasiar was their class salutatorian.[80][81] He was elected to the Pi Gamma Mu and the Phi Kappa Phi international honor societies, the latter giving him its Most Distinguished Member Award 37 years later.[82]

Ferdinand Marcos being conferred with a Doctor Laws, honoris causa degree during the investiture of the first Filipino president of Central Philippine University, Rex D. Drilon, on April 21, 1967

Marcos received an honorary Doctor of Laws (LL.D.) (honoris causa) degree in 1967 from Central Philippine University.[83]

## Julio Nalundasan assassination

[edit]

Main article: Julio Nalundasan

Julio Nalundasan was a Filipino lawyer/politician and a political rival of Mariano Marcos's. He was killed with a single rifle shot at his home in Batac on September 21, 1935, the day after he had defeated Marcos a second time for a seat in the National Assembly.[84]

In December 1938, Ferdinand Marcos, his father Mariano, and his uncles, Pio Marcos and Quirino Lizardo were both accused of murder.[85] According to two witnesses, the four had conspired to assassinate Nalundasan.[86]

Ferdinand was a member of the University of the Philippines rifle team and a national rifle champion.[78] Marcos's rifle was in its gun rack in the ROTC armory, that of team captain Teodoro M. Kalaw Jr. was missing.

The National Bureau of Investigation obtained evidence that Kalaw's rifle was the murder weapon. Ferdinand had access to the armory.[84] Ferdinand and Lizardo were then convicted of the murder. Ferdinand was sentenced to 10 to 17 years in prison.[87]

Marcos appealed to the Supreme Court of the Philippines.[88] Justice Jose P. Laurel, who wrote the majority decision, had almost killed a rival during a youthful brawl. He was convicted by a trial court of frustrated murder, but was acquitted after his own appeal to the Supreme Court. Laurel pleaded for his colleagues to acquit.[84] The Supreme Court overturned the lower court's decision on October 22, 1940, acquitting both men of all charges except contempt.[89][90]

## World War II (1939–1945)

[edit]

Main article: Military career of Ferdinand Marcos

## Post-WWII (1949–1965)

[edit]

This section needs expansion. You can help by making an edit requestadding to it . (July 2018)

|

After World War II, the American government became preoccupied with the Marshall Plan, attempting to revive Western European economies, losing focus on the Philippines, which gained independence on July 4, 1946.[91][92] Marcos was one of eleven lawyers to act as a special prosecutor tasked to try by "process of law and justice" all those accused of collaboration with the Japanese.[93] Eventually, Marcos ran for his father's old post as representative of the 2nd district of Ilocos Norte and won three consecutive terms, serving in the House of Representatives from 1949 to 1959.[94]

Marcos official portrait during the 3rd Congress.

Marcos joined the "Liberal Wing" that split from the Nacionalista Party, which became the Liberal Party. He later became the Liberal Party's economic spokesman, and chaired the House Neophytes Bloc which included future president Diosdado Macapagal, future Vice President Emmanuel Pelaez and future Manila Mayor Arsenio Lacson.[94]

Marcos then became chairman of the House Committee on Commerce and Industry and member of the House Committees on Defense, Ways and Means; Industry; Banks Currency; War Veterans; Civil Service; and on Corporations and Economic Planning. He was also a member of the Special Committee on Import and Price Controls and the Special Committee on Reparations, and of the House Electoral Tribunal.[94]

After serving in the House for three terms, Marcos won a Senate seat in 1959 and became Senate minority floor leader in 1960. He became executive vice president of the Liberal Party and served as party president from 1961 to 1964.

From 1963 to 1965, he was Senate President. He introduced significant bills, many of which were enacted.[94]

### Presidential campaign

[edit]

Main article: 1965 Philippine presidential election

Ferdinand Marcos with his running mate Fernando Lopez during campaign in 1965 Ferdinand Marcos is sworn into his first term on December 30, 1965.

Marcos ran a populist campaign emphasizing that he was a medalled war hero. In 1962, Marcos claimed to be the most decorated war hero of the Philippines by garnering almost every medal and decoration that the Filipino and American governments had established.[95] Included in his claim of 27 war medals and decorations are those of the Distinguished Service Cross and the Medal of Honor.[95][96] The opposition Liberal Party later confirmed that many of his war medals were awarded in 1962 to aid in his Senate election campaign.[59] As a result, Marcos won the election.[97]

## Administration and cabinet

[edit]

Main article: List of cabinets of the Philippines § Ferdinand Marcos (1965–1986)

Presidential styles of
Ferdinand Marcos

Reference style| His Excellency
Spoken style| Your Excellency
Alternative style| Mr. President

## First term (1965–1969)

[edit]

Main article: First term of the presidency of Ferdinand Marcos

Marcos was inaugurated as the 10th president of the Philippines on December 30, 1965.[98]

He launched an aggressive program of infrastructure development funded by foreign loans. He remained popular for most of his first term;[98] although his popularity got flagged after debt-driven spending which triggered an inflationary crisis in November and December 1969.[19][20] Major projects included the construction of the Cultural Center of the Philippines complex, which is considered one of the earliest examples of what became known as the Marcoses' edifice complex.[99][100]

Marcos developed close relations with Philippine military officers[98] and began expanding the armed forces by allowing loyal generals to stay in their positions past retirement age, or giving them government posts.[101] He gained the support of the US Johnson administration by allowing Philippine involvement in the Vietnam War via the Philippine Civic Action Group.[102]

Marcos's first term saw the exposé of the Jabidah massacre in March 1968, where Jibin Arula (a Muslim) testified that he had been the lone survivor of a group of Moro army recruits that had been executed en-masse on Corregidor Island on March 18, 1968.[103][104] The allegations became a major flashpoint that ignited the Moro insurgency.[104]

### Defense expansion

[edit]

The leaders of some of the SEATO nations in front of the Congress Building in Manila, hosted by Marcos on October 24, 1966

One of President Marcos's earliest initiatives was to significantly expand the Philippine military. In an unprecedented move, Marcos chose to concurrently serve as his own defense secretary, giving him direct control over the military.[98] He significantly increased the defense budget, tapping them for civil projects such as school construction. Marcos' policies led Senator Benigno Aquino Jr. to accuse Marcos in 1968 of trying to establish "a garrison state".[101]

### Vietnam War

[edit]

President Marcos (left) and his wife Imelda (center) meet with US President Lyndon B. Johnson (right) in Manila in October 1966.

Under intense pressure from the Johnson administration,[102] Marcos reversed his prior position of not sending Philippine forces to Vietnam,[102][105] consenting to limited involvement.[106] He then asked Congress to approve sending a combat engineer unit. Despite opposition, the proposal was approved and Philippine troops were involved from the middle of 1966 as the Philippines Civic Action Group (PHILCAG). PHILCAG grew to a strength of some 1,600 troops in 1968. Between 1966 and 1970 over 10,000 Filipino soldiers served in Vietnam, mainly involved in civilian infrastructure projects.[107]: 102–103 [108]

### Loans for construction projects

[edit]

See also: Edifice complex

Marcos with Japanese Emperor Hirohito in 1966

Attempting to become the first president of the third republic to be reelected, Marcos began taking massive foreign loans to fund the "rice, roads, and school buildings" he promised in his reelection campaign. With tax revenues inadequate to fund his 70% increase in infrastructure spending from 1966 to 1970, Marcos covered the gap with loans, creating a budget deficit 72% higher than the Philippine government's annual deficit from 1961 to 1965.[98]

The Marcos administration continued this loan-funded spending throughout his reign, producing economic instability that continued for decades.[98] Marcos's grandest first term infrastructure projects, especially the Cultural Center of the Philippines complex, marked the beginning of what critics would label his "edifice complex".[100][page needed]

### Jabidah exposé

[edit]

Main articles: Jabidah massacre and Moro conflict

In March 1968 Jibin Arula was fished out of Manila Bay, after he was shot. He was brought to then-Cavite Governor Delfin N. Montano, to whom he described the Jabidah massacre, saying that numerous Moro army recruits had been executed by members of the Armed Forces of the Philippines (AFP) on March 18, 1968.[103][better source needed] This became the subject of an exposé by Senator Aquino.[109][110]

Although the lack of other living witnesses hampered the probe, it ignited the Moro insurgency in the Philippines.[104] Despite numerous trials and hearings, none of the officers implicated in the massacre were convicted, leading many Filipino Muslims to believe that the "Christian" government in Manila had little regard for them.[111][112] This created a furor within the Philippine Muslim community, especially among educated youth,[113][page needed] and among Muslim intellectuals, who had had no significant involvement in politics.[104] The Jabidah massacre costed many Filipino Muslims their belief in opportunities for integration and accommodation.[114]

This eventually led to the formation of the Mindanao Independence Movement in 1968, the Bangsamoro Liberation Organization (BMLO) was created in 1969, and the consolidation of these various forces into the Moro National Liberation Front (MNLF) in October 1972.[115]

### 1969 campaign

[edit]

Main article: 1969 Ferdinand Marcos presidential campaign

This section is an excerpt from Ferdinand Marcos 1969 presidential campaign.[edit]

The 1969 reelection campaign of Ferdinand Marcos started in July 1969 when incumbent President Ferdinand Marcos was unanimously nominated as the Nacionalista's presidential candidate, and concluded when Marcos won an unprecedented second term.[116] With Fernando Lopez as his running mate, he defeated the Liberal slate of Sergio Osmeña Jr. (son of former President Sergio Osmeña), and Genaro Magsaysay (younger brother of late President Ramon Magsaysay).[117]

During the campaign, Marcos launched US$50 million worth in infrastructure projects.[118] Marcos was reported to have spent PHP100 for every PHP1 that his opponent Osmeña spent, including PHP24 million in Cebu alone.[119]

Time and Newsweek called the 1969 election the "dirtiest, most violent and most corrupt" in modern Philippine history. The term "Three Gs", meaning "guns, goons, and gold" was used to describe the administration's election tactics of vote-buying, terrorism and ballot snatching.[119][120][121][122]

Marcos' spending during the campaign triggered a balance of payments crisis.[123] Marcos asked the International Monetary Fund (IMF) for help, and the IMF offered a debt restructuring deal. Compliant policies were enacted, including a greater emphasis on exports and the relaxation of peso controls. The peso was allowed to decline, resulting in inflation and social unrest.[124]

### Balance of payments crisis

[edit]

These paragraphs are an excerpt from 1969 Philippine balance of payments crisis.[edit]

The 1969 Philippine balance of payments crisis was a currency crisis experienced by the Philippine economy as a result of heavy government spending linked to Ferdinand Marcos' campaign for his second presidential term in 1969.[125][126][127] It was notable for being the first major economic crisis of the Marcos Administration, and for triggering the social unrest which was the rationalization for the proclamation of martial law in 1972.[127][128][129]

### Informal diplomacy

[edit]

Marcos engaged in unofficial diplomacy with the Soviet Bloc, shaped by the Sino-Soviet split.[130][131] The Partido Komunista ng Pilipinas-1930 (PKP-1930), was an officially illegal organization that had endorsed Marcos in 1965. The formation of the China-aligned Communist Party of the Philippines led to government support of the Soviet-aligned PKP-1930. Some PKP-1930 members were appointed to positions within Marcos's government as salaried "researchers". Their connections were used as another channel of negotiation with the Soviet Union.[131]

## Second term (1969–1972)

[edit]

Main article: Second term of the presidency of Ferdinand Marcos

See also: 1969 Philippine presidential election

Ferdinand Marcos takes the Oath of Office for a second term before Chief Justice Roberto Concepcion on December 30, 1969. Marcos and Imelda with the Mayors of Baliwag in 1973

Marcos was reelected on November 11, 1969, in a landslide. He was the only Filipino president to win a second full term.[132][133][134][135] His running mate, incumbent Vice President Fernando Lopez was also elected to a third full term as Vice President of the Philippines.

Marcos's second term was characterized by social unrest, beginning with the balance of payments crisis.[98] Opposition groups began to form, with "moderate" groups calling for political reform and "radical" groups espousing radical-left ideology.[136][137][138]

Marcos responded with military force. The most notable was the response to protests during the first three months of 1970 – a period known as the First Quarter Storm.[139][140][138]

Another major event was the Philippine Constitutional Convention of 1971. In May 1972, a delegate exposed a bribery scheme in which delegates were paid to vote with the Marcoses that implicated Imelda Marcos.[98]: 133 [141]

On August 21, 1971, a fatal bombing occurred at a political campaign rally of the opposition Liberal Party at Plaza Miranda in Quiapo, Manila. Marcos blamed the Communist Party of the Philippines. He issued Proclamation No. 889, through which he assumed emergency powers and suspended the writ of habeas corpus.[142] Oppositionists were accused as "radicals" and were arrested. This response ignored any distinction between moderates and radicals, already blurred since the First Quarter storm. This brought about a massive expansion of the underground socialist resistance, leading many moderate oppositionists to join the radicals.[143][144][138] In 1972 a series of bombings in Metro Manila occurred. Marcos again blamed the communists, although the only suspects caught were linked to the Philippine Constabulary.[145][146]

Marcos's second term effectively ended less than two years and nine months later, when Marcos established martial law.[21]

### Social unrest after the balance of payments crisis

[edit]

Marcos's spending during the campaign triggered growing public unrest,[147] and led opposition figures such as Senator Lorenzo Tañada, Senator Jovito Salonga, and Senator Jose W. Diokno to accuse Marcos of wanting to stay in power beyond the two term constitutional limit.[147]

Opposition groups quickly grew on campuses.[136][137]

#### "Moderate" and "radical" opposition

[edit]

Media reports classified the various civil society groups opposing Marcos into either "moderates" or "radicals".[137] The moderates included church groups, civil libertarians, and nationalist politicians who wanted political reforms.[136] Radicals included labor and student groups who wanted more systemic political reforms.[136][138]

##### Moderates

[edit]

See also: Movement of Concerned Citizens for Civil Liberties

Statesmen and politicians opposed to the increasingly authoritarian administration mostly focused their efforts on political efforts.[98] Their concerns usually included election reform, calls for a non-partisan constitutional convention, and a call for Marcos to comply with the Constitutional term limit.[98][138]

Proponents included the National Union of Students in the Philippines,[138] the National Students League (NSL),[138] and later the Movement of Concerned Citizens for Civil Liberties (MCCCL), led by Senator Jose W. Diokno.[137]

MCCCL rallies were remembered for their diversity, attracting moderate and radical camps; and for their scale, attended by as many as 50,000 people.[137]

##### Radicals

[edit]

See also: National Democracy Movement (Philippines)

The other broad category of opposition groups were those who wanted more systemic political reforms, usually as part of the National Democracy movement.[136][138] The Marcos administration included moderate groups under the radical umbrtella.[148]

Groups considered radical by the media include:[138]

* Kabataang Makabayan (KM)
* Samahang Demokratiko ng Kabataan (SDK)
* Student Cultural Association of the University of the Philippines (SCAUP)
* Movement for Democratic Philippines (MDP)
* Student Power Assembly of the Philippines (SPAP)
* Malayang Pagkakaisa ng Kabataang Pilipino (MPKP)

#### Radicalization

[edit]

Main article: Communist Party of the Philippines

When Marcos became president, the policy and politics functioned under a postwar geopolitical framework.[149] The Philippines was caught up in the anti-communist scare perpetuated by the US during the Cold War.[150] Marcos and the AFP claimed that the Communist Party of the Philippines was a threat, even though it was still a small organization.[140]: 43 [147] Richard J. Kessler claimed that Marcos "mythologized the group, investing it with a revolutionary aura that only attracted more supporters".

The unrest of 1969 to 1970, and the violent reaction to the "First Quarter Storm" protests were watershed events in which Filipino students of the 1970s were radicalized against Marcos. Many students who had previously held "moderate" positions (i.e., calling for legislative reforms) became convinced that more radical social change was required.[143][144]

Other events that radicalized moderates included the February 1971 Diliman Commune; the August 1971 suspension of the writ of habeas corpus in the wake of the Plaza Miranda bombing; the September 1972 declaration of martial law; the 1980 murder of Macli-ing Dulag;[139] and the August 1983 assassination of Ninoy Aquino.[138]

By 1970, campus study sessions on Marxism–Leninism had become common, and many students joined organizations associated with the National Democracy Movement (ND), such as the Student Cultural Association of the University of the Philippines (SCAUP) and the Kabataang Makabayan (KM, lit. Patriotic Youth) founded by Jose Maria Sison;[151][152] the Samahang Demokratiko ng Kabataan (SDK) was founded by a group of young writers.[153]

The line between leftist activists and communists became blurred, as a significant number of radicalized activists joined the Communist Party of the Philippines. Radicalized activists from the cities began to be more extensively deployed in rural areas where some became guerillas.[154][155]

### First Quarter Storm

[edit]

Main article: First Quarter Storm

By the time Marcos gave his State of the Nation Address on January 26, 1970, demonstrations, protests, and marches had broken out. Moderate and radical student groups became the protests' driving force, which lasted until the end of the university semester in March 1970, and came to be known as the "First Quarter Storm".[156][147]

During Marcos's address, the moderate National Union of Students of the Philippines organized a protest in front of Congress and invited student groups to join them. Some protesting students harangued Marcos as he and Imelda left the Congress building, throwing a coffin, a stuffed alligator, and stones at them.[157]

The next major protest took place on January 30 in front of the presidential palace.[158] Activists rammed through the gate with a fire truck and charged the Palace grounds tossing rocks, pillboxes, and Molotov cocktails. At least two activists were confirmed dead and several were injured by police.

Five more major protests took place around Manila before March 17, 1970 – what some media accounts later branded the "7 deadly protests of the First Quarter Storm".[159] This included rallies on February 12; a February 18 rally that proceeded to the US Embassy where they set fire to the lobby;[144] a "Second People's Congress" demonstration on February 26; a "People's March" on March 3; and the Second "People's March" on March 17.[159]

The protests ranged from 50,000 to 100,000 people.[160][better source needed] Students had declared a week-long boycott of classes and instead met to organize rallies.[144]

Violent dispersals of protests have radicalized Filipino students against the Marcos administration.[143][better source needed]

### Constitutional Convention of 1971

[edit]

Main article: Philippine Constitutional Convention of 1971

Civil society groups and opposition leaders began campaigning in 1967 to initiate a constitutional convention.[161] On March 16 that year, the Philippine Congress made itself into a Constituent Assembly and passed Resolution No. 2, which called for a Constitutional Convention.[162]

Marcos was surprised by his critics by endorsing the move. Historians later noted that he was hoping the convention would allow presidents to serve for more than two terms.[98]

A special election was held on November 10, 1970, to elect the convention delegates.[98]: 130 The convention was convened on June 1, 1971, at Quezon City Hall.[163] A total of 320 delegates were elected. The most prominent were former senators Raul Manglapus and Roseller T. Lim. Other delegates later became influential political figures, including Hilario Davide Jr., Marcelo Fernan, Sotero Laurel, Aquilino Pimentel Jr., Teofisto Guingona Jr., Raul Roco, Edgardo Angara, Richard Gordon, Margarito Teves, and Federico Dela Plana.[98][164]

By 1972, the convention had become bogged down by politicking and delays. Its credibility fell further in May 1972 when a delegate exposed a bribery scheme in which delegates were paid to vote in favor of the Marcoses – First Lady Imelda Marcos became implicated in the alleged scheme.[98]: 133 [141]

The investigation was shelved when Marcos declared martial law in September 1972, and had 11 opposition delegates arrested. The remaining opposition delegates were forced to go either into exile or hiding. Within two months, an entirely new draft of the constitution was created by a special committee.[165] The 1973 constitutional plebiscite was called to ratify the new constitution, but the validity of the ratification was brought to question because Marcos replaced secret ballot voting with a system of viva voce voting by "citizen's assemblies".[166]: 213 The ratification of the constitution was challenged in the Ratification Cases.[167][168]

### CPP New People's Army

[edit]

On December 29, 1970, Philippine Military Academy instructor Lt. Victor Corpuz led New People's Army rebels in a raid on the PMA armory, capturing rifles, machine guns, grenade launchers, a bazooka and thousands of rounds of ammunition.[169] In 1972, China, which was then actively supporting and arming communist insurgencies in Asia as part of Mao Zedong's People's War Doctrine, transported 1,200 M-14 and AK-47 rifles aboard the MV Karagatan for the NPA to aid its campaign to defeat the government.[170][171][172]

### Rumored coup d'état and assassination plot

[edit]

A report by the US Senate Foreign Relations Committee said that shortly after the presidential election, a group composed mostly of retired colonels and generals organized a revolutionary junta with the aim of discrediting and killing Marcos. The group was headed by Eleuterio Adevoso, a Liberal Party official. A document given to the committee by a Philippine government official alleged that Vice President Fernando Lopez and Sergio, Osmena Jr. were key figures in the plot.[173]

As early as December 1969 in a message from the US Ambassador to the US Assistant Secretary of State, the ambassador said that most of the talk about revolution and even assassination had been coming from the defeated opposition, of which Adevoso was a leading activist. He also said that his information on the assassination plans was 'hard' (well-sourced) and he wanted it to reach President Marcos.[174][non-primary source needed][175][non-primary source needed]

### Plaza Miranda bombing

[edit]

This section is an excerpt from Plaza Miranda bombing.[edit]

The Plaza Miranda bombing (Filipino: Pambobomba sa Liwasang Miranda) occurred during a political rally of the Liberal Party at Plaza Miranda, Quiapo district, Manila, the Philippines on August 21, 1971.[176] It caused nine deaths and injured 95 others, including many prominent Liberal Party politicians.[177]

Unnamed former Communist Party officials alleged that "the Communist party leadership planned – and three operatives carried out – the Plaza Miranda attack in an attempt to provoke government repression and push the country towards revolution". Communist leader Jose Maria Sison had calculated that Marcos could be provoked into cracking down on his opponents, thereby driving political activists into the underground, the anonymous former officials said. Recruits were urgently needed, they said, to make use of a large influx of weapons and financial aid that China had agreed to provide."[178] Sison denied these claims.[179] The CPP never offered official confirmation of its culpability. Marcos and his allies claimed that Benigno Aquino Jr. was part of the plot, denied by Sison.[180]

Richard Nixon with the Marcos family in 1969

Some historians claim Marcos was responsible for the Plaza Miranda bombing as he is known to have used false flag operations as a pretext for martial law.[181][182] US intelligence documents declassified in the 1990s contained evidence implicating Marcos, provided by a CIA mole within the Philippine Army.[183]

Another false flag attack took place with the attempted assassination of Defense Minister Juan Ponce Enrile in 1972. President Nixon approved Marcos's subsequent martial law initiative.[183]

### 1971 suspension of habeas corpus

[edit]

On August 21, Marcos issued Proclamation No. 889, through which he assumed emergency powers and suspended the writ of habeas corpus.[184][142]

Marcos's act forced many members of the moderate opposition, such as Edgar Jopson, to join the radicals. In the aftermath of the bombing, Marcos lumped all of the opposition together and referred to them as communists. Many former moderates fled to the radicals' mountain encampments to avoid arrest by Marcos's forces. Those disenchanted with the Marcos administration often joined the ranks of the radicals as the only group vocally opposing Marcos.[185][page needed]

### 1972 Manila bombings

[edit]

Main article: 1972 Manila bombings

This section is an excerpt from 1972 Manila bombings.[edit]

The 1972 Manila bombings were a series of "about twenty explosions in Metro Manila in the months after the Plaza Miranda bombing and immediately preceding Ferdinand Marcos' proclamation of Martial Law".[186] The came on March 15, 1972, and the last took place on September 11, 1972 - twelve days before martial law was announced on September 23.

The Marcos administration officially attributed the explosions to communist "urban guerillas",[186] and Marcos included them in the list of "inciting events" that served as rationalizations for martial law.[187] Marcos' political opposition questioned the attribution of the explosions to the communists, noting that the only suspects caught in connection to the explosions were linked to the Philippine Constabulary.[187]

Bombing sites included the Palace Theater and Joe's Department Store on Carriedo Street, both in Manila; the offices of the Philippine Long Distance Telephone Company (PLDT), Filipinas Orient Airways, and Philippine American Life and General Insurance Company (PhilamLife); the Cubao branch of the Philippine Trust Company (now known as PhilTrust Bank); the Senate Publication Division and the Philippine Sugar Institute in Quezon City, and the South Vietnamese embassy.[188] The incident in the Carriedo shopping mall killed one woman and injured about 40, the only incident involving casualties.[189]

## Martial law era (1972–1981)

[edit]

Main article: Martial law under Ferdinand Marcos

See also: Proclamation No. 1081

On the evening of September 23, 1972, President declared martial law for the Philippines.[21] This marked the beginning of a 14-year period of one-man rule lasting until Marcos went into exile on February 25, 1986. Even though martial law was formally lifted on January 17, 1981, Marcos retained virtually all of his powers until he was ousted by the EDSA Revolution.[190] The first of these bombings took place on March 15, 1972, and the last took place on September 11, 1972,[191] twelve days before martial law was announced on September 23 of that year.

September 24, 1972, issue of the Sunday edition of the Philippine Daily Express

Marcos's declaration became known on September 23, 1972, when press secretary Francisco Tatad announced[192][21][22] that Proclamation № 1081 would extend Marcos's rule beyond the two-term constitutional limit.[193] Ruling by decree, he almost dissolved press freedom and other civil liberties, closed down Congress and the media, and ordered the arrest of opposition leaders and militant activists, including Benigno Aquino Jr., Jovito Salonga and Jose W. Diokno.[194][195] Marcos claimed that martial law was the prelude to creating his Bagong Lipunan, a "New Society" based on new social and political values.[citation needed]

The early years of martial law met public approval,[196][197]: 217 as it was believed to have caused crime rates to drop.[198]

### Arrests

[edit]

However, unlike Ninoy Aquino's Senate colleagues who were detained without charges, Ninoy, together with communist NPA leaders Lt. Corpuz and Bernabe Buscayno, was charged with murder, illegal possession of firearms and subversion.[199]

### Bagong Lipunan (New Society)

[edit]

"Bagong Lipunan" redirects here. For the song, see Bagong Pagsilang.

Imperial Japanese Army soldier Hiroo Onoda offering his military sword to Marcos on the day of his surrender on March 11, 1974

One of Marcos' rationalizations for martial law stated that there was a need to "reform society"[145]: 66 by placing it under the control of a "benevolent dictator" who could guide the undisciplined populace through a period of chaos.[145]: 29 [200] He referred to this social engineering exercise as the bagong lipunan or "new society".[201]: 13 His administration produced propaganda materials, including speeches, books, lectures, slogans, and numerous propaganda songs – to promote it.[201]: 13 [202][203]

According to Marcos's book Notes on the New Society, his movement urged the poor and the privileged to work as one for the common goals of society and to achieve the liberation of the Filipino people through self-realization.[citation needed]

The Marcos regime instituted a youth organization, known as Kabataang Barangay, which was led by Marcos's eldest daughter Imee. Presidential Decree 684, enacted in April 1975, encouraged youths aged 15 to 18 to go to camps and do volunteer work.[204][205]: 130

In October 1974, Marcos and PKP-1930 entered into a "national unity agreement" by which PKP-1930 would support New Society programs such as land reform, trade union reform, and including revitalized Soviet Bloc relations.[205]: 230 [206]

### Filipinization of Chinese schools

[edit]

To instill patriotism among Filipino citizens and prevent the growing number of Chinese schools from propagating foreign ideologies, Marcos issued Presidential Decree No. 176,[207] preventing educational institutions from being established exclusively for foreigners or from offering curriculum exclusively for foreigners.[208] It restricted Chinese language instruction to not more than 100 minutes/day.[209]

### 1973 referendum

[edit]

Martial law was put to a vote in the 1973 Philippine martial law referendum which was marred with controversy[23]: 191 [107] resulting in 90.77% support.

### Rolex 12 and the military

[edit]

Along with Marcos, members of his Rolex 12 circle such as Defense Minister Juan Ponce Enrile, Chief of the Philippine Constabulary Fidel Ramos, and Chief of Staff of the Armed Forces of the Philippines Fabian Ver were the chief administrators of martial law. The three remained Marcos' closest advisers until he was ousted. Peripheral members of the Rolex 12 included Eduardo "Danding" Cojuangco Jr. and Lucio Tan.

Between 1972 and 1976, Marcos increased the size of the Philippine military from 65,000 to 270,000 personnel, in response to South Vietnam falling into the hands of North Vietnam and other communist successes in South East Asia. Military officers were placed on the boards of media corporations, public utilities, development projects, and other private corporations, most of whom were highly educated graduates of the Philippine Military Academy. Marcos also supported the growth of a domestic weapons-manufacturing industry and increased military spending.[210]

Many human rights abuses were attributed to the Philippine Constabulary then headed by future president Fidel V. Ramos. Marcos organized the Civilian Home Defense Force, a precursor to Civilian Armed Forces Geographical Unit (CAFGU) to battle communist and Islamic insurgencies. It was accused of inflicting human rights violations on leftists, the NPA, Muslim insurgents, and rebels.[211]

### US foreign policy

[edit]

By 1977, the armed forces had quadrupled and over 60,000 Filipinos had been arrested for political reasons. In 1981, Vice President George H. W. Bush praised Marcos for his "adherence to democratic principles and to the democratic processes".[d] No American military or politician in the 1970s ever publicly questioned Marcos' authority to fight communism in South East Asia.[citation needed]

From the declaration of martial law in 1972 until 1983, the US government provided $2.5 billion in bilateral military and economic aid to Marcos, and about $5.5 billion through multilateral institutions such as the World Bank.[216]

During the Carter administration (1977–1981) the relationship with the US had soured somewhat when Carter targeted the Philippines in his human rights campaign. Despite this, the Carter administration provided military aid to the Marcos regime.[217]

A 1979 US Senate report stated that US officials were aware, as early as 1973, that Philippine government agents were in the United States to harass Filipino dissidents. In June 1981, two anti-Marcos labor activists were assassinated outside a union hall in Seattle. On at least one occasion, CIA agents blocked FBI investigations of Philippine agents.[218] By 1984, US President Ronald Reagan started distancing himself from the Marcos regime that he and previous American presidents had strongly supported even during martial law. The United States, which had provided hundreds of millions of dollars in aid, was crucial in buttressing Marcos's rule over the years,[219]

### Switch from Taiwan to the People's Republic of China

[edit]

Main articles: Philippines–Taiwan relations and China–Philippines relations

Pre-Marcos, the Philippines had maintained a close relationship with Taiwan's Kuomintang-ruled Republic of China (ROC) government. Prior administrations had seen the People's Republic of China (PRC) as a security threat, due to its financial and military support of communist rebels.[220]

By 1969, however, Ferdinand Marcos started publicly asserting the need for the Philippines to establish a diplomatic relationship with the People's Republic of China. In his 1969 State of the Nation Address, he said:[221]

> We, in Asia must strive toward a modus vivendi with Red China. I reiterate this need, which is becoming more urgent each day. Before long, Communist China will have increased its striking power a thousand fold with a sophisticated delivery system for its nuclear weapons. We must prepare for that day. We must prepare to coexist peaceably with Communist China.

> — Ferdinand Marcos, January 1969

In June 1975, President Marcos visited the PRC and signed a Joint Communiqué normalizing relations between the Philippines and China. Among other things, the Communiqué stated that "there is but one China and that Taiwan is an integral part of Chinese territory..." In turn, Chinese Prime Minister Zhou Enlai pledged that China would not intervene in the internal affairs of the Philippines nor seek to impose its policies in Asia, a move that isolated the local communist movement that China had financially and militarily supported.[222][223]

The Washington Post, in an interview with former Philippine Communist Party officials, stated that, "they (local communist party officials) wound up languishing in China for 10 years as unwilling "guests" of the (Chinese) government, feuding bitterly among themselves and with the party leadership in the Philippines".[178]

The government subsequently captured NPA leaders Bernabe Buscayno in 1976 and Jose Maria Sison in 1977.[223]

### 1978 parliamentary election

[edit]

By 1977, reports of "gross human rights violations" had led to pressure from the international community. US President Jimmy Carter pressured the Marcos Administration to release Ninoy Aquino and to hold parliamentary elections to demonstrate that some "normalization" had begun after the declaration of martial law.[224]: 168 Marcos did not release Aquino, but announced that the 1978 Philippine parliamentary election would be held.[224]: 168

The April 7 elections were for 166 (of the 208) regional representatives to the Interim Batasang Pambansa (parliament). The elections were contested by parties including Ninoy Aquino's new party, the Lakas ng Bayan (LABAN) and the regime's party known as the Kilusang Bagong Lipunan (KBL).

LABAN fielded 21 candidates for the Metro Manila area[225] including Ninoy, activist Jerry Barican, labor leader Alex Boncayao,[226] Neptali Gonzales, Teofisto Guingona Jr. Ramon Mitra Jr., Aquilino Pimentel Jr., journalist Napoleon Rama, publisher Alejandro Roces, and poet-playwright Francisco Rodrigo.

Irregularities noted during the election included "prestuffed ballot boxes, phony registration, 'flying voters', manipulated election returns, and vote buying",[197]: 306 and LABAN's campaigning faced restrictions,[197] including Marcos's refusal to let Aquino out of prison to campaign. All of the party's candidates, including Aquino, lost.

Marcos greeting Robert Muldoon on the latter's official visit to the Philippines, 1980. New Zealand was a valuable strategic partner for the country in the last years of Marcos's rule.

Marcos's KBL party won 137 seats, while Pusyon Bisaya led by future Minority Floor Leader Hilario Davide Jr., won 13 seats.

### Prime minister

[edit]

In 1978, Ferdinand Marcos became Prime Minister of the Philippines, marking the return of the position for the first time since the terms of Pedro Paterno and Jorge Vargas during the American occupation. Based on Article 9 of the 1973 constitution, it had broad executive powers typical of prime ministers in other countries. The position was the official head of government, and the commander-in-chief of the armed forces. All of the previous powers of the President from the 1935 Constitution were transferred to the prime minister. The prime minister also acted as head of the National Economic Development Authority. Upon his re-election to the presidency in 1981, Marcos was succeeded as prime minister by an American-educated leader and Wharton graduate, Cesar Virata, who was elected as an Assemblyman (Member of the Parliament) from Cavite in 1978.

### Proclamation 2045

[edit]

After amending the constitution and enacting legislative,[107]: 73 Marcos issued Proclamation 2045, which lifted martial law, on January 17, 1981,[227] without restoring habeas corpus for rebellion and subversion-related crimes. The lifting of martial law was synchronized with the election of US President Ronald Reagan and the visit of Pope John Paul II, to get support from Reagan and minimize Papal criticism.[107]: 73 [228]

## Third term (1981–1986)

[edit]

Main article: 1981 Philippine presidential election and referendum

Ferdinand Marcos with US Secretary of State George Shultz, 1982

On June 16, 1981, six months after lifting martial law, the first presidential election in twelve years was held. President Marcos ran while the major opposition parties, the United Nationalists Democratic Organizations (UNIDO), a coalition of opposition parties and LABAN, boycotted the election. Marcos won a massive victory.[229]

Marcos' third inauguration took place on Tuesday, June 30, 1981, at the Quirino Grandstand in Manila.[230] Then U.S. Vice President George H. W. Bush, Singaporean Prime Minister Lee Kuan Yew, future President of China Yang Shangkun and Thai Prime Minister Prem Tinsulanonda attended. At the inauguration, Bush had infamous praise for Marcos: "We love your adherence to democratic principles and to the democratic process."[231]

### Armed conflict with the CPP–NPA

[edit]

Under martial law the Communist Party of the Philippines and the New People's army was a period of significant growth.[140]: 43 [147] This continued into the 1980s. The NPA established itself in urban areas while the NDF formed relationships with legal opposition organizations – all despite Marcos' claims in January 1981 that the conflict had been "substantially contained".[107]: 73 [227] The killing of key leaders in Davao City in the opening years of the 1980s led the administration to claim that the CPP "backbone" in the south had broken,"[232] But the remaining leaders soon began to experiment with new tactics including urban insurrection, leading the international press to label Davao City as the "Killing Fields", and as "the Philippines' 'Murder Capital'".[233] The violence reached its peak in 1985 with 1,282 military and police deaths and 1,362 civilian deaths.[223]

### Recession

[edit]

The Marcos administration's spending had relied heavily on debt since Marcos's first term in the 60s. This left the Philippines vulnerable when high inflation caused the US to raise interest rates from 1980 to 1982, which caused US recessions in 1980 and 1981.[234][235] The Philippine economy went into decline in 1981. Economic and political instability combined to produce the worst recession in Philippine history in 1984 and 1985, with the economy contracting by 7.3% for two successive years[235] and poverty incidence at 49%.[236]

### Aquino assassination

[edit]

Main article: Assassination of Ninoy Aquino

President Ferdinand Marcos in Washington in 1982

On August 21, 1983, opposition leader Benigno Aquino Jr. was assassinated on the tarmac at Manila International Airport. He had returned to the Philippines after three years in exile in the United States, where he had a heart bypass operation after Marcos allowed him to leave the Philippines to seek medical care. Prior to his heart surgery, Ninoy, along with his two co-accused, NPA leaders Bernabe Buscayno (Commander Dante) and Lt. Victor Corpuz, were sentenced to death by a military commission on charges of murder, illegal possession of firearms and subversion.[199]

A few months before his assassination, Ninoy had decided to return to the Philippines after his research fellowship from Harvard University had ended. The opposition blamed Marcos directly for the assassination while others blamed the military and Imelda Marcos. Popular speculation pointed to three suspects; the first was Marcos himself through his military chief Fabian Ver; the second theory pointed to Imelda, who had her own designs now that her ailing husband seemed to be getting weaker, and the third was that Danding Cojuangco planned the assassination to serve his own political ambitions.[237] The 1985 acquittals of Ver as well as other high-ranking military officers charged with the crime were widely seen as a whitewash and a miscarriage of justice.[citation needed]

On November 22, 2007, Pablo Martinez, one of the soldiers convicted in the Aquino assassination, alleged that Marcos crony Danding Cojuangco had ordered the assassination while Marcos was recuperating from his kidney transplant. Cojuangco was the cousin of Aquino's wife Corazon Cojuangco Aquino. Martinez alleged that only he and Galman knew of the assassination, and that Galman was the actual shooter, which is not corroborated by other evidence.[238]

After the February 1986 People Power revolution swept Aquino's widow to the presidency, the Supreme Court ordered a reinvestigation of the assassination.[239][240] The Sandiganbayan convicted 16 military personnel for the murder, ruling that Constable 1st Class Rogelio Moreno, one of the military escorts assigned to Aquino, "fired the fatal shot" that killed Aquino, not Galman.[241][239]

### Impeachment attempt

[edit]

In August 1985, 56 Assemblymen signed a resolution calling for the impeachment of President Marcos for alleged diversion of US aid for personal use,[183]: 167–168 citing a July 1985 San Jose Mercury News exposé of the Marcos's multimillion-dollar US investments and property holdings.

The properties included the Crown Building, Lindenmere Estate, residential apartments, a shopping center, mansions (in London, Rome, and Honolulu), the Helen Knudsen Estate, and three condominiums.

The Assembly included in the complaint the misuse and misapplication of funds "for the construction of the Manila Film Center, where X-rated and pornographic films[citation needed] are exhibited, contrary to public morals and Filipino customs and traditions." The impeachment attempt gained little traction, however, even in the light of this incendiary charge; the committee to which the impeachment resolution was referred did not recommend it, and any momentum for removing Marcos under constitutional processes soon died.[citation needed]

### Physical decline

[edit]

See also: People Power Revolution

During his third term, Marcos's health deteriorated rapidly due to kidney ailments, as a complication of a chronic autoimmune disease lupus erythematosus. He had a kidney transplant in August 1983, and when his body rejected the first kidney transplant, he underwent a second transplant in November 1984.[242] A palace physician who alleged that during one of these periods Marcos had undergone a kidney transplant was shortly afterwards found murdered. Police said he was kidnapped and slain by communist rebels.[242] Many people questioned whether Marcos had capacity to govern, due to his illness and the burgeoning political unrest.[205]: 289 With Marcos ailing, Imelda emerged as the government's main public figure.

## Economic performance

[edit]

This section is an excerpt from Economic history of the Philippines (1965–1986).[edit]

Real GDP per capita development of the Philippines, 1965 to 1986

The economic history of the Philippines during the Marcos regime (1965-1986) was a period of economic stress.[243][244][245][246]

The first years of Ferdinand Marcos' administration continued the growth of previous administrations of the Third Philippine Republic, peaking at nearly 9 percent in 1973 and 1976. However, in the later years, the worst recession in Philippine history occurred, with the economy contracting by 7.3% in both 1984 and 1985.[243][247][248]

The dramatic rise and fall of the Philippine economy during this period is attributed to the Marcos administration's use of foreign loans (debt-driven as opposed to productivity-driven growth).[249][250][251]

Philippine Gross Domestic Product (GDP) grew from $5.27 billion in 1964 to $37.14 billion in 1982,[252][253] before declining to $30.7 billion in 1985.[252] This included growth from $8 billion in 1972 to $32.45 billion in 1980 – 6%/year, its best results since 1945.[254] The economy grew despite global oil shocks following the 1973 and 1979 energy crises.[253]

However, its policy of establishing monopolies resulted in significant income inequality,[255] corruption, and capital flight.[245][256][257][258] Average monthly wage income fell by 20% from 1972 to 1980. By 1981, the wealthiest 10% of the population was receiving twice as much income as the bottom 60%.[259] Poverty grew from 41% in the 1960s to 59% in 1986.[253][260][261] The unemployment rate increased from 3.9% in 1975 to 12.6% in 1985.[262]

The external debt of the Philippines rose more than 70-fold from $360 million in 1962 to US$2.3 billion in 1970 to US$17.2 billion in 1980 to $26.2 billion in 1985,[263] leaving the Philippines one of Asia's most indebted nations.[250] At the end of 1979, the ratio of debt to GDP was about the same as South Korea.[253]

During his reign, the peso fell from 3.9 to 20.53 to the US dollar. Marcos at the North–South Summit on International Cooperation and Development in Cancun alongside other world leaders including I. Gandhi, F. Mitterrand, R. Reagan, M. Thatcher, K. Waldheim, Zhao Ziyang; October 23, 1981

Economy of the Philippines under
President Ferdinand Marcos
1966–1971Population

1967|  ≈ {\displaystyle \approx } 33.71 million
Gross Domestic Product (1985 constant prices)
1966|  ₱285,886 million
1971|  ₱361,791 million
Growth rate, 1966–71 average| 4.75%
Per capita income (1985 constant prices)
1967|  ₱8,932
1971|  ₱9,546
Total exports
1966|  ₱70,254 million
1971|  ₱63,626 million
Exchange rates
USD1 = ₱6.44
₱1 = USD0.16
Sources:[264]

## Snap election, People Power Revolution, and ouster (1986)

[edit]

### 1986 snap election

[edit]

Main article: 1986 Philippine presidential election

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In late 1985, in the face of escalating public discontent and under pressure from foreign allies, Marcos called a snap election with more than a year left in his term. He selected Arturo Tolentino as his running mate. The opposition to Marcos united behind two American-educated leaders, Aquino's widow, Corazon, and her running mate, Salvador Laurel.[265][266]

Corazon Aquino, widow of the assassinated opposition leader Benigno Aquino Jr., takes the Oath of Office on February 25, 1986.

Marcos's World War II medals were first questioned by the foreign press during this campaign. During a campaign in Manila's Tondo district, Marcos retorted:[267]

> You who are here in Tondo and fought under me and who were part of my guerrilla organization—you answer them, these crazy individuals, especially the foreign press. Our opponents say Marcos was not a real guerrilla. Look at them. These people who were collaborating with the enemy when we were fighting the enemy. Now they have the nerve to question my war record. I will not pay any attention to their accusation.

> — Ferdinand Marcos, January 1986

Marcos was referring to both presidential candidate Corazon Aquino's father-in-law Benigno Aquino Sr. and vice presidential candidate Salvador Laurel's father, former president José P. Laurel.

The elections were held on February 7, 1986.[268] The official election canvasser, the Commission on Elections (COMELEC), declared Marcos the winner. The final tally of the COMELEC had Marcos winning with 10,807,197 votes against Aquino's 9,291,761 votes. On the other hand, the partial 69% tally of the National Movement for Free Elections (NAMFREL), an accredited poll watcher, had Aquino winning with 7,502,601 votes against Marcos's 6,787,556 votes. Cheating was reported on both sides.[269] This electoral exercise was marred by widespread reports of violence and election tampering.

The fraud culminated in the walkout of 35 COMELEC computer technicians to advance their claim that the official election results were manipulated to favor Ferdinand Marcos, according to their testimonies, which were never validated. The walkout was led by Linda Kapunan[270] and the technicians were protected by Reform the Armed Forces Movement (RAM) officers led by her husband, Lt. Col. Eduardo "Red" Kapunan.

In the last months of Marcos's administration, the Soviet Union stepped up relations and was the only major country to officially congratulate Marcos on his disputed election victory.[271][272] Marcos had provided favors to the Soviets such as allowing the banned Philippine Communist Party to visit the Soviet Union for consultations.[271][273][130] A UPI article from March 1986 reported, "Diplomats in Moscow believe the Soviet government totally misjudged Marcos' power to control events. They speculate that Moscow considered his control of legal bodies and his readiness to be 'ruthless' would thwart any popular opposition."[271]

### 1986 RAM coup and People Power Revolution

[edit]

Main articles: February 1986 Reform the Armed Forces Movement coup and People Power Revolution

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The election gave a decisive boost to the "People Power movement". Enrile and Ramos later abandoned Marcos, switched sides and sought protection behind the 1986 People Power Revolution, backed by fellow-American educated Eugenio Lopez Jr., Jaime Augusto Zobel de Ayala, and the old political and economic elites. RAM, led by Lt. Col. Gregorio "Gringo" Honasan and backed by Enrile had plotted a coup d'état to seize Malacañang and kill Marcos and his family.[274]

At the height of the revolution, Enrile claimed that a purported ambush attempt against him years earlier was in fact faked, in order for Marcos to have a pretext for imposing martial law. Enrile later retracted this statement, and in 2012, he claimed that the ambush was real.[275] Marcos continually maintained that he was the duly elected president for a fourth term, but was unfairly and illegally deprived of his right to serve it. On February 25, 1986, rival presidential inaugurations were held,[276] but as Aquino supporters overran parts of Manila and seized state broadcaster PTV-4, Marcos was forced to flee.[277]

## Exile in Hawaii (1986–1989)

[edit]

### Fleeing to Hawaii

[edit]

Ferdinand and Imelda Marcos at the White House with US President Ronald Reagan in 1982

At 15:00 PST (GMT+8) on February 25, 1986, Marcos talked to United States Senator Paul Laxalt, a close associate of President Reagan, asking for advice. Laxalt advised him to "cut and cut cleanly", to which Marcos expressed his disappointment.[278] In the afternoon, Marcos talked to Enrile, asking for safe passage for him and his family, including close allies such as General Ver. Finally, at 9:00 p.m., the Marcos family was transported by four Sikorsky HH-3E helicopters[279] to Clark Air Base in Angeles City, about 83 kilometers north of Manila, before boarding US Air Force C-130 planes bound for Andersen Air Force Base in Guam, and finally to Hickam Air Force Base in Hawaii where Marcos arrived on February 26.[280] He also brought with him 22 crates of cash valued at $717 million, 300 crates of assorted jewelry, $4 million worth of unset precious gems, 65 Seiko and Cartier watches, a 12 by 4 ft box full of pearls, a 3 ft solid gold statue covered in diamonds and other precious stones, $200,000 in gold bullion, nearly $1 million in Philippine pesos, and deposit slips to banks in the United States, Switzerland, and the Cayman Islands worth $124 million.[281]

Initially, there was confusion in Washington as to what to do with Marcos and the 90 members of his entourage.[282] Given the special relations Marcos nurtured with Reagan, the former had expectations of favorable treatment. However, Reagan kept his distance. The State Department in turn assigned former Deputy Chief of Mission to Manila, Robert G. Rich Jr. to be the point of contact. The entourage was first billeted inside the housing facilities of Hickam Air Force Base. The State Department announced the Marcoses were not immune from legal charges, and within weeks hundreds of cases had been filed against them.[283]

Throughout his stay in Hawaii, he and his family enjoyed a high life, living in a luxurious house in Makiki Heights, as Imelda entertained guests at parties,[284] while Filipinos back in the Philippines suffered under the debt Marcos incurred.[285]

When protestors stormed Malacañang Palace shortly after their departure, it was notoriously discovered that Imelda had left behind over 2,700 pairs of shoes.[286] The protesters looted and vandalized the palace, many stole documents, jewelry, food, typewriters, etc.[287]

The Catholic hierarchy and Manila's middle class were crucial to the success of the revolution. Contrary to the widely-held notion that the protests were limited to Manila, protests against Marcos also occurred in the provinces and on the islands of Visayas and Mindanao.[288][289]

### Plans to return and "The Marcos Tapes"

[edit]

More than a year after the revolution, it was revealed to the United States House Foreign Affairs subcommittee in 1987 that Marcos held an intention to return to the Philippines and overthrow the Aquino government. American attorney Richard Hirschfeld and business consultant Robert Chastain, both of whom posed as arms dealers, gained knowledge of a plot by gaining Marcos's trust and secretly recorded their conversations with the ousted leader.

According to Hirschfeld, he was first invited by Marcos to a party held at the latter's family residence in Honolulu. After hearing that one of Hirschfeld's clients was Saudi Sheikh Mohammad Fassi, Marcos's interest was piqued because he had done business with Saudis in the past. A few weeks later, Marcos asked for help with securing a passport from another country, in order to travel to the Philippines while bypassing travel restrictions imposed by the Philippines and United States governments. This failed, however, and subsequently Marcos asked Hirschfeld to arrange a $10-million loan from Fassi.

On January 12, 1987, Marcos stated to Hirschfeld that he required another $5-million loan "in order to pay 10,000 soldiers $500 each as a form of "combat life insurance". When asked by Hirschfeld if he was talking about an invasion of the Philippines, Marcos responded, "Yes". Hirschfeld stated that Marcos said that he was negotiating with several arms dealers to purchase up to $18 million worth of weapons, including tanks and heat-seeking missiles, and enough ammunition to "last an army three months".

Marcos had thought of flying to his hometown in Ilocos Norte and initiating a plot to kidnap Corazon Aquino. "What I would like to see happen is we take her hostage", Marcos told Chastain. "Not to hurt her ... no reason to hurt her ... to take her."

Learning of this plan, Hirschfeld contacted the US Department of Justice, and was asked for further evidence. This information eventually reached President Ronald Reagan, who placed Marcos under "island arrest", further limiting his movement.[290][291]

### Legal cases

[edit]

Within two weeks of his arrival to the United States, hundreds of criminal and civil cases against the Marcos clique were filed in Hawaii, San Francisco, and New York.[283] Marcos made personal appeals to Reagan to put a stop to these cases. In June 1988 National Security Advisor Colin Powell recommended proceeding with indictments of the Marcoses, as he reviewed the cases as forwarded by United States Attorney for the Southern District of New York Rudy Giuliani. Reagan tacitly approved.[292] On August 4, Marcos stated that he had head of state immunity to resist subpoenas by a federal grand jury to produce his finger and palm prints, and failed to consent to investigators to review his bank accounts. By August 18, a bench warrant of arrest was issued against the Marcoses. By October of that year, Reagan personally wrote to Marcos informing him that he believed in his innocence of the charges against him, but reminding him that the case was out of his hands. He assured him that they would have every opportunity to prove their innocence.[293]

Giuliani pressed for indicting the Marcoses for violating the Racketeer Influenced and Corrupt Organizations Act (RICO). The RICO Act focuses specifically on racketeering and allows the leaders of a syndicate to be tried for the crimes they ordered others to do or assisted them in doing. For example, before RICO, a person who instructed someone else to murder could be exempt from prosecution because they did not personally commit the crime. In his next letter to President Reagan on October 20, Marcos complained that Giuliani was giving them nothing but an ultimatum to plead guilty, and even to testify against others, including his own family.[293]

## Personal life

[edit]

Ferdinand was baptized and raised into the Philippine Independent Church.[107]: 23

Marcos lived with a common-law wife, Carmen Ortega, an Ilocana mestiza who was 1949 Miss Press Photography. They had three children and resided for about two years at 204 Ortega Street in San Juan. In August 1953, their engagement was announced in Manila dailies.[4]

Not much is known about what happened to Ortega and their children. He subsequently converted to Catholicism in later life to marry Imelda Trinidad Romualdez.[294] They married on April 17, 1954, 11 days after they first met. They had three biological children: Imee, Bongbong and Irene Marcos.[295] Marcos's fourth child with Ortega was born after his marriage to Imelda.[59] Marcos and Imelda later adopted a daughter, Aimee.[296]

Marcos had an affair with American actress Dovie Beams from 1968 to 1970. According to reports by the Sydney Morning Herald, Marcos also had an affair with former Playboy model Evelin Hegyesi around 1970 and sired a child with her, Analisa Josefa.[297][298]

## Death and burial

[edit]

See also: Burial of Ferdinand Marcos

The body of Ferdinand Marcos was stored in a refrigerated crypt at the Ferdinand E. Marcos Presidential Center in Batac, Ilocos Norte until 2016.

Marcos was admitted to the hospital on January 15, 1989, with pneumonia and underwent a series of operations.[299] In his dying days, Marcos was visited by Vice President Salvador Laurel.[300] During the visit, Marcos offered to return 90% of his ill-gotten wealth to the Filipino people in exchange for a burial in the Philippines beside his mother, an offer also disclosed to Enrique Zobel. However, Marcos's offer was rebuffed by the Aquino government and by Imelda.[301][302][303]

Marcos died at St. Francis Medical Center in Honolulu at 12:40 a.m (HST) on September 28, 1989, of kidney, heart, and lung ailments, 17 days after his 72nd birthday.[304] Moments after, the younger Ferdinand eulogised his late father by stating, "Hopefully friends and detractors alike will look beyond the man to see what he stood for: his vision, his compassion and his total love of country".[305]

Marcos was interred in a private mausoleum at Byodo-In Temple on the island of Oahu.

The Aquino government refused to allow Marcos's body to be brought back to the Philippines, which ultimately happened four years later.[306]

From 1993 to 2016, Marcos's remains were interred inside a refrigerated, frozen crypt in Batac, Ilocos Norte, where his son, Ferdinand Jr., and eldest daughter, Imee, became the local governor and congressional representative, respectively.

A large bust of Ferdinand Marcos (inspired by Mount Rushmore) was commissioned by the tourism minister, Jose Aspiras, and carved into a hillside in Benguet. It was subsequently destroyed, allegedly by left-wing activists, members of a local tribe who had been displaced by construction of the monument, and looters hunting for the legendary Yamashita treasure.[307]

Students of the Ateneo de Manila University protesting the burial of Marcos

On November 18, 2016, his remains were reburied at the Libingan ng mga Bayani ordered by President Rodrigo Duterte despite opposition from various groups. On the morning of November 18, using Philippine Armed Forces helicopters, his family and their supporters flew his remains from Ilocos to Manila for a private burial. This account was challenged and the physical location of his remains is disputed.[1] Various groups protested the burial.[308][309]

## Trials and reparations

[edit]

### Roxas v. Marcos

[edit]

Rogelio Roxas, a Filipino treasure hunter, discovered a 3-foot-tall golden Buddha statue in tunnels under the Baguio General Hospital in 1971. Roxas was later arrested and tortured by members of the military, and the statue was taken away. Upon exile of the Marcoses, Roxas assigned his rights to a friend in the United States and formed the Golden Buddha Corporation (GBC) who pursued the case against the former president. In 1996, the lower court awarded US$22 billion in favor of GBC, making this the largest award in a civil case in US history. In November 1998, the Hawaii Supreme Court overturned the ruling, but maintained an award of US$6 million for the illegal arrest and torture experienced by Roxas.[310][311]

### Sandiganbayan, Supreme Court, and international trials

[edit]

Ferdinand Marcos with Emmanuel Pelaez

On November 9, 2018, Imelda Marcos was found "guilty beyond reasonable doubt" by the Sandiganbayan of seven counts of graft for private organizations set up in Switzerland during her time as a government official from 1968 to 1986. In less than 20 days however, the Sandiganbayan listed Imelda's "advanced age" and health condition as considerations for allowing the accused to post bail. The Fifth Division's (of the Sandiganbayan) ruling read that "the fact that she is of advanced age and for health reasons, consistent with the doctrine in Enrile vs Sandiganbayan, bail is allowed for these seven cases".[312] The Supreme Court of the Philippines affirmed that the family's assets, beyond their government salaries, are considered as ill-gotten wealth. In 1998 the Court acquitted Imelda Marcos of corruption charges from a previous graft conviction in 1993.

The US Ninth Circuit Court of Appeals confirmed a contempt judgement in relation to the assets of Imelda and her son Bongbong. Although on a different matter, this judgement awarded $353.6 million to human rights victims, which was arguably the largest contempt award ever affirmed by an appellate court.

### Reparations

[edit]

In 1995, some 10,000 Filipinos won a US class-action lawsuit filed against the Marcos estate. The claims were filed by victims or their surviving relatives consequent on torture, execution, and disappearances.[313][314]

The Swiss government, initially reluctant to respond to allegations that stolen funds were held in Swiss accounts,[315] returned $684 million of Marcos' holdings.[316][317][318]

Corazon Aquino repealed many of the repressive laws enacted during Marcos's dictatorship. She restored the right of habeas corpus, repealed anti-labor laws and freed hundreds of political prisoners.[23]: 361

From 1989 to 1996, a series of suits were brought before US courts against Marcos and his daughter Imee, alleging that they bore responsibility for executions, torture, and disappearances. A jury in the Ninth Circuit Court awarded US$2 billion to the plaintiffs and to a class composed of human rights victims and their families.[319] On June 12, 2008, in Republic of Philippines v. Pimentel the US Supreme Court ruled 7–2 that, "The judgment of the Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit is reversed, and the case is remanded with instructions to order the District Court to dismiss the interpleader action." The court dismissed the interpleader lawsuit filed to determine the rights of 9,500 Filipino human rights victims (1972–1986) to recover US$35 million, part of a US$2 billion judgment in US courts against the Marcos estate, because the Philippines government is an indispensable party, protected by sovereign immunity. The Philippines government claimed ownership of the funds transferred by Marcos in 1972 to Arelma S.A., which invested the money with Merrill Lynch, Pierce, Fenner & Smith Inc., in New York.[320][321][322] In July 2017, the Philippine Court of Appeals rejected the petition seeking to enforce the United States court decision.[323]

In 2013, Philippine Congress passed Republic Act 10368 or the Human Rights Victims Reparation and Recognition Act of 2013.[324] The law created the Human Rights Violations Claims Board and provided reparations to victims of summary execution, torture, enforced disappearances, and other human rights violations.[325] Compensation came from P10 billion of stolen wealth seized by the government from the Marcoses.[326] A total of 11,103 victims received compensation in 2018.[324] A bill filed in Congress in 2020 proposed to compensate tens of thousands of people still not officially recognized as victims of state-sponsored violence.[325]

## Legacy

[edit]

Marcos left a legacy of debt, hardship, and repression.[327]

### Human rights abuses

[edit]

Main article: Human rights abuses of the Marcos dictatorship

The Marcos regime committed human rights abuses against a long list of opponents. These included student activists such as Edgar Jopson and Rigoberto Tiglao,[328] farmers such as Bernabe Buscayno,[329] journalists such as Satur Ocampo,[330][331] legal political opponents such as Ninoy Aquino,[332] fellow candidates such as Alex Boncayao,[333][225] and priests and nuns. Victims were commonly accused of supporting communist rebels[334] or other leftists,[211] or of joining or sympathizing with the CPP, NPA, or MNLF.[335] Victims were rounded up without an arrest warrant and indefinitely detained without charge.[147] In a keynote speech at the University of the East, journalist Raissa Robles described how anyone could be arrested (or abducted) with ease through Arrest Search and Seizure Orders (ASSO),[336] which allowed the military or police to detain anyon,e according to Rappler research.[337][338][339]

A 1976 Amnesty International report listed 88 government torturers, including members of the Philippine Constabulary and the Philippine Army, which was under the direct control of Major General Ramos and Defense Minister Enrile.[58][340] According to Rigoberto Tiglao, nearly all of the human rights abuses were committed by Philippine Constabulary units, especially through its national network of "Constabulary Security Units", whose heads reported directly to Ramos. The most dreaded of these was the Manila-based 5th Constabulary Security Unit (CSU), which featured dreaded torturer Lt. Rodolfo Aguinaldo,[25][147] which was credited with capturing most of the Communist Party leaders including Sison and the Manila-Rizal Regional Committee he headed;[341] the Metrocom Intelligence and Security Group (MISG)[337] under the command of Col. Rolando Abadilla;[25] and the Intelligence Service (ISAFP).[147]

The various estimates of the scale of abuses include:

Task Force Detainees of the Philippines (TFDP)[342]

* 2,668 incidents of arrests
* 398 disappearances
* 1,338 salvagings
* 128 frustrated salvagings
* 1,499 killed or wounded in massacres

Amnesty International[343]

* 70,000 imprisoned
* 34,000 tortured
* 3,240 documented as killed

Historian Alfred McCoy gives a figure of 3,257 recorded extrajudicial killings by the military from 1975 to 1985, 35,000 tortured and 70,000 incarcerated.[25][344]

Bulatlat newspaper

* 120,000 victims of arbitrary arrest and detention
* 1,500 extrajudicial execution of activists under martial law

Human rights group Karapatan[345]

* 759 involuntarily disappeared with their bodies never found.

Susan Quimpo, co-author of Subversive Lives[346]

* 80,000 was a low figure for the number of persons incarcerated

In addition to these, up to 10,000 Moro Muslims were killed in massacres by the Philippine Army, Philippine Constabulary, and the Ilaga pro-government paramilitary group.[347]

#### Abductions

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See also: List of torture methods used by the Marcos dictatorship

Victims were often taken to military "safehouses"[348] where abductees were tortured,[349] often blindfolded.[147][350] In a document titled "Open Letter to the Filipino People", martial law martyr Edgar "Edjop" Jopson described them: "Safehouses usually have their windows always shut tight. They are usually covered with high walls. One would usually detect [safehouses] through the traffic of motorcycles and cars, going in and out of the house at irregular hours. Burly men, armed with pistols tucked in their waists or in clutch bags, usually drive these vehicles."[351]

Various forms of torture were used by the military, typically in combination.[333]

#### Killings

[edit]

See also: Extrajudicial killings and forced disappearances in the Philippines

Number of "salvage" cases (TFDP)[147][352] Year  | No. of cases

|

1980  | 139
1981  | 218
1982  | 210
1983  | 368
1984  | 538
Total  | 1,473

Summary executions were common. Bodies were often recovered bearing signs of torture and mutilation.[351][353] Such cases were referred to as "salvaging" a term widely believed to be derived from the Spanish word salvaje, meaning savage.[354] Mutilated remains were often dumped on roadsides in order to instill fear and to intimidate opponents.[25]

Anyone could be "salvaged": communists, suspects, innocent civilians and priests included. TFDP documented 1,473 "salvage" cases from 1980 to 1984 alone.[147][352]

Victims included Pamantasan ng Lungsod ng Maynila student Liliosa Hilao,[355] Archimedes Trajano, Juan Escandor,[147] and 16-year-old Luis Manuel "Boyet" Mijares, whose body was found with burn marks, all his nails removed, 33 ice pick wounds, skull crushed, eyeballs gouged out, and genitals mutilated before he was dropped from a helicopter.[356][357][147]

Enforced disappearances, also known as "desaparecidos" or "the disappeared" – people who suddenly went missing, sometimes without a trace and whose bodies were never recovered.[358]

Victims include Primitivo "Tibo" Mijares,[356] Emmanuel Alvarez, Albert Enriquez, Ma. Leticia Ladlad, Hermon Lagman,[356] Mariano Lopez, Rodelo Manaog, Manuel Ontong, Florencio Pesquesa, Arnulfo Resus, Rosaleo Romano, Carlos Tayag, Emmanuel Yap,[359] Jan Quimpo,[356] Rizalina Ilagan, Christina Catalla, Jessica Sales and Ramon Jasul.[360]

While the numbers of political detainees went down, the number of people killed rose and spiked in 1981, the year martial law was officially lifted by Marcos according to Task Force Detainees of the Philippines. According to Senator Jose W. Diokno, "As torture (cases) declined, a more terrible tactic emerged; unofficial executions" – suspected dissidents were simply arrested and vanished.[147]

Murder victims include:

* Senator Ninoy Aquino, August 21, 1983, who was assassinated on the tarmac of Manila International Airport
* NPA commander Alex Boncayao,[361]
* Macli-ing Dulag,
* Fr. Tulio Favali,[333]
* Liliosa Hilao,
* Evelio Javier,
* Edgar Jopson,
* Emmanuel "Eman" Lacaba.

##### Civilian massacres

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Protesters hold up images of Escalante Massacre victims

It is hard to judge the full extent of massacres and atrocities that happened during the Marcos regime due to heavy press censorship at the time.[362] Civilian massacres include the following:

Civilian massacres  Location | Date | Group | Perpetrator | Casualties

|
|
|
|

Guinayangan, Quezon | February 1, 1981 | coconut farmers[363] marched against the coco levy fund scam.[147] | The military opened fire on a group of 3000[147] | 2 dead[364] and 27 wounded.[365]
Tudela, Misamis Occidental | August 24, 1981 | The Gumapons Subanon family | Paramilitary members of the "Rock Christ", a fanatical pseudo-religious sect | 10 of the 12 persons in the house were killed, including an infant.[365][366]
Las Navas, Northern Samar | September 15, 1981 | (Sag-od massacre) residents of Barrio Sag-od | 18 heavily armed security men of the San Jose Timber Corp. (owned by Enrile) who were also members of the Special Forces of the Civilian Home Defense Force (CHDF) and allied with the Lost Command (a paramilitary group pursuing insurgents)  | 45 men, women and children killed. 13 inhabitants survived.[147][365]
Culasi, Antique | December 19, 1981 | 400+ Culasi's mountain barangays protest a Philippine Constabulary company in their area and the reduction of taxes on farm products. | Military  | Five dead and several injured[365]
Talugtug, Nueva Ecija | January 3, 1982 | Five men rounded up were killed | Military | The military suspected them to be communist supporters.[365]
Dumingag, Zamboanga del Sur | February 12, 1982 | Possible NPA members | Ilaga | 12 dead.[365]
Hinunangan, Southern Leyte | March 23, 1982 | Masaymon barrio | 357th PC company | 8 dead. Six were 3–18 years of age[365]
Bayog, Zamboanga del Sur | May 25, 1982 | Barangay Dimalinao  | Airplanes bombed the community because communist rebels killed 23 soldiers two days earlier.[147] | Initially 3 dead, 8 injured. Later 2 more dead.
Daet, Camarines Norte | June 14, 1982 | People from different barrios marched to denounce "fake elections", Cocofed, and to demand an increase in copra prices. | Military  | 6 dead, 50+ injured[365]
Pulilan, Bulacan | June 21, 1982 | Peasant organizers | Military - 175th PC Company | 5 dead[365]
Labo, Camarines Norte | June 23, 1982 | Unidentified men | 45th Infantry Battalion's Mabilo detachment | 5 dead.[365]
Roxas, Zamboanga del Norte |  | Family members[147][365] | Military/militia  | 8 dead
Gapan, Nueva Ecija |  | Bautista family | Unidentified men in camouflaged uniforms | 5 dead[147][365]
Escalante, Negros Occidental | September 20, 1985 | Escalante massacre[367] 5000 farmers, students, fisherfolk, and religious clergy | About 50 firemen, Regional Special Action Forces (RSAF) and Civilian Home Defense Force (CHDF) | 20-30 dead[147] 30 wounded.[367]

##### Muslim massacres

[edit]

This section needs expansion. You can help by making an edit requestadding to it . (October 2017)

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Thousands of Moros were killed during the Marcos regime. They formed insurgent groups and separatist movements such as the Moro National Liberation Front (MNLF) and the Moro Islamic Liberation Front (MILF), which became more radical with time.[368] The Marcos regime killed hundreds of Moros before imposing martial law.[369] The number of Moro victims killed by the Army, Philippine Constabulary, and the Ilaga (a government-sanctioned[370] terrorist cult notorious for cannibalism and land grabbing that served as members of the CHDF)[365] reached as high as 10,000 lives.[347][371]

Known massacres of Moros  Name | Date | Perpetrator | Casualties | Context

|
|
|
|

Jabidah Massacre | March 1968 |  | 11 to 68 killed | Aftermath of an aborted operation to destabilize Sabah, Operation Merdeka.
Multiple | 1970-1971 | pro-government militias such as the Ilaga | 21 massacres 518 dead, 184 injured and 243 houses burned down.[372][347] |
Tacub Massacre in Kauswagan, Lanao del Norte | 1971 | Dozens dead | Military | five truckloads of displaced resident voters were stopped at a checkpoint. Summary execution.[369]
Manili massacre | June 1971 | suspected Ilaga and Philippine Constabulary | 70-79 dead | including women and children, killed inside a mosque.[372]
The Burning of Jolo, Sulu[362] | February 7–8, 1974 | 1,000 and possibly up to 20,000 dead | Military | fires and destruction in Jolo .[373] "the worst single atrocity to be recorded in 16 years of the Mindanao conflict" by the April 1986 issue of the Philippines Dispatch.[374]
Malisbong Massacre | September 1974 | 1,500 men were killed inside a mosque, 3,000 women and children were detained, and about 300 women raped[372] | Philippine Constabulary |
Pata Island massacre | 1982 | 3,000 Tausug civilians, including women and children dead | Military[372] |
Tong Umapoy Massacre | 1983 | 57 dead | Navy | attacked a passenger boat en route to an athletic event in Bongao, Tawi-Tawi.[370]

#### Family denial

[edit]

Main article: Historical distortion regarding Ferdinand Marcos

Marcos family members deny any human rights violations.[375]

Bongbong Marcos describes stories of human rights abuses as "self-serving statements by politicians, self-aggrandizement narratives, pompous declarations, and political posturing and propaganda."[376][377]

Imee called the allegations political accusations. According to her, "If what is demanded is an admission of guilt, I don't think that's possible. Why would we admit to something we did not do?"[378]

### Ill-gotten wealth

[edit]

Main articles: Unexplained wealth of the Marcos family, Marcos mansions, and Marcos jewels

See also: Presidential Commission on Good Government

In 2012, the Philippine Supreme Court ruled all Marcos assets beyond legally declared earnings/salary to be ill-gotten wealth[379] and such wealth to have been forfeited to the government or human rights victims.[380]

According to the Presidential Commission on Good Government (PCOG), the Marcos family and their cronies looted so much wealth from the Philippines that investigators have not determined precisely how many billions were stolen.[381] PCOG estimated that Marcos stole around $5 billion to $10 billion,[382][383][384][385] while earning an annual salary equivalent to US$13,500.[386]

Among the sources of the Marcos wealth are alleged to be diverted foreign aid, military aid (including to Marcos for sending Filipino troops to Vietnam) and kickbacks from public works contracts.[387]

In 1990, Imelda Marcos was acquitted of charges that she raided the Philippine treasury by a US jury. She was acquitted because the jury deemed that US did not have jurisdiction.[388][389] In 1993, she was convicted of graft in Manila for entering into three unfavourable lease contracts between a government-run transportation agency and another government-run hospital.[390] In 1998, the Philippine Supreme Court overturned her conviction.[391] In 2008, Philippine trial court judge Silvino Pampilo acquitted Imelda of 32 counts of illegal money transfer[392] from the 1993 graft conviction.[393] In 2010, she was ordered to repay the Philippine government almost $280,000 for funds taken in 1983.[394] In 2012, a US Court of Appeals of the Ninth Circuit upheld a contempt judgement against Imelda and Bongbong for violating an injunction barring them from dissipating their assets, and awarded $353.6 million to human rights victims.[395] As of October 2015, she faced 10 graft charges, and 25 civil cases,[396][397] down from 900 in the 1990s, as most cases were dismissed for lack of evidence.[398][needs update]

In the 2004 Global Corruption Report, Marcos appeared in the list of the world's most corrupt leaders, behind Suharto.[399] One of Marcos's former Ministers of industry, Vicente Paterno,[400] noted that while the amount stolen by Marcos's regime probably fell short of Suharto, Marcos invested outside the Philippines, whereas Suharto mostly invested at home.[400]

The International Consortium of Investigative Journalists' (ICIJ) exposé of offshore leaks accused Imee of hiding wealth in tax havens in the British Virgin Islands.[401][402]

In 2014, Imelda's former secretary Vilma Bautista was sentenced to prison for conspiring to sell a Monet, Sisley, and other masterpieces.[403][404]

On May 9, 2016, ICIJ released the Panama Papers.[405] Imee and Irene[406] were named, along grandsons Fernando Manotoc, Matthew Joseph Manotoc, and Ferdinand Richard Manotoc, his son-in-law Gregorio Maria Araneta III,[407] including his son-in-law Tommy Manotoc's relatives Ricardo Gabriel Manotoc and Teodoro Kalaw Manotoc.[408]

On September 3, 2017, then President Rodrigo Duterte said the Marcos family was ready to transfer their wealth to the government.[409] In January 2018, a draft House Bill proposing a settlement and immunity for the Marcoses was received by the Duterte government in July 2017.[410][411]

#### Overseas investments

[edit]

This section is an excerpt from Overseas landholdings of the Marcos family.[edit]

A 2005 image of 40 Wall Street, one of four Manhattan buildings purchased by the Marcoses in the early 1980s

The overseas landholdings of the Marcos family, which the Philippine government[412][413] and the United Nations System's Stolen Asset Recovery Initiative[414] consider part of the $5 billion to $13 billion "ill-gotten wealth" of Ferdinand and Imelda Marcos, are said to be distributed worldwide in places including California, Washington, New York, Rome, Vienna, Australia, Antilles, the Netherlands, Hong Kong, Switzerland and Singapore.[415]: 423 These are aside from the fifty-or-so Marcos mansions acquired by the Marcos family within the Philippines itself.[416]

The best known[415][417] of these properties are the Marcoses' multimillion dollar real estate investments in the United States,[418]: 16 particularly Imelda's purchases of buildings and real estate in New York,[419] the estates purchased in New Jersey for the use of the Marcos children,[420] Jose Yao Campos's investments in Seattle,[421] various properties in Hawaii including the Makiki Heights estate where they lived during their exile,[422] and their ownership of the California Overseas Bank in Los Angeles.[415][423] According to Ricardo Manapat's book Some Are Smarter Than Others, which was one of the earliest to document details of the Marcos wealth,[424] lesser-known properties include gold and diamond investments in South Africa, banks and hotels in Israel, and various landholdings in Austria, London, and Rome.[415]

Many of these properties are said to have been acquired under the name of several Marcos cronies.[418] One of them, Jose Yao Campos, cooperated with the Philippine government and made an immunity deal, revealing how he fronted Marcos's investments both locally and abroad via numerous interlocking shell corporations.[418][425]

### Monopolies

[edit]

Ferdinand Marcos in Washington, 1983

This section is an excerpt from Monopolies in the Philippines (1965–1986).[edit]

During the administration of former Philippine president Ferdinand Marcos (1965–1986) select businesses were favored and patronized by Marcos, receiving financial support, sole patronage, tax exemptions, and control over entire industries rendering these businesses as monopolies.[426][427][428] Friends and relatives of Marcos acquired staggering wealth and economic power due to special favors and privileges extended by the administration.[429] While Marcos associates enjoyed government bailout even during the decline of their firms, other businesses suffered high taxes, sanctions, and other unjust treatments that forced them to close up, or to sell their shares. The majority of monopolies linked to Ferdinand Marcos are managed by his close associates, also regarded as cronies by critics.[430] Former First Lady Imelda Marcos insinuated that the Marcoses controlled the majority of the industries in the Philippines. In a 1988 interview, she stated, "We practically own everything in the Philippines—from electricity, telecommunications, airline, banking, beer and tobacco, newspaper publishing, television stations, shipping, oil and mining, hotels and beach resorts, down to coconut milling, small farms, real estate and insurance."[430]

### Infrastructure and edifices

[edit]

Main article: Edifice complex

A 1999 view of the San Fernando segment of North Luzon Expressway, one of Marcos's infrastructure projects

Marcos projected himself to the public as building vast construction projects, and his record upholds that reputation.[98]: 128 A 2011 study Marcos was the president who spent the most on infrastructure in terms of annual spending.[431] Most of these projects were paid for with foreign currency loans[432][433] at great cost to taxpayers.[434][435]: 89

Projects included hospitals[436] such as the Philippine Heart Center, Lung Center, and Kidney Center, transportation infrastructure like San Juanico Bridge (formerly Marcos Bridge), Pan-Philippine Highway, North Luzon Expressway, South Luzon Expressway,[437] and Manila Light Rail Transit (LRT). Cultural and heritage sites including the Cultural Center of the Philippines, Nayong Pilipino, Philippine International Convention Center and the ill-fated Manila Film Center were built as well.

This focus on infrastructure eventually earned the label "edifice complex".[433][434][100]

Marcos' spending on construction has been claimed to be intended to position Imelda Marcos as a patron of the arts.[438]: 169 This effort was so large that by 1977–1980, projects in the "conspicuous capital outlays" category had ballooned from a negligible amount to 20% of the Philippines' capital outlays.[435]: "88–89"

These projects were typically constructed on a rush basis,[438]: 169 often compromising structural safety.[439]

The most controversial projects included

* Cultural Center of the Philippines (CCP) Complex, a 77-hectare[440] reclaimed property in Pasay.[441] He appointed a seven-member board of trustees, who elected Imelda as its chair.[441] The budget grew from P15 million to P63 million.[441]
* The San Juanico Bridge is part of the Pan-Philippine Highway and links the provinces of Leyte and Samar. At 2.16 kilometres (1.34 mi) in length, it is the Philippines longest bridge over water.[442] Construction began in 1969. It was inaugurated on July 2, 1973, in time for Imelda Marcos's birthday. The $22 million construction cost was acquired through Japanese Official Development Assistance loans.[443]
* The Manila Film Center began construction in January 1981 and cost $25 million.[439][444] To meet the January 1982 deadline for the Manila International Film Festival, 4,000 workers were employed to work three 24-hour nonstop shifts. The lobby was constructed in 72 hours by 1,000 workers.[439] A scaffolding collapsed on November 17, 1981, killing multiple workers. Rescuers and ambulances were kept away for 9 hours after the incident.[439]

Marcos's signature agricultural program, Masagana 99, launched on May 21, 1973,[445][446] to address a rice shortage.[447] Its goal was to raise yield from 40 to 99 cavans (4.4 tons) per hectare.[448] The program pushed farmers to use high-yield seeds, fertilizer, and herbicides.[447] Initial success came from encouraging farmers to plant "Miracle Rice" (IR8),[449] which funded by the Rockefeller and Ford foundations, and the UP College of Agriculture through IRRI,[450]: 7 which had been under development since 1962.[451] This increased rice production from 3.7 to 7.7 million tons in two decades and made the Philippines a rice exporter for the first time in the 20th century.[452][453][448] The required switch to IR8 required more fertilizers and pesticides, helping multinationals, but not small, peasant farmers who often remained in poverty.[454]

Although Masagana 99 showed promising results, the years from 1965 to 1986 showed a complete paradox of events. The income per capita rose, the economy was growing, yet people were impoverished. The American economist James K. Boyce refers to his as an example of "immiserizing growth", when economic growth, and political and social conditions, are such that the rich get absolutely richer and the poor become absolutely poorer.[455][better source needed] The World Bank reported that crops (rice, corn, coconut, sugar), livestock and poultry and fisheries grew at an average rate of 6.8%, 3% and 4.5%, respectively from 1970 to 1980, and while the forestry sector declined by an annual average rate of 4.4% through the 1970s.[456]

### Logging and deforestation

[edit]

Further information: Deforestation in the Philippines

The Marcos administration marked a period of intense logging,[457] with commercial logging accounting for 5% of GDP product in the first half of the 1970s. This was the result of Japanese construction demand.[458][459] Timber products became a top export, but little attention was paid to deforestation's environmental impacts.[460][461]

In the early 1980s, forestry collapsed because most accessible forests had been depleted – of 12 million hectares of forestland, about 7 million had been harvested.[460][461] The rate of forest destruction was about 300,000 hectares (740,000 acres) per year during the 1960s and 1970s, such that by 1981, the Food and Agriculture Organization classified 2 million hectares of Philippine forests "severely degraded and incapable of regeneration".[462]

### Heavy industrialization

[edit]

In 1979, Marcos added 11 heavy industrialization projects[463] to the economic agenda. The priority projects were:[463]

* aluminum smelter
* copper smelter[464]
* integrated petrochemical complex[465]
* integrated pulp and paper plant
* integrated steel mill
* phosphatic fertilizer plant
* alcogas industry
* cement industry expansion
* coconut industry integration
* diesel engine manufacturing
* nuclear power plant

Other industrialization projects during the Marcos administration included 17 hydroelectric[466][467] and geothermal power plants.[468][469][470] The commissioning of the Tongonan 1 and Palinpinon 1 geothermal plants in 1983 made the Philippines the world's second largest geothermal producers.[468][471]

#### Nuclear Power

[edit]

The Bataan Nuclear Power Plant (BNPP) is one of Marcos' six planned nuclear power plants.[472] It stands in Morong, Bataan, atop Napot Point that overlooks the South China Sea. Construction completed in 1985.[473]

In 1974, National Power was negotiating with General Electric. However, Westinghouse energy company, hired Herminio Disini, a friend of Ferdinand Marcos to lobby for them. Westinghouse made a direct offer to supply a plant with two 620 MW reactors at a price of $500 million. The price estimate was raised to around $650 million because of such as fuel and transmission lines.[472] Westinghouse won the deal. By March 1975, the price had increased to $1.1 billion.[472]

Numerous issues regarding safety and usability have emerged. After the Three Mile Island incident, construction stopped. A safety inquiry revealed over 4,000 defects.[472] The site was near the open sea and the then-dormant Mount Pinatubo, and was within 25 miles of three geological faults.[472] The project was discontinued in 1986 following the Chernobyl disaster.[439]

Costs passed $2.3 million; loans were paid off only in April 2017, although maintaining the plant costs P40 million a year.[439]

### Educational system

[edit]

Marcos emphasized educational infrastructure during his first presidential term. He was more willing than previous presidents to use foreign loans to fund construction projects allowing him to construct more roads and school buildings than any previous administration.[98]: 128

47 colleges and universities were established during Marcos's 21-year administration.[474]

The Philippine education system underwent two major periods of restructuring under Marcos: first in 1972 with Bagong Lipunan (New Society) and again in 1981 when the Fourth Philippine Republic was established.[475]

Bagong Lipunan marked the first major restructuring of Philippine education since Americans arrived around 1900.[475] It reoriented the teaching of civics and history[475][476] so that it would reflect Bagong Lipunan's ideology of constitutional authoritarianism.[203][477]: 414 In addition, it attempted to synchronize the curriculum with the administration's economic strategy of labor export.[475]

The second restructuring in 1981 failed as the administration was distracted by economic crises.[475]

### Metro Manila

[edit]

In 1975, Marcos issued Presidential Decree No. 824, placing the four cities and thirteen municipalities near the Province of Manila under the administration of the Metro Manila Commission (MMC).[478]

The appointed head of the MMC was called a "governor".[479] Marcos appointed Imelda as governor in 1976.[480]

The governorship was the republic's second most powerful office. Metro Manila then accounted for around 20% of the country's population and at least 70% of GDP. Its budget is second to the national government.[148][better source needed] This increase in Imelda's political power led Carlos P. Romulo to describe her as the Philippines' "de facto vice president".[480]

### The US–Marcos relationship

[edit]

Ferdinand and Imelda Marcos with the Johnsons in 1966 Ferdinand and Imelda Marcos with the Nixons in 1969

All five American presidents from 1965 to 1985 maintained the US–Marcos relationship, mainly to protect and retain access to US military bases. However, the Philippines was just one of many US allies, while the US was the Philippines' only patron. Marcos worked to maintain close relations with the US. He relied on this connection to sustain his regime.[481]

Marcos strengthened his ties to the US government by actions such as sending two engineer battalions to the US in the Vietnam War. After South Vietnam fell, President Ford sought better security assistance from allies, such as the Philippines, while President Carter wanted to retain US military bases in the Philippines to guard the West's oil supply line from the Middle East.[481]

To obtain additional aid, Marcos often leveraged threats that caught US attention. To secure aid for his campaign, Marcos threatened to search every visiting American naval vessel. The US responded by assisting his campaign indirectly, injecting millions into the government's banking system.[482]

In another instance, when US military bases became an issue in the Philippines in1969, Marcos secretly assured the US he had no desire for an American withdrawal. He had received warnings from the Philippine embassy that US aid was at risk in Congress. Marcos returned to the implied threats. In one speech, he stated that the bases were a threat to regional peace and security, while reminding the US of its "solemn obligation" to continue aid.[483] In the last weeks of the Ford administration, Marcos rejected the US offer of $1 billion in mixed grants and loans as too small.[citation needed]

## Books

[edit]

Marcos published various books during his term from 1970 to 1983, and a final offering was published posthumously, in 1990.[484] Apparently these books were written by ghostwriters,[485] notably Adrian Cristobal.[486][487]

* National Discipline: the Key to Our Future (1970)
* Today's Revolution: Democracy (1971)
* Notes on the New Society of the Philippines (1973)
* Tadhana: the history of the Filipino People (1977, 1982)
* The democratic revolution in the Philippines (1977)
* Five years of the new society (1978)
* President Ferdinand E. Marcos on law, development and human rights (1978)
* President Ferdinand E. Marcos on agrarian reform (1979)
* An Ideology for Filipinos (1980)
* An introduction to the politics of transition (1980)
* Marcos's Notes for the Cancun Summit, 1981 (1981)
* Progress and Martial Law (1981)
* The New Philippine Republic: A Third World Approach to Democracy (1982)
* Toward a New Partnership: The Filipino Ideology (1983)
* A Trilogy on the Transformation of Philippine Society (1990)

## Recognition

[edit]

* Chief Commander of the Philippine Legion of Honor (September 11, 1972)[488]
* Man of the Year 1965, Philippine Free Press (January 1, 1966)[489]
* Knight Grand Cross of Rizal of the Order of the Knights of Rizal.[490]
* Gabon: Grand Cross of the Order of the Equatorial Star
* Japan: Grand Cordon of the Supreme Order of the Chrysanthemum (September 20, 1966)[491]
* Romania: Order of the Star of the Romanian Socialist Republic (April 9, 1975)[492]
* Singapore: First Class (Honorary) of the Order of Temasek (January 15, 1974)[493]
* Spain:
* Knight of the Collar of the Order of Isabella the Catholic (December 22, 1969)[494]
* Grand Cross of the Order of Military Merit
* Thailand: Knight of the Most Auspicious Order of the Rajamitrabhorn (January 15, 1968)[495]
* Indonesia: First Class (Adipurna) of the Star of the Republic of Indonesia (January 12, 1968)[496]
* Marcos and Imelda, were jointly credited in 1989 by Guinness World Records with the largest-ever theft from a government (an estimated 5 billion to 10 billion US dollars),[497] a record that remained unbroken as of 2022.[63]

## See also

[edit]

* Hawaii portal
* Politics portal
* Law portal
* Philippines portal
* Switzerland portal
* United States portal

* Bantayog ng mga Bayani
* Conjugal dictatorship
* Corruption in the Philippines
* Economic history of the Philippines (1965–1986)
* Ferdinand Marcos's cult of personality
* Kleptocracy
* Rolex 12
* List of films about martial law under Ferdinand Marcos
* List of South East Asian people by net worth

## Notes

[edit]

1. ^ The Philippines was an unincorporated territory of the United States known as the Philippine Islands at the time of Marcos's birth.
2. ^ During the Commonwealth era, the US controlled the Philippines as a protectorate.
3. ^ UK: /ˈmɑːrkɒs/ MAR-koss
US: /-koʊs, -kɔːs/ -⁠kohss, -⁠kawss,[5][6]
Tagalog: [ˈmaɾkɔs]
4. ^ There is some disagreement between sources about whether President Bush said principle[212][213] or principles[214][215]

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[edit]

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## Further reading

[edit]

* Aquino, Belinda, ed. (1982). Cronies and Enemies: The Current Philippine Scene. Philippine Studies Program, Center for Asian and Pacific Studies, University of Hawaii.
* Bonner, Raymond (1987). Waltzing with a Dictator: The Marcoses and the Making of American Policy. Times Books, New York ISBN 978-0-8129-1326-2
* Salonga, Jovito (2001). Presidential Plunder: The Quest for Marcos Ill-gotten Wealth. Regina Pub. Co., Manila
* Seagrave, Sterling (1988): The Marcos Dynasty, HarperCollins
* Library of Congress Country Studies: Philippines. The Inheritance from Marcos

## External links

[edit]

Ferdinand Marcos at Wikipedia's sister projects

* Definitions from Wiktionary
* Media from Commons
* Quotations from Wikiquote
* Texts from Wikisource

* The Martial Law Memorial Museum
* Digital Museum of Martial Law in the Philippines
* The Marcos Regime Research (MRR) program by the University of the Philippines Third World Studies Center
* The Martial Law Chronicles Project
* The Philippine Martial Law Human Rights Violations Victims' Memorial Commission Freedom Memorial website
* Ferdinand E. Marcos – Department of National Defense at the Wayback Machine (archived June 3, 2020)
* Philippine government website on the country's presidents at the Wayback Machine (archived August 4, 2008)
* Marcos Presidential Center at the Wayback Machine (archived September 23, 2004)
* Ferdinand Marcos at IMDb

Offices and distinctions

| House of Representatives of the Philippines

Preceded by

Pedro Albano

|  Member of the House of Representatives from Ilocos Norte's 2nd district
1949–1959  | Succeeded by

Simeon M. Valdez

Senate of the Philippines
Preceded by

Eulogio Rodriguez

|  President of the Senate of the Philippines
1963–1965  | Succeeded by

Arturo Tolentino

Political offices
Preceded by

Diosdado Macapagal

|  President of the Philippines
1965–1986  | Succeeded by

Corazon Aquino

New title |  Presiding Officer of the Legislative Advisory Council
1976–1978  | Position abolished
Preceded by

Jorge B. Vargas
(Ministries involved)

|  Prime Minister of the Philippines
1978–1981  | Succeeded by

Cesar Virata

Party political offices
Preceded by

Diosdado Macapagal

|  President of the Liberal Party
1961–1964  | Succeeded by

Cornelio Villareal

Preceded by

Carlos P. Garcia

|  Nacionalista Party nominee for President of the Philippines
1965, 1969 | Succeeded by

Alejo Santos

First |  Kilusang Bagong Lipunan nominee for President of the Philippines
1981, 1986 | Succeeded by

Imelda Marcos

* v
* t
* e

Ferdinand and Imelda Marcos

10th President of the Philippines and 10th First Lady of the Philippines

Family|

* Josefa Edralin & Mariano Marcos and Remedios Trinidad & Vicente Lopez-Romualdez (parents)
* Imee, Bongbong, Irene & Aimee (children)
* Pacifico Marcos, Pio Marcos and Quirino Lizardo (relatives)

Education|

* University of the Philippines and U.P. College of Law (Ferdinand)
St. Paul's College of Tacloban and Philippine Women's University (Imelda)

Political career|

* Pi Gamma Mu
* Military career
* Nacionalista Party
* 2nd district of Ilocos Norte (1949–1959)
* President of the Senate of the Philippines
* Kilusang Bagong Lipunan
* Marcos propaganda

Presidency
(1965–1986)|

* Executive orders
* Vietnam War
* Moro conflict
* Sabah claim
* Operation Merdeka and Jabidah massacre
* Establishment of the MNLF
* Manili massacre
* 1976 Tripoli Agreement
* Pata Island massacre
* ASEAN Declaration
* Communist Party of the Philippines
* New People's Army
* Communist armed conflicts
* 1969 Philippine balance of payments crisis
* First Quarter Storm
* 1971 constitutional convention
* Plaza Miranda bombing
* Proclamation No. 1081
* New Society
* Rolex 12
* Integrated Reorganization Plan
* 1973 constitution
* Palimbang massacre
* Green Revolution
* Thrilla in Manila
* Metro Manila
* Tictapul massacre
* Creation of the Municipality of Kalayaan
* Isang Bansa, Isang Diwa
* Assassination of Ninoy Aquino
* 1980s debt crisis
* Binondo Central Bank
* Negros famine
* Escalante massacre
* Philippine economic history during the Marcos dictatorship
* Philippine military history during the Marcos dictatorship
* NAMFREL
* People Power Revolution

Post-presidency|

* 1st district of Leyte (1995–1998)
* Operation Big Bird
* Burial
* Historical distortion
* Solid North

Kleptocracy|

* Unexplained wealth of the Marcos family
* Marcos mansions
* Marcos jewels
* Overseas landholdings of the Marcos family
* Japanese Official Development Assistance scandal
* Coco Levy Fund scam
* Golden Buddha theft
* BNPP kickbacks

Controversies|

* Human rights abuses
* Fake war claims and fake medals
* Cronies
* Edifice complex
* Cult of personality
* Death of Alfie Anido
* Affair with Dovie Beams
* Murder of Archimedes Trajano
* Manila Film Center disaster

Elections|

* 1949
* 1963
* 1965
* 1967
* 1969
* 1970
* 1971
* 1973 (Jan)
* 1973 (Jul)
* 1975 (KB)
* 1975 (SB)
* 1975
* 1976
* 1977
* 1978
* 1979 (SP)
* 1980 (KB)
* 1981 (Apr)
* 1981 (Jun)
* 1982 (B)
* 1984 parliamentary
* 1984 plebiscite
* 1986
* 1992
* 1995
* 1998
* 2010
* 2013
* 2016
* Bongbong Marcos vice presidential campaign
* 2019
* 2022
* Bongbong Marcos presidential campaign

Cultural depictions|

* Iginuhit ng Tadhana (The Ferdinand E. Marcos Story)
* Kumander Dante
* A Dangerous Life
* Batas Militar
* Chavit
* Here Lies Love
* The Kingmaker
* Maid in Malacañang
* Martyr or Murderer

* ← Diosdado Macapagal
* Corazon Aquino →

* Category

Articles related to Ferdinand Marcos

* v
* t
* e

Presidents of the Philippines

First Republic (1899–1901)|

* Emilio Aguinaldo

Commonwealth (1935–1946)|

* Manuel L. Quezon (1935–1944)
* Sergio Osmeña (1944–1946)
* Manuel Roxas (1946)

Second Republic (1943–1945)|

* Jose P. Laurel

Third Republic (1946–1973)|

* Manuel Roxas (1946–1948)
* Elpidio Quirino (1948–1953)
* Ramon Magsaysay (1953–1957)
* Carlos P. Garcia (1957–1961)
* Diosdado Macapagal (1961–1965)
* Ferdinand Marcos (1965–1973)

Martial law era (1973–1981)|

* Ferdinand Marcos

Fourth Republic (1981–1986)|

* Ferdinand Marcos (1981–1986)
* Corazon Aquino (1986)

Fifth Republic (1986–present)|

* Corazon Aquino (1986–1992)
* Fidel V. Ramos (1992–1998)
* Joseph Estrada (1998–2001)
* Gloria Macapagal Arroyo (2001–2010)
* Benigno Aquino III (2010–2016)
* Rodrigo Duterte (2016–2022)
* Bongbong Marcos (2022–present)

* Category
* List

* v
* t
* e

Prime ministers of the Philippines

* Apolinario Mabini
* Pedro Paterno
* Jorge B. Vargas
* Ferdinand Marcos
* Cesar Virata
* Salvador Laurel

* v
* t
* e

Presidents of the Senate of the Philippines

* Quezon
* Roxas
* Avelino
* Cuenco
* Paredes
* Osías
* Rodriguez
* Osías
* Zulueta
* Rodriguez
* Marcos
* Tolentino
* Puyat
* Salonga
* Gonzales
* Angara
* Gonzales
* Maceda
* Gonzales
* Fernan
* Ople
* Drilon
* Pimentel Jr.
* Drilon
* Villar
* Ponce Enrile
* Drilon
* Pimentel III
* Sotto III
* Zubiri
* Escudero

* v
* t
* e

Martial law under Ferdinand Marcos and People Power Revolution

Batas Militar sa Pilipinas

Background|

* Martial law in the Philippines
* 1965 elections
* Conjugal dictatorship
* Philippines–United States relations
* American imperialism
* Cold War
* Vietnam War
* Communist insurgency
* Moro conflict
* Sabah claim
* Jabidah massacre
* Manili massacre
* 1969 elections
* 1969 balance of payments crisis
* First Quarter Storm
* Agrarian reform
* Diliman Commune
* Plaza Miranda bombing
* Filipino nationalism
* Human rights in the Philippines

Events|

* 1972 Enrile ambush
* Proclamation No. 1081
* 1973 Constitution
* 1974 Sacred Heart Novitiate raid
* Construction of "edifice complex" projects
* 1978 elections
* Interim Batasang Pambansa
* Beatification of Lorenzo Ruiz
* 1981 elections
* Assassination of Ninoy Aquino
* Negros famine
* Philippine economic history during the Marcos dictatorship
* Philippine military history during the Marcos dictatorship
* Snap elections
* Timeline of the People Power Revolution

Human rights
abuses|

* Human rights abuses
* Torture methods
* Political detainees
* Palimbang massacre
* Tictapul massacre
* Murder of Archimedes Trajano
* Murder of Macli-ing Dulag
* Daet massacre
* Bacong Bridge massacre
* Murder of Juan "Johnny" Escandor
* Murder of Alex Orcullo
* Escalante massacre
* Beew massacre

Kleptocracy|

* Unexplained wealth of the Marcos family
* Marcos mansions
* Marcos jewels
* Overseas landholdings of the Marcos family
* Japanese Official Development Assistance scandal
* Coco Levy Fund scam
* Golden Buddha theft
* Bataan Nuclear Power Plant

People|

| Regime|

* Ferdinand Marcos
* Imelda Marcos

|

Cronies and Relatives|

* Rolex 12 (Eduardo "Danding" Cojuangco Jr.
* Juan Ponce Enrile
* Romeo Espino
* Fidel Ramos
* Fabian Ver)
* Macario Asistio Jr.
* Roberto Benedicto
* José Yao Campos
* Manuel Elizalde Jr.
* Antonio Floirendo Sr.
* Ferdinand "Bongbong" Marcos Jr.
* María Imelda "Imee" Marcos
* Roberto Ongpin
* Benjamin "Kokoy" Romualdez
* Ignacio Santiago Sr.
* Ricardo Silverio
* Florentino Sanico Solon
* Lucio Tan
* Arturo Tolentino
* Nicanor Yñiguez

Cabinet Technocrats|

* Cesar Virata
* Onofre Corpuz
* Armand Fabella
* Jaime C. Laya
* Placido Mapa Jr.
* Carlos P. Romulo

Mainstream opposition|

Leaders

* Agapito "Butz" Aquino
* Benigno "Ninoy" Aquino Jr.
* Corazon C. "Cory" Aquino
* José W. "Ka Pepe" Diokno
* Salvador H. "Doy" Laurel
* Gerardo M. "Gerry" Roxas
* Jovito R. "Ka Jovy" Salonga
* Cardinal Jaime Sin
* Lorenzo M. "Ka Tanny" Tañada Sr.

Business sector opposition

* Jose S. Concepcion Jr.
* Domingo M. Guevara, Sr.
* Alejandro A. "Ka Ding" Lichauco
* Eugenio "Geny" Lopez Jr.
* Jaime Ongpin
* Alfonso Yuchengco
* Quintin Yuyitung
* Rizal Yuyitung

Political sector opposition

* Jacobo Amatong
* Ceferino "Joker" Arroyo
* Jejomar Binay
* Cesar Climaco
* Jose "Peping" Cojuangco Jr.
* Margarita "Tingting" Cojuangco
* Roberto Concepcion
* Hilario Davide Jr.
* Marcelo Fernan
* Neptali Gonzales
* Raul M. Gonzalez
* Teofisto Guingona Jr.
* Ribomapil "Dodong" Holganza Sr.
* Evelio Javier
* Vicente Jayme
* Eva Estrada Kalaw
* José B. Lingad
* Diosdado Macapagal
* Ernesto Maceda
* Raul Manglapus
* Primitivo Mijares
* Ramon Mitra Jr.
* Sergio "Serge" Osmeña III
* Ambrosio Padilla
* Cecilia Muñoz-Palma
* Vicente Paterno
* Aquilino "Nene" Pimentel Jr.
* Eduardo Quintero
* Soledad Roa Duterte
* Francisco "Soc" Rodrigo
* Jose Benedicto Luis "J.B.L." Reyes
* Rene Saguisag
* Abraham Sarmiento Sr.
* Wigberto Tañada
* Claudio Teehankee
* Luis Villafuerte
* Haydee Yorac
* Calixto Zaldivar

Religious sector opposition

* Zacarias Agatep
* Teodoro Bacani Jr.
* Mariani Dimaranan
* Joe Dizon
* Tullio Favali
* Inocencio Ipong
* Isabelo Magalit
* Mary John Mananzan
* Violeta Marcos
* Pacifico Ortiz
* Magnifico Osorio
* Miguel Purugganan
* James Reuter
* Rudy Romano
* Mary Christine Tan
* Carlos Tayag
* Ricardo Vidal
* The Magnificent Seven (Francisco Claver
* Federico Escaler
* Antonio Fortich
* Julio Xavier Labayen
* Orlando Quevedo
* Felix Perez
* Jesus Varela)

Academic and cultural
sector opposition|

Academics and cultural workers

* Freddie Aguilar
* APO Hiking Society (Danny Javier
* Boboy Garrovillo
* Jim Paredes)
* Lualhati Bautista
* Lino Brocka
* Ishmael Bernal
* Noel Cabangon
* Benedicto Cabrera
* Behn Cervantes
* Renato Constantino
* Carmen I. "Ka Nena" Diokno
* Gilda Cordero Fernando
* Butch Dalisay
* The Jerks
* Nick Joaquin
* Emmanuel "Eman" Lacaba
* Inang Laya
* Ricky Lee
* Celeste Legaspi
* Salvador P. Lopez
* Bienvenido Lumbera
* Leah Navarro
* Francisco Nemenzo Jr.
* Willie Nepomuceno
* Bibeth Orteza
* Gaston Z. "Gasty" Ortigas
* Nemesio Prudente
* Kidlat Tahimik
Student activists
Lean Alejandro
* Edgar Ang Sinco
* Manuel Bautista
* Neri Colmenares
* Liliosa Hilao
* Antonio Hilario
* Bonifacio Ilagan
* Edgar Jopson
* Joel Lamangan
* Carol Pagaduan
* Armando Palabay
* Tish Pascual-Ladlad
* Nestor Principe
* Susan Quimpo
* Abraham Sarmiento Jr.
* Antonio Tagamolila
* Archimedes Trajano
* Southern Tagalog 10 (Cristina Catalla
* Gerardo Faustino
* Rizalina Ilagan
* Jessica Sales)

Left-wing opposition|

* Fidel Agcaoili
* Lean Alejandro
* Conrado Balweg
* Lorena Barros
* Walden Bello
* Crispin Beltran
* Bernabe Buscayno
* Victor Corpus
* Maita Gomez
* Luis Jalandoni
* Emmanuel "Eman" Lacaba
* Filemon Lagman
* Satur Ocampo
* Felixberto Olalia Sr.
* Rolando Olalia
* Jose Maria Sison
* Nilo Tayag
* Crispin Tagamolila
* Benito Tiamzon
* Wilma Tiamzon
* Antonio Zumel

Opposition in the
Armed Forces|

Resistance during the Marcos administration years

* Commodore Ramon A. Alcaraz
* Col. Bonifacio Gillego
* Capt. Rogelio Morales, PN
* Capt. Danilo Vizmanos, PN
* Brig. Gen. Marcos G. Soliman

Reform the Armed Forces Movement

* Juan Ponce Enrile
* Col. Gregorio "Gringo" Honasan
* Col. Eduardo "Red" Kapunan Jr.
* BGen. Jose T. Almonte
* Col. Victor Batac
* Col. Hector Tarrazona
* Col. Billy Bibit

Others who withdrew support during the People Power revolution

* Lt. Gen. Fidel V. Ramos
* Commodore Tagumpay Jardiniano
* Col. Charles Hotchkiss
* Col. Antonio Sotelo
* Col. Rodolfo Biazon
* Lt. Benjamin Magalong

Journalists|

Pro-Marcos

* Jose "Joe" Guevarra
Opposition writers
Eugenia Apostol
* David Bueno
* Joe Burgos
* Amando Doronila
* Ma Ceres Doyo
* Inday Espina-Varona
* Chit Estella
* Betty Go-Belmonte
* Letty Jimenez Magsanoc
* Jose "Pete" Lacaba
* Teodoro Locsin Sr.
* Armando Malay
* Antonio "Tony" Nieva
* Alex Orcullo
* Napoleon G. Rama
* Joaquin "Chino" Roces
* Maximo Soliven
* Jose Mari Velez

American
interested parties|

* Stephen W. Bosworth
* Henry A. Byroade
* Philip Habib
* George Hamilton
* Paul Laxalt
* Richard Lugar
* Paul Manafort
* Ronald Reagan

Political
pressure groups|

Political coalitions

* Alliance of Makati Associations
* Anti-Bases Coalition
* August Twenty One Movement
* Bagong Alyansang Makabayan
* Concerned Women of the Philippines
* Free Legal Assistance Group
* Gabriela Women's Party
* Justice for Aquino, Justice for All
* Kilusan sa Kapangyarihan at Karapatan ng Bayan
* Movement of Attorneys for Brotherhood, Integrity and Nationalism, Inc.
* Movement for a Free Philippines
* Movement of Concerned Citizens for Civil Liberties
* National Movement for Free Elections
* Task Force Detainees of the Philippines

Political parties

* Liberal Party
* Partido Demokratiko Pilipino–Lakas ng Bayan
* United Nationalist Democratic Organization

Locations|

* Camp Aguinaldo
* Camp Crame
* Clark Air Base
* Club Filipino
* Epifanio de los Santos Avenue (EDSA)
* Fort Bonifacio
* Fort Magsaysay
* Hawaii
* Malacañang Palace
* Ortigas Center
* Villamor Air Base

Aftermath|

| Events|

* Nepotism
* Operation Big Bird
* Mendiola massacre
* 1987 elections
* Anti-Aquino coup attempts
* UP-DND accord
* Second Great Rectification Movement
* Burial of Ferdinand Marcos

|

Institutions|

* Aquino Presidency
* Constitution of the Philippines
* Commission on Human Rights
* Comprehensive Agrarian Reform Program
* Human Rights Violations Victims' Memorial Commission
* Philippine Constitutional Commission of 1986
* Philippine National Police
* Presidential Commission on Good Government

Media|

| Songs|

* "Bagong Pagsilang"
* "Bayan Ko"
* "Handog ng Pilipino sa Mundo"
* "Magkaisa"
* "Saranggola ni Pepe"
* "Tatsulok"
* "Tie a Yellow Ribbon Round the Ole Oak Tree"

|

Political Films
during the dictatorship|

* Iginuhit ng Tadhana
* Sakada

Literature|

* The Conjugal Dictatorship of Ferdinand and Imelda Marcos
* Dekada '70
* Some Are Smarter Than Others
* Subversive Lives: A Family Memoir of the Marcos Years
* Waltzing with a Dictator

Slogans|

* Isang Bansa, Isang Diwa
* Sa ikauunlad ng bayan, disiplina ang kailangan
* Tama na! Sobra na! Palitan na!
* Never again

Gestures|

* V sign
* Laban sign
* Raised fist

Legacy and
historiography|

| Monuments and memorials|

* Bantayog ng mga Bayani
* EDSA Shrine
* People Power Monument
* individuals

|

Films|

* Ako si Ninoy
* Barber's Tales
* Batas Militar
* Citizen Jake
* A Dangerous Life
* Dekada '70
* Eskapo
* Evolution of a Filipino Family
* Forbidden Memory
* From What Is Before
* Imelda
* Katips
* The Kingmaker
* The Last Journey of Ninoy
* Liway
* Loyalista: The Untold Story of Imelda Papin
* Maid in Malacañang
* Martyr or Murderer
* ML
* Oras de Peligro
* Pisay
* A Rustling of Leaves: Inside the Philippine Revolution
* Sa Dulo ng Baril
* Season of the Devil
* Why Is Yellow the Middle of the Rainbow?

Other media|

* Here Lies Love
* musical
* Maalaala Mo Kaya: The Ninoy and Cory Aquino Story ("Kalapati"
* "Makinilya")
* Voltes V

Disinformation and
distortionism|

* Ferdinand Marcos's cult of personality
* Historical distortion regarding Ferdinand Marcos

* v
* t
* e

Candidates in the 1965 Philippine presidential election

Liberal Party|

| President:|

* Diosdado Macapagal

|

Vice President:|

* Gerardo Roxas

Nacionalista Party|

| President:|

* Ferdinand Marcos (won)

|

Vice President:|

* Fernando Lopez (won)

Other third party candidates|

| President:|

* Raul Manglapus
* Gaudencio Bueno
* Aniceto A. Hidalgo
* Segundo B. Baldovi
* Nic V. Garces
* German F. Villanueva
* Guillermo M. Mercado
* Antonio Nicolas Jr.
* Blandino P. Ruan
* Praxedes Floro

|

Vice President:|

* Manuel Manahan
* Gonzalo D. Vasquez
* Severo Capales
* Eleodoro Salvador

* v
* t
* e

Candidates in the 1969 Philippine presidential election

Liberal Party|

| President:|

* Sergio Osmeña Jr.

|

Vice President:|

* Genaro Magsaysay

Nacionalista Party|

| President:|

* Ferdinand Marcos (won)

|

Vice President:|

* Fernando Lopez (won)

Other third party candidates|

| President:|

* Pascual Racuyal
* Segundo Baldovi
* Pantaleon Panelo
* German Villanueva
* Gaudencio Bueno
* Angel Comagon
* Cesar Bulacan
* Espiridion Buencamino
* Nic Garces
* Benilo Jose

|

Vice President:|

* Victoriano Mallari
* Gonzalo D. Vasquez
* Modesto T. Jalandoni

* v
* t
* e

Candidates in the 1981 Philippine presidential election

Kilusang Bagong Lipunan|

* Ferdinand Marcos

Nacionalista Party|

* Alejo Santos

Other third party candidates|

* Bartolome Cabangbang
* Delfin Manapaz
* Ursula Dajao
* Benito Valdez
* Lope Rimando
* Lucio Hinigpit
* Pacifico Morelos
* Jose Igtobay
* Simeon del Rosario
* Salvador Enage
* Florencio Tipano

* v
* t
* e

Candidates in the 1986 Philippine presidential election

Kilusang Bagong Lipunan|

| President:|

* Ferdinand Marcos

|

Vice President:|

* Arturo Tolentino

UNIDO-PDP-LABAN|

| President:|

* Corazon Aquino

|

Vice President:|

* Salvador Laurel

Other third party candidates|

| President:|

* Reuben Canoy
* Narciso Padilla

|

Vice President:|

* Eva Estrada Kalaw
* Roger Arienda

* v
* t
* e

Philippine Legion of Honor recipients

Chief Commander
(Punong Komandante)|

* Emilio Aguinaldo
* Hassanal Bolkiah
* Chiang Kai-shek
* Dwight D. Eisenhower
* Leonardo Espina
* Francisco Franco
* José P. Laurel
* Douglas MacArthur
* Ferdinand Marcos
* Imelda Marcos
* Sergio Osmeña
* Jesse Robredo
* Chino Roces
* Franklin D. Roosevelt
* Jaime Sin
* Achmad Sukarno
* Lorenzo Tañada
* Maxwell D. Taylor
* Claudio Teehankee

Grand Commander
(Marangal na Komandante)|

* Gilbert Teodoro
* Emilio Yap
* Fernando Zobel de Ayala
* Jaime Zobel de Ayala
* Jaime Augusto Zobel de Ayala
* Napoleon G. Rama

Grand Officer
(Marangal na Pinuno)|

* Teodoro Locsin Jr.

Commander
(Komandante)|

* Benigno Aquino Jr.
* Eulogio Balao
* Sotero Cabahug
* Alfredo Montelibano Sr.

Officer (Pinuno)|

* Benigno Aquino Jr.
* Manny Pacquiao

Legionnaire
(Lehiyonaryo)|

* Escuadrón 201
* Teodoro Locsin Sr.
* Geronima Pecson
* Edith Nourse Rogers
* Richard Sakakida

* v
* t
* e

Cabinet of President Ferdinand Marcos (1965–78)

Vice-President|

* Fernando Lopez (1965–72)

Secretary of Agriculture
and Natural Resources|

* Fernando Lopez (1965–71)
* Arturo Tanco, Jr. (1971–78)

Secretary of Education,
Culture and Sports|

* Carlos P. Romulo (1965–67)
* Onofre Corpuz (1967–71)
* Juan Manuel (1971–78

Secretary of Finance|

* Juan Ponce Enrile (1966–68)
* Eduardo Romualdez (1968–70)
* Cesar Virata (1970–78)

Secretary of Foreign Affairs|

* Narciso Ramos (1965–68)
* Carlos P. Romulo (1968–78)

Secretary for General Services|

* Vicente Duterte (1965–68)

Secretary of Justice|

* José Yulo (1965–67)
* Claudio Teehankee (1967–68)
* Juan Ponce Enrile (1968–70)
* Felix Makasiar (1970)
* Vicente Abad Santos (1970–78)

Secretary of National Defense|

* Ferdinand Marcos (acting capacity; 1965–67)
* Ernesto Mata (1967–70)
* Juan Ponce Enrile (1970–71)
* Ferdinand Marcos (acting capacity; 1971–72)
* Juan Ponce Enrile (1972–78)

Secretary of Commerce
and Industry|

* Marcelo Balatbat (1966–68)
* Leonidas Virata (1969–70)
* Ernesto Maceda (1970–71)
* Troadio Quiazon (1971–74)
* Vicente Paterno (1974–78)

Secretary of Public Works,
Transportation
and Communications|

* Antonio Raquiza (1966–68)
* Rene Espina (1968–69)
* Antonio Syquio (1969–70)
* David Consunji (1970–74)
* Alfredo Juinio (1974–75)
* Baltazar Aquino (1975–78)

Executive Secretary|

* Rafael Salas (1966–69)
* Alejandro Melchor (1969–78)

Director-General of the
National Economic and
Development Authority|

* Gerardo Sicat (1973–78)

* v
* t
* e

Cabinet Ministry of President Ferdinand Marcos (1978–1986)

Prime Minister|

* Ferdinand Marcos (as himself; 1978–1981)
* Cesar Virata (1981-1986)

Vice-President|

* Arturo Tolentino (1986)

Minister of Agriculture|

* Arturo Tanco Jr. (1978–1984)
* Salvador Escudero III (1984–1986)

Minister of Foreign Affairs|

* Carlos P. Romulo (1978–1984)
* Manuel Collantes (1984)
* Arturo Tolentino (1984–1985)
* Pacifico Castro (1985–1986)

Minister of Finance|

* Cesar Virata (1978–1986)

Secretary of Justice|

* Vicente Abad Santos (1978–1979)
* Catalino Macaraig Jr. (1979)
* Ricardo Puno (1979–1984)
* Estelito Mendoza (1984–1986)

Minister of National Defense|

* Juan Ponce Enrile (1978–1986)

Minister of Industry|

* Vicente Paterno (1978–1979)
* Roberto Ongpin (1979–1981)

Minister of Trade|

* Luis Villafuerte (1981)

Minister of Trade and Industry|

* Roberto Ongpin (1981–1986)

Minister of Public Works, Transportation and Communications|

* Alfredo Juinio (1978–1981)

Secretary of Public Highways|

* Baltazar Aquino (1978–1979)
* Vicente Paterno (1979–1980)
* Jesus Hipolito (1980–1981)

Secretary of Public Works and Highways|

* Jesus Hipolito (1981–1986)

Minister of Economic Planning|

* Gerardo Sicat (1978–1981)
* Cesar Virata (1981–1986)

Minister of Energy|

* Geronimo Velasco (1978–1986)

Minister of Labor and Employment|

* Blas Ople (1978–1986)

Minister of Human Settlements|

* Imelda Marcos (1978–1986)

Authority control databases

International|

* ISNI
* VIAF
* FAST
* WorldCat

National|

* Germany
* United States
* France
* BnF data
* Japan
* Australia
* Czech Republic
* Spain
* Portugal
* Netherlands
* Norway
* Chile
* Greece
* Poland
* Israel
* Catalonia
* Belgium

Academics|

* CiNii

People|

* Trove
* Deutsche Biographie
* DDB

Other|

* IdRef
* NARA
* SNAC

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