Firewood in Nigeria

Deforestation and use of fuel wood in Nigeria

Firewood/fuelwood

In Nigeria, firewood is a traditional source of energy for domestic and commercial use.[1][2][3] Fuel wood is derived from cutting and burning wood materials such as logs and twigs.[4][5][6][7] It has long been prevalent among rural and sometimes urban dwellers.[8]

In Nigeria, as in numerous other developing nations, a significant portion of the population lacks access to modern energy alternatives.[9][10][11] Consequently, they heavily depend on traditional biomass fuels such as crop waste and wood to fulfill their basic energy requirements, particularly for home and commercial cooking purposes.[12][13][14][15][16]

This reliance on fuel wood has implications for deforestation, as the unsustainable harvesting of wood for fuel contributes to the degradation of forests and the loss of biodiversity. The excessive demand for fuel wood places immense pressure on forest resources, leading to the depletion of woodlands and the disruption of delicate ecosystems. Furthermore, deforestation exacerbates climate change by releasing carbon dioxide, a greenhouse gas, into the atmosphere.[8] This approach would not only aid in biodiversity conservation but also contribute to the expansion of national vegetation cover.

## Use of fuel wood

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Stack of firewoods/fuel wood

Fuel wood is commonly obtained and utilized in different forms. Round wood is commonly sold and used for domestic purposes, including in stores and open fires. Split logs, on the other hand, are predominantly utilized for commercial and industrial needs. In rural areas, small twigs and thin materials are typically not sold but are often used as fuel, either at a low cost for free.[17] The production of fuel wood generally requires minimal capital investment, with basic tools such as an axe or machete being the primary requirements. In cases where large trees need to be harvested, methods like ring girdling or burning at the base may be employed to kill the trees, allowing them to dry out before use. Many farmers view fuel wood as a readily available resource that does not require any financial transaction, often relying on their existing farm tools for its collection.[17]

firewood for cooking

Fuel wood in Nigeria is used for various purposes due to its availability and affordability. Here are some common uses of fuel wood in Nigeria:

1. Cooking: Fuel wood serves as a primary source of energy for cooking in many households and commercial outlets across Nigeria. It is used in traditional stoves or open fires to prepare meals and heat food.[18]
2. Heating: In colder regions or during colder seasons, fuel wood is used for heating purposes. It provides warmth in homes and can be used in fireplaces or traditional heating devices.[19]
3. Small-scale industries and artisanal activities: Fuel wood is often utilized by small-scale industries for various production processes. Examples include baking and food processing, pottery making, brick-making, and blacksmithing.[20] In rural areas, fuel wood is used for artisanal activities such as carving, woodworking, and crafting traditional items.[21]
4. Charcoal production: Fuel wood is also a key raw material for charcoal production. Charcoal, derived from the carbonization of wood, is used for cooking, heating, and industrial processes.[22][23]
5. Campfire, cultural and religious practices: Fuel wood plays a role in cultural and religious practices in Nigeria. It is used for traditional ceremonies, rituals, and religious ceremonies involving fire.[24]

* Firewood is commonly processed by axing and cutting it into smaller pieces for cooking purposes

* Fuel wood used for cooking

* Firewood for heating/warming

* Firewood for artisanal activities

* Charcoal for retail or wholesale purposes

## Environmental impacts of fuel wood utilization

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Fuel wood utilization in Nigeria has significant environmental impacts, which include deforestation and loss of forest ecosystems, air pollution, loss of biodiversity, soil erosion and land degradation, water resource depletion, disruption of local ecosystems and associated health concerns, as well as contributing to climate change through carbon emissions.[25][26][27]

### Deforestation and loss of forest ecosystems

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Deforestation of rainforest African women carrying firewood

The widespread use of fuel wood in Nigeria has led to deforestation and the loss of valuable forest ecosystems.[28] As communities rely heavily on fuel wood for cooking, heating, and other energy needs, large areas of forests are cleared to meet the growing demand. This deforestation not only disrupts the natural habitat of numerous plant and animal species but also reduces the overall biodiversity of the region. The loss of forests also contributes to soil erosion, reduced water quality, and increased vulnerability to natural disasters such as flooding.[29]

### Air pollution

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The burning of fuel wood for energy releases various pollutants into the atmosphere, leading to air pollution and associated health concerns.[29] Traditional cooking methods, such as open fires and inefficient stoves, produce high levels of smoke and particulate matter, which can have detrimental effects on respiratory health. Prolonged exposure to indoor air pollution from fuel wood combustion has been linked to respiratory diseases, including chronic bronchitis, asthma, and even lung cancer. Additionally, the release of pollutants contributes to outdoor air pollution, further impacting the health and well-being of communities.[30]

### Loss of biodiversity

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Fuelwood collection often involves the removal of branches and smaller trees from forests.[31][32] This can lead to the loss of habitat for various plant and animal species that rely on these trees for shelter, nesting, and food sources. Reductions in biodiversity can disrupt ecosystems and have long-term negative consequences.[33][34]

Loss of biodiversity refers to the decline in the variety and abundance of different species of plants, animals, and microorganisms in a particular habitat or across the entire planet.[35][36] It is a significant global environmental issue with far-reaching consequences for ecosystems, human well-being, and the sustainability of the planet.[37][38][39]

Biodiversity encompasses the total range of biological variation on Earth, including genetic diversity, species diversity, and ecosystem diversity.[40][41] It is a measure of the richness and complexity of life in a given area. The loss of biodiversity occurs when species become extinct or when their populations decline to a critically low level.

There are several causes of biodiversity loss, many of which are the result of human activities:

1. Habitat destruction: The conversion of natural habitats into agricultural land, urban areas, or industrial zones destroys the homes and resources that many species depend on.[42] Deforestation, wetland draining, and land clearing for infrastructure development are examples of habitat destruction.
2. Pollution: Pollution from industrial activities, agriculture, and improper waste disposal can contaminate air, water, and soil, affecting the health and survival of various species.[43] Pollutants can accumulate in the food chain, causing harmful effects on both wildlife and humans.
3. Climate change: Alterations in temperature, precipitation patterns, and extreme weather events due to climate change can disrupt ecosystems and negatively impact species' ability to survive and reproduce.[44][45] Climate change can cause shifts in species distribution, changes in migration patterns, and loss of habitats such as coral reefs and polar ice caps.
4. Overexploitation: Unsustainable harvesting of resources, such as overfishing, illegal wildlife trade, and excessive logging, can deplete populations of certain species.[46] Overexploitation disrupts ecological balance and can lead to species extinction and ecosystem degradation.
5. Invasive species: Introduction of non-native species into ecosystems can have detrimental effects on native flora and fauna. Invasive species can outcompete native species for resources, disrupt natural food chains, and alter habitats, resulting in the decline or extinction of native species.

The loss of biodiversity has significant implications for ecosystems and human well-being:

1. Ecosystem functioning: Biodiversity plays a crucial role in maintaining the functioning and stability of ecosystems. Each species contributes to important ecological processes such as nutrient cycling, pollination, seed dispersal, and pest control. Loss of biodiversity can disrupt these processes, leading to ecosystem degradation and reduced resilience to environmental changes.
2. Economic impact: Biodiversity loss can have severe economic consequences. Many industries, such as agriculture, fisheries, and pharmaceuticals, rely on biodiversity for their productivity and profitability. The loss of key species or genetic resources can disrupt these industries and lead to economic losses.

### Soil erosion and land degradation

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Removing vegetation, particularly trees, from an area can lead to increased soil erosion.[47] Trees play a crucial role in stabilizing soil, reducing the impact of rainfall on the ground, and preventing erosion. The removal of trees for fuel wood can result in degraded soil quality, decreased fertility, and increased vulnerability to erosion.[48]

Agricultural productivity, ecosystem stability, and sustainable development are all impacted by soil erosion and land degradation.[49][50] Natural forces like wind, water, or human activities can cause soil particles to be detached, transported, and deposited elsewhere.[51][52] The concept of land degradation refers to a wide range of deterioration in the quality and productivity of land.[53][54]

#### Causes of soil erosion and land degradation

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1. Water erosion: This type of erosion occurs when rainfall, surface runoff, and flowing water dislodge and carry away soil particles. It is primarily influenced by factors such as slope gradient, soil texture, vegetation cover, and rainfall intensity. Overgrazing, deforestation, and improper land management practices exacerbate water erosion.[55]
2. Wind erosion: Wind erosion involves the detachment, transport, and deposition of soil particles by the wind. It is most common in arid and semi-arid regions with sparse vegetation cover. Factors like soil texture, wind speed, and land use practices influence wind erosion. Unsustainable agricultural practices, desertification, and land disturbance contribute to wind erosion.[55]
3. Soil compaction: Excessive agricultural machinery use, improper land management, and heavy grazing can lead to soil compaction. Compacted soils have reduced pore space, resulting in reduced water infiltration, decreased root growth, and increased runoff, leading to erosion and degradation.[56]
4. Deforestation: Forests play a crucial role in preventing erosion and maintaining soil stability. Deforestation for agriculture, logging, or urbanization removes the protective vegetative cover, exposing the soil to erosion agents such as rainfall and wind.[57][58][59]
5. Unsustainable agriculture: Unsuitable agricultural practices, such as improper tillage methods, monocropping, excessive use of agrochemicals, and inadequate soil conservation measures, contribute to soil erosion and degradation.[60]

#### Impacts of soil erosion and land degradation

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1. Reduced agricultural productivity: Erosion and degradation can lead to loss of topsoil, essential nutrients, and organic matter, resulting in decreased soil fertility and agricultural productivity. It affects crop yields, food security, and farmers' livelihoods.[56]
2. Water pollution: Sediment runoff from eroded soil contaminates water bodies, impairing water quality and aquatic ecosystems. It can also lead to increased sedimentation in reservoirs, reducing storage capacity[61]
3. Desertification: Land degradation, particularly in arid and semi-arid regions, can contribute to desertification, the expansion of desert areas, and the loss of productive land. It has severe ecological, social, and economic consequences.[62][63][64]
4. Biodiversity loss: Soil erosion and degradation can result in habitat destruction and fragmentation, leading to plant and animal species loss. It is ecosystem services and reduces resilience to environmental changes.[60]

### Climate change and carbon emissions

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Fuel wood utilization contributes to climate change through the release of carbon emissions into the atmosphere. When fuel wood is burned, carbon dioxide (CO2), a greenhouse gas, is released. The combustion process is often incomplete and inefficient, leading to the emission of other greenhouse gases such as methane (CH4) and nitrous oxide (N2O)[65][66] These emissions contribute to the greenhouse effect, trapping heat in the atmosphere and causing global warming. The increased concentration of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere contributes to climate change, resulting in adverse effects such as rising temperatures, changing weather patterns, and sea-level rise.[67][68]

### Disruption of local ecosystems

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The removal of fuel wood from forests can disrupt local ecosystems, including nutrient cycling, pollination, and seed dispersal.[69] Trees play a vital role in maintaining ecosystem balance and supporting the survival of numerous species. The removal of fuel wood without sustainable practices can disrupt these ecological processes. With human populations becoming more concentrated, there is growing worry over the global degradation of coastal ecosystems, which includes eutrophication, overfishing, habitat disruption, pollution, and aesthetic degradation. The food business with the quickest growth, aquaculture, reached over 47 million metric tons of production in 2005.[70]

The severity and scope of disturbances determine how quickly terrestrial ecosystems recover. Primary succession happens in lifeless landscapes, such as the receding ice sheets of North America and Eurasia. Where there are already established organism communities and biological remains are still there, secondary succession takes place. The degree of disturbance determines which "legacies" they are. In Nigeria, ecosystems are also experiencing serious disturbances that need urgent intervention by the government and all stakeholders.[71] Nigerian government should start thinking of how the ecosystem will be recovered from disturbances for the health of the human environment.

### Water resource depletion

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Fuel wood collection often involves the gathering of deadwood, which can include branches and fallen trees found near water bodies.[72][73] Removing these materials from riparian areas can disrupt the natural flow of water, impacting aquatic ecosystems and reducing water availability for local communities.[74]

## Conserving and restoration measures

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1. Conservation tillage: Practices like minimum tillage, no-till, and strip cropping help reduce soil erosion by maintaining crop residues on the soil surface, improving water infiltration, and promoting soil organic matter accumulation.[56]
2. Contour farming: Planting crops along slope contour lines slows down water runoff, reducing erosion. It involves constructing contour bunds or terraces to trap sediment and retain water.[55]
3. Agroforestry: Integrating trees with crops or livestock systems can improve soil structure, increase organic matter content, and provide windbreaks to minimize wind erosion.[60]
4. Rehabilitation of degraded land: Restoring degraded land through reforestation, re-vegetation, and soil improvement techniques can help combat erosion and promote sustainable land use practices.[75] It is crucial to implement these measures on a large scale, promote sustainable land management practices, and raise awareness about the importance of soil conservation to mitigate soil erosion and land degradation.

## Government policies and initiatives to reduce fuel wood use

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The Nigerian government has implemented various policies and initiatives to reduce fuel wood use, addressing the environmental and social challenges associated with its utilization. These efforts aim to conserve forests, improve energy efficiency, and transition to alternative energy sources.

### Forest conservation and management strategies

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To address deforestation and the loss of forest ecosystems caused by fuel wood utilization, the Nigerian government has implemented forest conservation and management strategies, such as the National Forest Policy. The National Forest Policy for the sustainable utilization of Nigeria's forest resources was introduced during the commemoration of the International Day of Forests in 2022. The policy was launched in Abuja, the capital of Nigeria.[76] Other strategies include the establishment of protected areas, national parks, and forest reserves to safeguard valuable forest resources.[77] The government collaborates with local communities, Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs), and other stakeholders to develop sustainable forest management plans, promoting responsible harvesting practices and reforestation initiatives. By enforcing regulations and raising awareness about the importance of forest conservation, the government strives to preserve the ecological integrity and biodiversity of Nigerian forests.[78]

### Promotion of efficient cooking technologies

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Clean and sustainable cooking using biogas stove

The promotion of efficient cooking technologies is a key aspect of the government's efforts to address the environmental and health concerns associated with fuel wood utilization. Traditional cooking methods, such as open fires and rudimentary stoves, are highly inefficient and contribute to high levels of smoke and indoor air pollution.[29] The government promotes the adoption and distribution of these efficient cooking technologies through awareness campaigns, subsidies, and partnerships with NGOs and private sector entities. On October 5, 2021, the Federal Government of Nigeria joined forces with key stakeholders to ensure the successful implementation of Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs) aimed at promoting the adoption of clean and efficient cooking technologies throughout the country.[79]

### Alternative energy sources and transitioning away from fuel wood

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Recognizing the need to transition away from fuel wood as a primary source of energy, the Nigerian government is actively promoting the use of alternative energy sources. This includes promoting the adoption of clean and renewable energy technologies such as solar power, wind energy, and biogas.[80] In August 2022, Nigeria introduced its Energy Transition Plan. The plan encompasses key sectors such as power, cooking, oil and gas, transport, and industry. Vice President Yemi Osinbajo, along with other stakeholders in the energy sector, unveiled the plan, which outlines Nigeria's roadmap towards achieving net-zero emissions by 2060.[81] By diversifying the energy mix and reducing reliance on fuel wood, the government aims to mitigate deforestation, improve air quality, and contribute to climate change mitigation efforts.[82]

## Progress toward sustainable energy practices in Nigeria

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The future outlook for energy practices in Nigeria is gradually shifting towards more sustainable alternatives, aiming to address the environmental, social, and economic challenges associated with fuel wood utilization. Efforts are being made to promote cleaner energy sources, improve energy efficiency, and foster sustainable practices in the country.[82][30]

To ensure a sustainable future, there is also a need to prioritize sustainable forest management and conservation efforts. This involves implementing robust policies and regulations to prevent illegal logging, deforestation, and degradation of forest ecosystems.[83] By promoting responsible and sustainable forest practices, which includes but not limited to, responsible harvesting practices, reforestation initiatives, Nigeria can protect its valuable forest resources, preserve biodiversity, and mitigate the adverse impacts of fuel wood utilization.[84][85]

Community engagement, education, and awareness programs are crucial for fostering a culture of forest conservation and sustainable resource use. The Green Vision for Community Development Initiative (GVCDI), a Non-Governmental Organization (NGO), provided training to community members in Cross Rivers State on forest protection techniques to combat deforestation.[86] In 1981, the Ekuri community in Nigeria, independently conceptualized a formal community forest management initiative. Their aim was to ensure the preservation of their heritage, sustain livelihoods, foster community development, reduce poverty, and prevent the negative consequences experienced by other communities that had lost their forests. This initiative was born out of the community's internal motivation and foresight, without any external influence.[87]

One of the key focus areas for a sustainable energy transition in Nigeria is the promotion of renewable energy sources. The government, in collaboration with private sector entities and international partners, is investing in renewable energy infrastructure.[79] These sources offer significant potential to diversify the energy mix, reduce greenhouse gas emissions, and provide access to clean and affordable energy, particularly in rural areas.[81]

In parallel with the transition to renewable energy, enhancing energy efficiency is another crucial aspect of sustainable energy practices. Improving energy efficiency in sectors such as residential, commercial, agricultural, and industrial areas can contribute to reducing energy demand and optimizing resource utilization. This includes the promotion of energy-efficient appliances, building design and insulation standards, and the implementation of energy management systems.[88] By adopting energy-efficient technologies and practices, Nigeria can reduce energy waste, lower energy costs, and lessen the environmental impact associated with energy consumption.[89]

## See also

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* Deforestation in Nigeria
* Firewood
* Wood industry in Nigeria
* Effects of deforestation on soil erosion

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