Fitness culture

Sociocultural phenomenon surrounding exercise and physical fitness

A man and a woman in a health club

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Fitness culture is a sociocultural phenomenon surrounding exercise and physical fitness. It is usually associated with gym culture, as doing physical exercises in locations such as gyms, wellness centres and health clubs is a popular activity. An international survey found that more than 27% of the world's total adult population attends fitness centres, and that 61% of regular exercisers are currently doing "gym-type" activities.[1] Getting and maintaining physical fitness has been shown to benefit individuals' inner and outer health. Fitness culture has been highly promoted through modern technology and social media platforms.[2]

## Development

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### Gymnastics of ancient Greece and Rome

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The word gymnastics is derived from the Greek word gymnazein which literally means "to exercise naked".[3] In ancient Greece and Rome, a public place devoted to athletes training, called gymnasion (plural: gymnasia) for Greeks and palaestra (plural: palaestrae) for Romans existed in cities. Fitness was regarded as a concept shaped by two cultural codes: rationalization and asceticism; authenticity and hedonism, respectively. In Greece, gymnastic excellence was regarded as a noble and godly pursuit and was included in a complete education. Gymnasiums became the center of the community, being associated with the arts, the study of logic, and a source of entertainment. Skilled athletes attained an elevated status and devoted their lives to becoming proficient in exercise.[4] Both men and women participated in various gymnastic exercises. The series of activities included swimming, throwing, wrestling, jumping and weightlifting.[3] After the Romans conquered Greece, they developed the activities into a more formal sport and used their gymnasiums to prepare their legions for warfare. However, with the decline of the Roman Empire, people lost their interest in gymnastics, and it is now only known as a form of entertainment.

### Nineteenth century

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From around 1800, gymnastics developed in Western countries that was meant to enhance the body in order to sustain public morals and mold better citizens.[5] Pehr Henrik Ling was a pioneer in the teaching of physical education in Sweden, and he sought to reform and improve the gymnastics of the ancient Greeks. In 1850, the Supreme Medical Board of Russia reported to their emperor on Ling's system, that by improving one's overall fitness, an athlete became superior to those who merely focused on a subset of muscles or actions.[4] In the mid-19th century, the world saw the rise of physical culture, a movement that emphasized the importance of physical exercise for men, women, and children alike. Diocletian Lewis, a physician, even advocated for males and females exercising together in the gym.[6] In 1896 Men's gymnastics was on the schedule of the first modern Olympics. The Olympic gymnastic competition for women began in 1928.[3]

### World War II

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Leading up to and during World War II, totalitarian regimes used gymnastics as a way to promote their ideologies.[5] Physical fitness was at the core of Nazi philosophy, and the German government financed the construction of sports and wellness facilities. In 1922, the Nazi Party established the Hitler Youth, where children and adolescents participated in physical activities to develop both their physical and mental fitness.[7] Nazi sports imagery served the purpose of promoting the idea of "Aryan" racial superiority, and in 1933, an "Aryans only" policy was instituted in all German athletic organizations.[8]

In the Soviet Union, the Leninist Young Communist League created the Ready for Labour and Defence of the USSR in 1931, which was a fitness program that was designed to improve public health and prepare the population for highly productive work and the defense of "the motherland".[9]

### The Cold War

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During the Cold War, a focus on physical fitness emerged in both the United States and the Soviet Union. Senator Hubert Humphrey gravely warned that communist dominance came from superior sports and fitness programs. His remarks reflected the growing American paranoia of communism. In response, leaders of the military, civilian government, and private sector began crafting a "cult and ritual of toughness".[10] President John F. Kennedy issued a call to the nation urging Americans to prioritize their physical fitness across the country. Fitness was clearly described as a "matter of achieving an optimum state of well-being" that required exercise from both young and old.[11] This focus on fitness also opened the doors for female athletes in both the U.S. and the USSR to become more prominent as contenders in the Olympics.[12]

### Mass participation, commercialization

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After World War II, a new form of non-organized, individualistic, health-oriented physical and recreational activities such as jogging began to prevail.[5] The Royal Canadian Air Force Exercise Plans, developed by Dr Bill Orban in 1961, sold 23 million copies to the public. United States Air Force Colonel Kenneth Cooper's book Aerobics was released in 1968 and the mass-market version The New Aerobics in 1979. These publications by Orban and Cooper helped to launch modern fitness culture.[13][14][15][16] The Olympics inspired a running boom in the 1970s.[17] After the release of Jane Fonda's Workout exercise videos in 1982, aerobics became a popular form of group gymnastic activity.

Fitness began to be commercialised. Gyms were set up with the goals not to improve public health but to stimulate and exploit the desire of people to keep fit, have fun and improve themselves. It can also be observed in today's gyms where bodybuilders are trying to reach their aesthetic ideas, through muscle development, using weights and other equipment. Growth in bodybuilding as a fitness phenomenon followed the movie and book Pumping Iron in 1977 and the movie Pumping Iron II in 1985.[5][18][19]

The term gym is often associated with the term fitness, and going to gyms means doing exercises in fitness institutions such as fitness centres, health clubs or gym clubs where people have to pay for membership in order to use fitness equipment and participate in group fitness activities with instructors, such as aerobics and yoga classes.[5][18][19]

### Technology, specialization, branding

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Advances in technology in the twenty-first century have changed the way of doing fitness activities. The Quantified Self has become a new phenomenon, where people use the help of technological devices to support their workouts. It is characterized by the use of gadgets such as pedometer, GPS, heart rate monitor and smartphone apps to quantify or monitor the exerciser's efforts.[20]

There is a decrease in popularity of "pure aerobics" exercises.[21] The attention is moving from aerobics, bodybuilding, and traditional technique of exercises to activities such as yoga, zumba, pilates, spinning and aquacycling, tai chi, kickboxing, and outdoor fitness.[22][23][24]

Exercises have been commercialized as branded exercises by fitness institutions. Branded exercises are group workouts developed by fitness institutions for people with different goals of fitness.[citation needed]

Fitness culture refers to the societal norms, values, and behaviors related to physical fitness and exercise. It encompasses a wide range of activities, beliefs, and practices that revolve around maintaining a healthy and active lifestyle. Fitness culture has evolved over the years and can vary greatly from one region or community to another.

Fitness culture can be a positive force in promoting physical health; nonetheless, it can also have negative aspects, such as the potential for body shaming, unhealthy obsession, excessive competition, and commercialization of products and services not supported by good evidence. For example, exercise scientist Nick Tiller stated "Be cautious of interventions that claim to confer numerous benefits—no product can treat everything. Note that any meaningful outcome takes time to achieve, many months or years, so be skeptical of anything that offers rapid results. And watch out for popular buzzwords: anti-inflammatory, detox, immune boosting, natural, organic, etc. These terms aren’t scientific, are usually misappropriated, and are an attempt by the vendor to blind you with science."[25] Maintaining a balanced approach to fitness is crucial for overall well-being.[citation needed]

In recent years, there has been a growing focus on body positivity and inclusivity within fitness culture, emphasizing that fitness and health come in various forms and that everyone should feel welcome to participate regardless of their body type or fitness level.[citation needed]

## Influences

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Further information: Social influences on fitness behavior

### Mass media

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Mass media shapes fitness culture by conveying an ideal body image, often promoting slimness or even thinness for females and slenderness or muscularity for males.[26] Commercial advertisements have also created an influential and powerful force in promoting a stereotype of ideal body image which is not limited to fashion advertisements.[27]

Exercising and dieting are often seen as the best way to achieve such an ideal body image.[21] Fashion magazines promote slimness and thinness as the ideal female image. High-fashion models are usually slim and thin. In addition, the shape of models has changed dramatically[when?] towards a “more tubular female form” in high fashion culture,[27] often sparking controversies.[28]

Fitness-related content on social media, such as Facebook or Instagram, can be called fitspiration. When women view fitness content, they tend to develop a more negative body image and are quicker to compare their bodies to the ones they are seeing on social media.[29] Men are subject to this as well; however, this phenomenon is less common among men.[citation needed]

The rise of fitness influencers on social media sets unrealistic expectations that people feel pressured to keep up with. This has caused people to focus on achieving someone else's body type rather than their own overall health and well-being.[30][better source needed] Social media has made the fitness community grow, however, it is important to remember that not everything seen online is real.

### Peer influence

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People who regularly attend fitness institutions tend to make friends at these locations. They want to feel part of a group, which can be referred to as community feeling, as the behavior of group membership is transmitted from member to member within a group. However, this kind of friendship usually remains restricted within the fitness institution.[31] Besides, the atmosphere in fitness institutions created by people with the same goal becomes a force of motivation. When people go to fitness institutions or start a new activity, they can be encouraged by others and give support to each other.[21]

In addition, fitness institutions can function as dating agencies, creating chances to meet people apart from workplaces. Music, body movement, and costumes of people exercising can easily draw attention and become an occasion to engage with each other.[32]

Another important aspect of fitness culture is the gender differentiation in exercises performed. One study showed that women prefer to do cardiovascular exercise over weight training because it allows them to gain strength without transgressing norms for feminine physical appearance, whereas men prefer other exercises like bodybuilding or boxing in order to be more muscular.[32]

### Personal trainers

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Main article: Personal trainer

Fitness institutions have been developed as a commercial environment since the 1980s.[5][32] Personal trainers act as intermediaries between customers and the fitness institution, playing a crucial role in the commercialization of fitness culture.[33]

The popularity of personal trainers can be explained by the human tendency toward rule-governed behavior.[34] The role of personal trainers has also revealed a phenomenon which can be explained from the sociological perspective of "outsourced-self".[35] This means "transferring our own responsibility to other".[33] Keeping healthy and well are people's own responsibility; however, people are hiring personal trainers to be responsible for it. It is also relevant to the perspective of "body work" in the sociology of body: people are outsourcing their own bodies to paid workers in order to keep healthy and prevent illness.[36]

### Fitness fashion

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Further information: Sportswear and Athleisure

Fitness fashion is a product created by the commercialization of fitness culture. As mentioned above, personal trainers also act as agents to sell different goods and services. An example is the case of Body Training System (BTS). BTS instructors are suggested to change their costumes according to the programs in order to show the differences in character. The aim is to inspire the trainees to purchase the same costumes offered by the programs.[37]

Fitness fashion and athletic footwear have become the fastest-growing segments in the apparel market. The athleisure trend frames it not only for sports activities but also as daywear or weekend wear. While classic sports brands continue to expand their market share in the industry, high fashion brands have also joined the competition.[38]

## See also

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* 20th century women's fitness culture
* Aerobic exercise § History
* Exercise § History
* Exercise trends
* Health club
* History of physical training and fitness
* Physical fitness
* Social influences on fitness behavior
* Sociology of sport
* Sociology of the body

## References

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1. ^ Zabonick-Chonko, Rachel (2014-03-18). "Les Mills Study Finds that Fitness is World's Biggest Sport". Club Solutions Magazine. Retrieved 2022-12-12.
2. ^ Robertson, Lacey. "The rise of the fitness culture". The Seraphim. Retrieved 2021-12-04.
3. ^ a b c Solly, Meilan (July 26, 2021). "A History of Gymnastics, From Ancient Greece to Tokyo 2020". Smithsonian Magazine. Retrieved 2022-12-13.
4. ^ a b Cheever, David W. (1 May 1859). "The Gymnasium". The Atlantic. The Atlantic Monthly Group. Retrieved 19 March 2015.
5. ^ a b c d e f Sassatelli, Roberta (2006). "Fit Bodies. Fitness Culture and the Gym". Retrieved 2022-12-12.
6. ^ Lewis, Diocletian (1 August 1862). "The New Gymnastics". The Atlantic. The Atlantic Monthly Group. Retrieved 19 March 2015.
7. ^ "How did the Nazis control leisure?". The Holocaust Explained. London Jewish Cultural Centre. 2011. Retrieved 19 March 2015.
8. ^ "The Nazi Olympics Berlin 1936". United States Holocaust Memorial Museum. 20 June 2014. Retrieved 19 March 2015.
9. ^ The Great Soviet Encyclopedia (3rd ed.). The Gale Group, Inc. 2010.
10. ^ Kurt Edward Kemper (2009). College Football and American Culture in the Cold War Era. University of Illinois Press. pp. 19–20\. ISBN 978-0-252-03466-4.
11. ^ Neu, Frank R. (1 November 1961). "We May Be Sitting Ourselves to Death". The Atlantic. The Atlantic Monthly Group. Retrieved 19 March 2015.
12. ^ David G. McComb (1998). Sports: An Illustrated History. Oxford University Press. p. 123\. ISBN 978-0-19-510097-6.
13. ^ Krucoff, Carol (1998-06-22). "Going Back to the Basics with Calisthenics". Los Angeles Times. ISSN 0458-3035. Retrieved 2018-10-08. "In fact, the popularity of the Royal Canadian Air Force's calisthenics program in the late 1950s helped launch the modern fitness movement."
14. ^ "Five basic exercises for fitness in 1961". CBC Archives. Retrieved 2018-10-08. "The program became famous worldwide."
15. ^ "'Father of Aerobics' Kenneth Cooper, MD, MPH to receive Healthy Cup Award from Harvard School of Public Health". Harvard School of Public Health. 2008-04-16. Retrieved 2018-10-08.
16. ^ "Dr. Kenneth Cooper and How He Became Known as the Father of Aerobics". Club Industry. 2008-09-01. Archived from the original on 2018-10-09. Retrieved 2018-10-08.
17. ^ Stracher, Cameron (3 November 2012). "Running on Empty: An American Sports Tradition Fades". The New York Times. Retrieved 2018-10-11.
18. ^ a b "The Fitness Revolution. Historical Transformations in a Global Gym and Fitness Culture". ResearchGate. Retrieved 2018-10-07.
19. ^ a b Stern, Marc (2008). "The Fitness Movement and the Fitness Center Industry, 1960-2000" (PDF). Business and Economic History On-line. Retrieved 2018-10-07.
20. ^ Dyer, James (March 2016). "Quantified Bodies". Digital Culture & Society. 2 (1): 161. doi:10.14361/dcs-2016-0112. S2CID 148943667.
21. ^ a b c Sassatelli, Roberta (2000). "The Commercialization of Discipline: Keep-Fit Culture and Its Values". Journal of Modern Italian Studies. 5 (3): 396–411\. doi:10.1080/1354571X.2000.9728261. ISSN 1354-571X. S2CID 143808579.
22. ^ "The rise of the adult playground". BBC News. 7 May 2012. Retrieved 6 October 2018.
23. ^ Finn, Adharanand; Ramaswamy, Chitra; Jonze, Tim; Benedictus, Leo; Khaleeli, Homa (30 August 2016). "'We still come if the rain's sideways' – how Britain fell in love with outdoor fitness". The Guardian. Retrieved 4 October 2018.
24. ^ Dean, Sam (15 January 2017). "Rise in outdoor gyms signals a muscling-up of the outdoor fitness industry". The Telegraph. ISSN 0307-1235. Retrieved 4 October 2018.
25. ^ Harrison, Guy. "Why Do Athletes Keep Falling for Quacks?". Psychology Today. Retrieved September 16, 2024.
26. ^ Cruz, Jamie Santa (2014-03-10). "Body-Image Pressure Increasingly Affects Boys". The Atlantic. Retrieved 2022-12-13.
27. ^ a b Brown, Kirsty (1997). From Fashion to Fitness? A Sociocultural Analysis of the Representation of Thinness within the Mass Media (Thesis). University of Toronto. ISBN 0-612-29146-4. OCLC 222591511.
28. ^ Clements, Kirstie (2013-07-05). "Former Vogue editor: The truth about size zero". The Guardian. Retrieved 2022-12-13.
29. ^ Tiggemann, Marika; Zaccardo, Mia (2015-09-01). "'Exercise to be Fit, Not Skinny': The Effect of Fitspiration Imagery on Women's Body Image". Body Image. 15: 61–67\. doi:10.1016/j.bodyim.2015.06.003. ISSN 1740-1445. PMID 26176993. S2CID 22081797.
30. ^ https://barpathfitness.com/blog/the-impact-of-social-media-on-fitness-trends-and-body-image/#:~:text=Social media has had far,overall health and wellness goals.
31. ^ Crossley, Nick (September 2006). "In the Gym: Motives, Meaning and Moral Careers". Body & Society. 12 (3): 23–50\. doi:10.1177/1357034X06067154. ISSN 1357-034X. S2CID 143850069.
32. ^ a b c Sassatelli, Roberta (2010). Fitness Culture: Gyms and the Commercialisation of Discipline and Fun. Houndmills, Basingstoke, Hampshire: Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 978-0-230-29208-6. OCLC 696332358.
33. ^ a b Maguire, Jennifer Smith (December 1, 2001). "Fit and Flexible: The Fitness Industry, Personal Trainers and Emotional Service Labor". Sociology of Sport Journal. 18 (4): 379–402\. doi:10.1123/ssj.18.4.379. hdl:2381/1437. ISSN 0741-1235.
34. ^ Baum, William M. (April 1995). "Rules, Culture, and Fitness". The Behavior Analyst. 18 (1): 1–21\. doi:10.1007/BF03392688. ISSN 0738-6729. PMC 2733667. PMID 22478201.
35. ^ Hochschild, Arlie Russell (2012). The Outsourced Self: Intimate Life in Market Times (1st U.S. ed.). New York: Metropolitan Books. ISBN 978-0-8050-8889-2. OCLC 1083036482.
36. ^ Gimlin, Debra (August 22, 2007). "What Is 'Body Work'? A Review of the Literature: What Is 'Body Work'? A Review of the Literature". Sociology Compass. 1 (1): 353–370\. doi:10.1111/j.1751-9020.2007.00015.x.
37. ^ Felstead, Alan; Fuller, Alison; Jewson, Nick; Kakavelakis, Konstantinos; Unwin, Lorna (June 2007). "Grooving to the same tunes?: Learning, training and productive systems in the aerobics studio". Work, Employment and Society. 21 (2): 189–208\. doi:10.1177/0950017007076626. ISSN 0950-0170. S2CID 154830921.
38. ^ "Why Fitness Is Having a Moment in Fashion". RBHK. January 9, 2025. Retrieved January 9, 2025.

## Further reading

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* Friedman, Danielle (2022). Let's Get Physical: How Women Discovered Exercise and Reshaped the World. New York: G. P. Putnam's Sons. ISBN 9780593188422. Archived from the original on 8 April 2022.
* Friedman, Danielle (14 January 2025). "1972–1982: The Decade That Changed Fitness Forever". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 15 January 2025. Retrieved 26 January 2025. References/lists the influential books and other works of the period.

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* High-intensity interval training
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