Franz Joseph I of Austria

Habsburg monarch from 1848 to 1916

"Franz Joseph" redirects here. For other uses, see Franz Joseph (disambiguation).

Franz Joseph I

Portrait by Carl Pietzner, 1910

Emperor of Austria
King of Hungary

(more…)

Reign| 2 December 1848 – 21 November 1916
Coronation| 8 June 1867
Matthias Church
(as King of Hungary)
Predecessor| Ferdinand I & V
Successor| Charles I, III & IV
King of Lombardy-Venetia
Reign| 2 December 1848 – 12 October 1866
Predecessor| Ferdinand I
Successor| position abolished
Head of the Präsidialmacht Austria
In office
1 May 1850 – 24 August 1866
Preceded by| Ferdinand I
Succeeded by| Wilhelm I
(as Head of the North German Confederation)

Born| (1830-08-18)18 August 1830
Schönbrunn Palace, Vienna, Austrian Empire
Died| 21 November 1916(1916-11-21) (aged 86)
Schönbrunn Palace, Vienna, Austria-Hungary
Burial|

Imperial Crypt

Spouse|

Elisabeth in Bavaria

(m. 1854; died 1898)​

Issue|

* Archduchess Sophie
* Gisela, Princess of Bavaria
* Rudolf, Crown Prince of Austria
* Archduchess Marie Valerie

| Names

German: Franz Joseph Karl
English: Francis Joseph Charles
House| Habsburg-Lorraine
Father| Archduke Franz Karl of Austria
Mother| Princess Sophie of Bavaria
Religion| Catholicism
Signature|

Franz Joseph I's voice

Franz Joseph I on the invention of the phonograph
Recorded 1900

Franz Joseph I or Francis Joseph I (German: Franz Joseph Karl [fʁants ˈjoːzɛf ˈkaʁl]; Hungarian: Ferenc József Károly [ˈfɛrɛnt͡s ˈjoːʒɛf ˈkaːroj]; 18 August 1830 – 21 November 1916) was Emperor of Austria, King of Hungary, and the ruler of the other states of the Habsburg monarchy from 2 December 1848 until his death in 1916.[1] In the early part of his reign, his realms and territories were referred to as the Austrian Empire, but in 1867 they were reconstituted as the dual monarchy of Austria-Hungary. From 1 May 1850 to 24 August 1866, he was also president of the German Confederation.

In December 1848, Franz Joseph's uncle Emperor Ferdinand I abdicated the throne at Olomouc, as part of Minister President Felix zu Schwarzenberg's plan to end the Hungarian Revolution of 1848. Franz Joseph then acceded to the throne. In 1854, he married his first cousin Duchess Elisabeth in Bavaria, with whom he had four children: Sophie, Gisela, Rudolf, and Marie Valerie. Largely considered to be a reactionary, Franz Joseph spent his early reign resisting constitutionalism in his domains. The Austrian Empire was forced to cede its influence over Tuscany and most of its claim to Lombardy–Venetia to the Kingdom of Sardinia, following the Second Italian War of Independence in 1859 and the Third Italian War of Independence in 1866. Although Franz Joseph ceded no territory to the Kingdom of Prussia after the Austrian defeat in the Austro-Prussian War, the Peace of Prague (23 August 1866) settled the German Question in favour of Prussia, which prevented the unification of Germany from occurring under the House of Habsburg.[2]

Franz Joseph was troubled by nationalism throughout his reign. He concluded the Austro-Hungarian Compromise of 1867, which granted greater autonomy to Hungary and created the dual monarchy of Austria-Hungary. He ruled peacefully for the next 45 years, but personally suffered the tragedies of the execution of his brother Emperor Maximilian I of Mexico in 1867, the suicide of his son Rudolf in 1889, and the assassinations of his wife Elisabeth in 1898 and his nephew and heir presumptive, Archduke Franz Ferdinand, in 1914.

After the Austro-Prussian War, Austria-Hungary turned its attention to the Balkans, which was a hotspot of international tension because of conflicting interests of Austria with not only the Ottoman but also the Russian Empire. The Bosnian Crisis was a result of Franz Joseph's annexation in 1908 of Bosnia and Herzegovina, which had already been occupied by his troops since the Congress of Berlin (1878). On 28 June 1914, the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand in Sarajevo resulted in Austria-Hungary's declaration of war against the Kingdom of Serbia, which was an ally of the Russian Empire. This activated a system of alliances declaring war on each other, which resulted in World War I. Franz Joseph died in 1916, after ruling his domains for almost 68 years. He was succeeded by his grandnephew Charles I & IV.

## Early life

[edit]

Franz Joseph and his mother Archduchess Sophie, by Joseph Karl Stieler. Franz Joseph's family gathered in prayer, 1839.

Franz Joseph was born on 18 August 1830 in the Schönbrunn Palace in Vienna (on the 65th anniversary of the death of Francis of Lorraine) as the eldest son of Archduke Franz Karl (the younger son of Francis I), and Sophie, Princess of Bavaria. Because his uncle, reigning from 1835 as the Emperor Ferdinand, was disabled by seizures, and his father unambitious and retiring, the mother of the young Archduke "Franzi" brought him up as a future emperor, with emphasis on devotion, responsibility and diligence.

For this reason, Franz Joseph was consistently built up as a potential successor to the imperial throne by his politically ambitious mother from early childhood.

Up to the age of 7, little "Franzi" was brought up in the care of the nanny ("Aja") Louise von Sturmfeder. Then the "state education" began, the central contents of which were "sense of duty", religiosity and dynastic awareness. The theologian Joseph Othmar von Rauscher conveyed to him the inviolable understanding of rulership of divine origin (divine grace), and therefore a belief that no participation of the population in rulership in the form of parliaments was required.

The educators Heinrich Franz von Bombelles and Colonel Johann Baptist Coronini-Cronberg ordered Archduke Franz to study an enormous amount of time, which initially comprised 18 hours per week and was expanded to 50 hours per week by the age of 16. One of the main focuses of the lessons was language acquisition: in addition to French, the diplomatic language of the time, Latin and Ancient Greek, Hungarian, Czech, Italian and Polish were the most important national languages of the monarchy. In addition, the archduke received general education that was customary at the time (including mathematics, physics, history, geography), which was later supplemented by law and political science. Various forms of physical education completed the extensive program.

On his 13th birthday, Franz Joseph was appointed Colonel-Inhaber of Dragoon Regiment No. 3 and the focus of his training shifted to imparting basic strategic and tactical knowledge. From that point onward, army style dictated his personal fashion—for the rest of his life, he normally wore the uniform of a military officer.[3] Franz Joseph was soon joined by three younger brothers: Archduke Ferdinand Maximilian (born 1832, the future Emperor Maximilian of Mexico); Archduke Karl Ludwig (born 1833, father of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria), and Archduke Ludwig Viktor (born 1842), and a sister, Archduchess Maria Anna (born 1835), who died at the age of 4.[4]

## Revolutions of 1848

[edit]

Main articles: Revolutions of 1848 in the Austrian Empire and Hungarian Revolution of 1848

During the Revolutions of 1848, the Austrian Chancellor Prince Klemens von Metternich resigned (March–April 1848). The young archduke, who (it was widely expected) would soon succeed his uncle on the throne, was appointed Governor of Bohemia on 6 April 1848, but never took up the post. Sent instead to the front in Italy, he joined Field Marshal Radetzky on campaign on 29 April, receiving his baptism of fire on 5 May at Santa Lucia.

By all accounts, he handled his first military experience calmly and with dignity. Around the same time, the imperial family was fleeing revolutionary Vienna for the calmer setting of Innsbruck, in Tyrol. Called back from Italy, the archduke joined the rest of his family at Innsbruck by mid-June. It was here that Franz Joseph first met his cousin and eventual future bride, Elisabeth, then a girl of 10, but apparently the meeting made little impression.[5]

Following Austria's victory over the Italians at Custoza in late July 1848, the court felt it safe to return to Vienna, and Franz Joseph travelled with them. But within a few weeks, Vienna again appeared unsafe, and in September, the court left once more, this time for Olmütz in Moravia. By now, Alfred I, Prince of Windisch-Grätz, an influential military commander in Bohemia, was determined to see the young archduke soon put on the throne. It was thought that a new ruler would not be bound by the oaths to respect constitutional government to which Ferdinand had been forced to agree, and that it was necessary to find a young, energetic emperor to replace the kindly but mentally unfit Ferdinand.[6]

By the abdication of his uncle Ferdinand and the renunciation of his father (the mild-mannered Franz Karl), Franz Joseph succeeded as Emperor of Austria at Olmütz on 2 December 1848. At this time, he first became known by his second as well as his first Christian name. The name "Franz Joseph" was chosen to bring back memories of the new Emperor's great-granduncle, Emperor Joseph II (Holy Roman Emperor from 1765 to 1790), remembered as a modernising reformer.[7]

Under the guidance of the new prime minister, Prince Felix of Schwarzenberg, the new emperor at first pursued a cautious course, granting a constitution in March 1849. At the same time, a military campaign was necessary against the Hungarians, who had rebelled against Habsburg central authority in the name of their ancient constitution. Franz Joseph was also almost immediately faced with a renewal of the fighting in Italy, with King Charles Albert of Sardinia taking advantage of setbacks in Hungary to resume the war in March 1849.

The Battle of Győr on 28 June 1849. Franz Joseph enters Győr leading the Austrian troops.

However, the military tide began to turn swiftly in favor of Franz Joseph and the Austrian whitecoats. Almost immediately, Charles Albert was decisively beaten by Radetzky at Novara and forced to sue for peace, as well as to renounce his throne.

### Revolution in Hungary

[edit]

Main articles: Holy Alliance and Hungarian Revolution of 1848

Unlike other Habsburg ruled areas, the Kingdom of Hungary had an old historic constitution,[8] which limited the power of the crown and had greatly increased the authority of the parliament since the 13th century. The Hungarian reform laws (April laws) were based on the 12 points that established the fundaments of modern civil and political rights, economic and societal reforms in the Kingdom of Hungary.[9] The crucial turning point of the Hungarian events were the April laws which was ratified by his uncle King Ferdinand, however the new young Austrian monarch Francis Joseph arbitrarily "revoked" the laws without any legal competence. The monarchs had no right to revoke Hungarian parliamentary laws which were already signed. This unconstitutional act irreversibly escalated the conflict between the Hungarian parliament and Francis Joseph. The Austrian Stadion Constitution was accepted by the Imperial Diet of Austria, where Hungary had no representation, and which traditionally had no legislative power in the territory of Kingdom of Hungary; despite this, it also tried to abolish the Diet of Hungary (which existed as the supreme legislative power in Hungary since the late 12th century.)[10]

The new Austrian constitution also went against the historical constitution of Hungary, and even tried to nullify it.[11] Even the territorial integrity of the country was in danger: On 7 March 1849, an imperial proclamation was issued in the name of the Emperor Francis Joseph, according to the new proclamation, the territory of Kingdom of Hungary would be carved up and administered by five military districts, while the Principality of Transylvania would be reestablished.[12] These events represented a clear and obvious existential threat for the Hungarian state. The new constrained Stadion Constitution of Austria, the revocation of the April laws and the Austrian military campaign against Kingdom of Hungary resulted in the fall of the pacifist Batthyány government (which sought agreement with the court) and led to the sudden emergence of Lajos Kossuth's followers in the Hungarian parliament, who demanded the full independence of Hungary. The Austrian military intervention in the Kingdom of Hungary resulted in strong anti-Habsburg sentiment among Hungarians, thus the events in Hungary grew into a war for total independence from the Habsburg dynasty.

#### Constitutional and legitimacy problems in Hungary

[edit]

On 7 December 1848, the Diet of Hungary formally refused to acknowledge the title of the new king, "as without the knowledge and consent of the diet no one could sit on the Hungarian throne", and called the nation to arms.[12] While in most Western European countries (like France and the United Kingdom) the monarch's reign began immediately upon the death of their predecessor, in Hungary the coronation was indispensable; if it were not properly executed, the kingdom remained "orphaned".

Even during the long personal union between the Kingdom of Hungary and other Habsburg ruled areas, the Habsburg monarchs had to be crowned as King of Hungary in order to promulgate laws there or exercise royal prerogatives in the territory of the Kingdom of Hungary.[13][14][15] From a legal point of view, according to the coronation oath, a crowned Hungarian king could not relinquish the Hungarian throne during his life; if the king was alive and unable to do his duty as ruler, a governor (or regent, as they would be called in English) had to assume the royal duties. Constitutionally, Franz Joseph's uncle Ferdinand was still the legal king of Hungary. If there was no possibility to inherit the throne automatically due to the death of the predecessor king (since King Ferdinand was still alive), but the monarch wanted to relinquish his throne and appoint another king before his death, technically only one legal solution remained: the parliament had the power to dethrone the king and elect a new king. Due to the legal and military tensions, the Hungarian parliament did not grant Franz Joseph that favour. This event gave to the revolt an excuse of legality. Actually, from this time until the collapse of the revolution, Lajos Kossuth (as elected regent-president) became the de facto and de jure ruler of Hungary.[12]

#### Military difficulties in Hungary

[edit]

Franz Joseph in 1851.

While the revolutions in the Austrian territories had been suppressed by 1849 in Hungary, the situation was more severe and Austrian defeat seemed imminent. Sensing a need to secure his right to rule, Franz Joseph sought help from Russia, requesting the intervention of Tsar Nicholas I, in order "to prevent the Hungarian insurrection developing into a European calamity".[16] For the Russian military support, Franz Joseph kissed the hand of the tsar in Warsaw on 21 May 1849.[17] Tsar Nicholas supported Franz Joseph in the name of the Holy Alliance,[18] and sent a 200,000 strong army with 80,000 auxiliary forces. Finally, the joint army of Russian and Austrian forces defeated the Hungarian forces. After the restoration of Habsburg power, Hungary was placed under brutal martial law.[19]

With order now restored throughout his empire, Franz Joseph felt free to renege on the constitutional concessions he had made, especially as the Austrian parliament meeting at Kremsier had behaved—in the young Emperor's eyes—abominably. The 1849 constitution was suspended, and a policy of absolutist centralism was established, guided by the Minister of the Interior, Alexander Bach.[20]

#### Assassination attempt in 1853

[edit]

Assassination attempt on the emperor in 1853.

On 18 February 1853, Franz Joseph survived an assassination attempt by Hungarian nationalist János Libényi.[21] The emperor was taking a stroll with one of his officers, Count Maximilian Karl Lamoral O'Donnell, on a city bastion, when Libényi approached him. He immediately struck the emperor from behind with a knife straight at the neck. Franz Joseph almost always wore a uniform, which had a high collar that almost completely enclosed the neck. The collars of uniforms at that time were made from very sturdy material, precisely to counter this kind of attack. Even though the Emperor was wounded and bleeding, the collar saved his life. Count O'Donnell struck Libényi down with his sabre.[21]

O'Donnell, hitherto a Count only by virtue of his Irish nobility,[22] was made a Count of the Habsburg monarchy (Reichsgraf). Another witness who happened to be nearby, the butcher Joseph Ettenreich, swiftly overpowered Libényi. For his deed he was later elevated to the nobility by the emperor and became Joseph von Ettenreich. Libényi was subsequently put on trial and condemned to death for attempted regicide. He was executed on the Simmeringer Heide.[23]

After this unsuccessful attack, the emperor's brother Archduke Ferdinand Maximilian called upon Europe's royal families for donations to construct a new church on the site of the attack. The church was to be a votive offering for the survival of the emperor. It is located on Ringstraße in the district of Alsergrund close to the University of Vienna, and is known as the Votivkirche.[21] The survival of Franz Joseph was also commemorated in Prague by erecting a new statue of St. Francis of Assisi, the patron saint of the emperor, on Charles Bridge. It was donated by Count Franz Anton von Kolowrat-Liebsteinsky, the first minister-president of the Austrian Empire.[24]

## Consolidation of domestic policy

[edit]

Silver coin: 2 Gulden of Franz Joseph I - Silver Wedding Jubilee Silver coin: 5 corona, 1908 – The bust of Franz Joseph I facing right surrounded by the legend "Franciscus Iosephus I, Dei gratia, imperator Austriae, rex Bohemiae, Galiciae, Illyriae et cetera et apostolicus rex Hungariae" The garter of Emperor Franz Joseph I of Austria

The next few years saw the seeming recovery of Austria's position on the international scene following the near disasters of 1848–1849. Under Schwarzenberg's guidance, Austria was able to stymie Prussian scheming to create a new German Federation under Prussian leadership, excluding Austria. After Schwarzenberg's premature death in 1852, he could not be replaced by statesmen of equal stature, and the emperor himself effectively took over as prime minister.[20] He was one of the most prominent Roman Catholic rulers in Europe, and a fierce enemy of Freemasonry.[25]

### Austro-Hungarian Compromise of 1867

[edit]

Main article: Austro-Hungarian Compromise of 1867

Franz Joseph's coronation as Apostolic King of Hungary. Painting by Edmund Tull.

The 1850s witnessed several failures of Austrian external policy: the Crimean War, the dissolution of its alliance with Russia, and defeat in the Second Italian War of Independence. The setbacks continued in the 1860s with defeat in the Austro-Prussian War of 1866, which resulted in the Austro-Hungarian Compromise of 1867.[26]

The Hungarian political leaders had two main goals during the negotiations. One was to regain the traditional status (both legal and political) of the Hungarian state, which was lost after the Hungarian Revolution of 1848. The other was to restore the series of reform laws of the revolutionary parliament of 1848, which were based on the 12 points that established modern civil and political rights, economic and societal reforms in Hungary.[9]

The Compromise partially re-established[27] the sovereignty of the Kingdom of Hungary, separate from, and no longer subject to the Austrian Empire. Instead, it was regarded as an equal partner with Austria. The compromise put an end to 18 years of absolutist rule and military dictatorship which had been introduced by Francis Joseph after the Hungarian Revolution of 1848. Franz Joseph was crowned King of Hungary on 8 June, and on 28 July he promulgated the laws that officially turned the Habsburg domains into the Dual Monarchy of Austria-Hungary.

According to Emperor Franz Joseph, "There were three of us who made the agreement: Deák, Andrássy and myself."[28] However, the role of Empress Elisabeth (Sisi) cannot be understated in facilitating this compromise. Fluent in Hungarian and deeply sympathetic to the Hungarian cause, Elisabeth fostered close relationships with Hungarian leaders, including Count Gyula Andrássy, and worked behind the scenes to persuade Francis Joseph to adopt a more conciliatory approach. Her influence helped build the trust necessary for successful negotiations, and her personal popularity in Hungary significantly bolstered the monarchy's legitimacy in the region.[29]

Political difficulties in Austria mounted continuously through the late 19th century and into the 20th century. However, Franz Joseph remained immensely respected; the emperor's patriarchal authority held the Empire together while the politicians squabbled among themselves.[30]

### Bohemian question

[edit]

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Franz Joseph in the regalia of the Order of the Golden Fleece, with the Bohemian Crown Jewels next to him. Painting by Eduard von Engerth for the Bohemian Diet, 1861.

Following the accession of Franz Joseph to the throne in 1848, the political representatives of the Kingdom of Bohemia hoped and insisted that account should be taken of their historical state rights in the upcoming constitution. They felt the position of Bohemia within the Habsburg monarchy should have been highlighted by a coronation of the new ruler to the king of Bohemia in Prague (the last coronation took place in 1836). However, before the 19th century the Habsburgs had ruled Bohemia by hereditary right and a separate coronation was not deemed necessary.

His new government installed the system of neoabsolutism in Austrian internal affairs to make the Austrian Empire a unitary, centralised and bureaucratically administered state. When Franz Joseph returned to constitutional rule after the debacles in Italy at Magenta and Solferino and summoned the diets of his lands, the question of his coronation as king of Bohemia again returned to the agenda, as it had not since 1848. On 14 April 1861, Emperor Franz Joseph received a delegation from the Bohemian Diet with his words (in Czech):

> I will have myself crowned King of Bohemia in Prague, and I am convinced that a new, indissoluble bond of trust and loyalty between My throne and My Bohemian Kingdom will be strengthened by this holy rite.[31]

In contrast to his predecessor Emperor Ferdinand (who spent the rest of his life after his abdication in 1848 in Bohemia and especially in Prague), Franz Joseph was never crowned separately as king of Bohemia. In 1861, the negotiations failed because of unsolved constitutional problems. However, in 1866, a visit of the monarch to Prague following defeat at the Battle of Königgrätz was a huge success, testified by the considerable numbers of new photographs taken.

Portrait by Philip de László, 1899

In 1867, the Austro-Hungarian compromise and the introduction of the dual monarchy left the Czechs and their aristocracy without the recognition of separate Bohemian state rights for which they had hoped. Bohemia remained part of the Austrian Crown Lands. In Bohemia, opposition to dualism took the form of isolated street demonstrations, resolutions from district representations, and even open air mass protest meetings, confined to the biggest cities, such as Prague. The Czech newspaper Národní listy complained that the Czechs had not yet been compensated for their wartime losses and sufferings during the Austro-Prussian War, and had just seen their historic state rights tossed aside and their land subsumed into the "other" half of the Austro-Hungarian Monarchy, commonly called "Cisleithania".[31]

The Czech hopes were revived again in 1870–1871. In an Imperial Rescript of 26 September 1870, Franz Joseph referred again to the prestige and glory of the Bohemian Crown and to his intention to hold a coronation. Under Minister-President Karl Hohenwart in 1871, the government of Cisleithania negotiated a series of fundamental articles spelling out the relationship of the Bohemian Crown to the rest of the Habsburg Monarchy. On 12 September 1871, Franz Joseph announced:

> Having in mind the constitutional position of the Bohemian Crown and being conscious of the glory and power which that Crown has given us and our predecessors… we gladly recognise the rights of the kingdom and are prepared to renew that recognition through our coronation oath.[31]

For the planned coronation, the composer Bedřich Smetana had written the opera Libuše, but the ceremony did not take place. The creation of the German Empire, domestic opposition from German-speaking liberals (especially German-Bohemians) and from Hungarians doomed the Fundamental Articles. Hohenwart resigned and nothing changed.

Many Czech people were waiting for political changes in monarchy, including Tomáš Garrigue Masaryk and others. Masaryk served in the Reichsrat (Upper House) from 1891 to 1893 in the Young Czech Party and again from 1907 to 1914 in the Realist Party (which he had founded in 1900), but he did not campaign for the independence of Czechs and Slovaks from Austria-Hungary. In Vienna in 1909 he helped Hinko Hinković's defense in the fabricated trial against prominent Croats and Serbs members of the Serbo-Croatian Coalition (such as Frano Supilo and Svetozar Pribićević), and others, who were sentenced to more than 150 years and a number of death penalties. The Bohemian question would remain unresolved for the entirety of Franz Joseph's reign.

## Foreign policy

[edit]

Franz Joseph among his troops at Solferino, fought during the Franco-Austrian War of 1859

### German question

[edit]

Main article: German question

Emperor Franz Joseph (centre in white uniform) at the Congress of German princes in Frankfurt am Main, 1863

The main foreign policy goal of Franz Joseph had been the unification of Germany under the House of Habsburg.[32] This was justified on grounds of precedence; from 1452 to the end of the Holy Roman Empire in 1806, with only one brief period of interruption under the House of Wittelsbach, the Habsburgs had generally held the German crown.[33] However, Franz Joseph's desire to retain the non-German territories of the Habsburg Austrian Empire in the event of German unification proved problematic.

Two factions quickly developed: a party of German intellectuals favouring a Greater Germany (Großdeutschland) under the House of Habsburg; the other favouring a Lesser Germany (Kleindeutschland). The Greater Germans favoured the inclusion of Austria in a new all-German state on the grounds that Austria had always been a part of Germanic empires, that it was the leading power of the German Confederation, and that it would be absurd to exclude eight million Austrian Germans from an all-German nation state. The champions of a lesser Germany argued against the inclusion of Austria on the grounds that it was a multi-nation state, not a German one, and that its inclusion would bring millions of non-Germans into the German nation state.[34]

If Greater Germany were to prevail, the crown would necessarily have to go to Franz Joseph, who had no desire to cede it in the first place to anyone else.[34] On the other hand, if the idea of a smaller Germany won out, the German crown could of course not possibly go to the Emperor of Austria, but would naturally be offered to the head of the largest and most powerful German state outside of Austria—the King of Prussia. The contest between the two ideas, quickly developed into a contest between Austria and Prussia. After Prussia decisively won the Seven Weeks War, this question was solved; Austria lost no territories to Prussia as long as they remained out of German affairs.[34]

### Three Emperors League

[edit]

Portrait of Franz Joseph I by Franz Xaver Winterhalter, 1865

In 1873, two years after the unification of Germany, Franz Joseph entered into the League of Three Emperors (Dreikaiserbund) with Emperor Wilhelm I of Germany and Emperor Alexander II of Russia, who was succeeded by Tsar Alexander III in 1881. The league had been designed by the German chancellor Otto von Bismarck, as an attempt to maintain the peace of Europe. It would last intermittently until 1887.

### Vatican

[edit]

In 1903, Franz Joseph's veto of Jus exclusivae of Cardinal Mariano Rampolla's election to the papacy was transmitted to the Papal conclave by Cardinal Jan Puzyna de Kosielsko. It was the last use of such a veto, as the new Pope Pius X prohibited future uses and provided for excommunication for any attempt.[35][36]

### Bosnia and Herzegovina

[edit]

Main article: Bosnian Crisis

See also: Austro-Hungarian campaign in Bosnia and Herzegovina in 1878

Voice recording of the emperor speaking into Valdemar Poulsen's magnetic wire recorder at the 1900 World's Fair.

During the mid-1870s, a series of violent rebellions against Ottoman rule broke out in the Balkans, and the Turks responded with equally violent and oppressive reprisals. Tsar Alexander II of Russia, wanting to intervene against the Ottomans, sought and obtained an agreement with Austria-Hungary.

In the Budapest Convention of 1877, the two powers agreed that Russia would annex southern Bessarabia, and Austria-Hungary would observe a benevolent neutrality toward Russia in the pending war with the Turks. As compensation for this support, Russia agreed to Austria-Hungary's annexation of Bosnia-Herzegovina.[37] A scant 15 months later, the Russians imposed on the Ottomans the Treaty of San Stefano, which reneged on the Budapest accord and declared that Bosnia-Herzegovina would be jointly occupied by Russian and Austrian troops.[37]

Franz Joseph, c. 1892

The treaty was overturned by the 1878 Treaty of Berlin, which allowed sole Austrian occupation of Bosnia-Herzegovina but did not specify a final disposition of the provinces.[clarification needed] That omission was addressed in the Three Emperors' League agreement of 1881, when both Germany and Russia endorsed Austria-Hungary's right to annex Bosnia-Herzegovina.[38] However, by 1897, under a new tsar, the Russian Imperial government had again withdrawn its support for Austrian annexation of Bosnia-Herzegovina. The Russian foreign minister, Count Mikhail Muravyov, stated that an Austrian annexation of Bosnia-Herzegovina would raise "an extensive question requiring special scrutiny".[39]

In 1908, the Russian foreign minister, Alexander Izvolsky, offered Russian support, for the third time, for the annexation of Bosnia and Herzegovina by Austria-Hungary, in exchange for Austrian support for the opening of the Bosporus Strait and the Dardanelles to Russian warships. Austria's foreign minister, Alois von Aehrenthal, pursued this offer vigorously, resulting in the quid pro quo understanding with Izvolsky, reached on 16 September 1908 at the Buchlau Conference. However, Izvolsky made this agreement with Aehrenthal without the knowledge of Tsar Nicholas II or his government in St. Petersburg, or any of the other foreign powers including Britain, France and Serbia.

Based upon the assurances of the Buchlau Conference and the treaties that preceded it, Franz Joseph signed the proclamation announcing the annexation of Bosnia-Herzegovina into the Empire on 6 October 1908. However a diplomatic crisis erupted, as both the Serbs and the Italians demanded compensation for the annexation, which the Austro-Hungarian government refused to entertain. The incident was not resolved until the revision of the Treaty of Berlin in April 1909, exacerbating tensions between Austria-Hungary and the Serbs.

## Outbreak of World War I

[edit]

Main article: July Crisis

Rival military coalitions in 1914:

Triple Entente

Triple Alliance

On 28 June 1914, Franz Joseph's nephew and heir presumptive Archduke Franz Ferdinand, and his morganatic wife Sophie, Duchess of Hohenberg, were assassinated by Gavrilo Princip, a Yugoslav nationalist of Serbian ethnicity,[40] during a visit to Sarajevo. Franz Joseph learned about the assassination of Franz Ferdinand from his adjutant, cavalry General Eduard von Paar [de],[41] who also wrote the emperor's reaction in his diary: "one has not to defy the Almighty. In this manner a superior power has restored that order which I unfortunately was unable to maintain."[41]

While the emperor was shaken, and interrupted his holiday to return to Vienna, he soon resumed his vacation at his Kaiservilla at Bad Ischl. Initial decision-making during the "July Crisis" fell to Count Leopold Berchtold, the Imperial foreign minister; Count Franz Conrad von Hötzendorf, the chief of the Austro-Hungarian General Staff and the other ministers.[42] The ultimate resolution of deliberations by the Austro-Hungarian government during the weeks following the assassination of the Archduke was to give Serbia an ultimatum of itemized demands with which it was virtually certain Serbia would be unable or unwilling to comply, thus serving as a "legal basis for war".

A week after delivery of the Austro-Hungarian ultimatum to Serbia; on 28 July, war was declared. Within weeks, the Germans, Russians, French and British had all entered the fray which eventually became known as World War I. On 6 August, Franz Joseph signed the declaration of war against Russia.

## Death

[edit]

Film of the funeral procession of Franz Joseph

Franz Joseph died in the Schönbrunn Palace on the evening of 21 November 1916, at the age of 86. His death was a result of developing pneumonia of the right lung several days after catching a cold while walking in Schönbrunn Park with King Ludwig III of Bavaria.[43] He was succeeded by his grandnephew Charles I & IV, who reigned until the collapse of the empire following its defeat at the end of the First World War in 1918.[44] He is buried in the Imperial Crypt in Vienna.

## Family

[edit]

Painting of Franz Joseph with his family

It was generally felt in the court that the emperor should marry and produce heirs as soon as possible. Various potential brides were considered, including Princess Elisabeth of Modena, Princess Anna of Prussia and Princess Sidonia of Saxony.[45] Although in public life Franz Joseph was the unquestioned director of affairs, in his private life his mother still wielded crucial influence. Sophie wanted to strengthen the relationship between the Houses of Habsburg and Wittelsbach—descending from the latter house herself—and hoped to match Franz Joseph with her sister Ludovika's eldest daughter, Helene ("Néné"), who was four years the emperor's junior.

However, Franz Joseph fell deeply in love with Néné's younger sister Elisabeth ("Sisi"), a beautiful girl of 15, and insisted on marrying her instead. Sophie acquiesced, despite her misgivings about Sisi's appropriateness as an imperial consort, and the young couple were married on 24 April 1854 in St. Augustine's Church, Vienna.[46]

Marriage of Franz Joseph and Elisabeth.

Their marriage would eventually prove to be an unhappy one; though Franz Joseph was passionately in love with his wife, the feeling was not mutual. Elisabeth never truly acclimatized to life at court, and was frequently in conflict with the imperial family. Their first daughter Sophie died as an infant, and their only son Rudolf died by suicide in 1889 in the infamous Mayerling Incident.[35]

Emperor Franz Joseph hunting with his only son Rudolf, Crown Prince of Austria.

In 1885, Franz Joseph met Katharina Schratt, a leading actress of the Vienna stage, and she became his friend and confidante. This relationship lasted the rest of his life, and was—to a certain degree—tolerated by Elisabeth. Franz Joseph built Villa Schratt in Bad Ischl for her, and also provided her with a small palace in Vienna.[47] Though their relationship lasted for 34 years, it remained platonic.[48]

The empress was an inveterate traveller, horsewoman, and fashion maven who was rarely seen in Vienna. Sisi was obsessed about preserving her beauty, carrying out many bizarre routines and strenuous exercise, and as a result suffered from ill health. She was stabbed to death by an Italian anarchist in 1898 while on a visit to Geneva. A few days after the funeral, Robert of Parma wrote in a letter to his friend Tirso de Olazábal that "It was pitiful to look at the Emperor, he showed a great deal of energy in his immense pain, but at times one could see all the immensity of his grief."[49] Franz Joseph never fully recovered from the loss. According to the future empress Zita of Bourbon-Parma he told his relatives: "You'll never know how important she was to me" or, according to some sources, "You will never know how much I loved this woman."[50]

### Relationship with Franz Ferdinand

[edit]

Archduke Franz Ferdinand became heir presumptive (Thronfolger) to the throne of Austria-Hungary in 1896 after the deaths of his cousin Rudolf (in 1889) and his father Karl Ludwig (in 1896). The relationship between him and Franz Joseph had always been a fairly contentious one, which was further exacerbated when Franz Ferdinand announced his desire to marry Countess Sophie Chotek. The emperor would not even consider giving his blessing to the union, as Sophie was merely of noble rank, not dynastic rank.

Although the emperor received letters from members of the imperial family throughout the fall and winter of 1899 beseeching him to relent, Franz Joseph stood his ground.[51] He finally gave his consent in 1900. However, the marriage was to be morganatic, and any children of the marriage would be ineligible to succeed to the throne.[52] The couple were married on 1 July 1900 at Reichstadt. The emperor did not attend the wedding, nor did any of the archdukes. After that, the two men disliked and mistrusted each other.[47]

His interactions with Franz Ferdinand were strained; the emperor's personal attendant recollected in his memoirs that:
"thunder and lightning always raged when they had their discussions."[53]

Following the assassination of Franz Ferdinand and Sophie in 1914, Franz Joseph's daughter, Marie Valerie, noted that her father expressed his greater confidence in the new heir presumptive, his grandnephew Archduke Charles. The emperor admitted to his daughter, regarding the assassination:
"For me, it is a relief from a great worry."[54]

## Titles, styles, honours and arms

[edit]

See also: Grand title of the Emperor of Austria

Styles of
Franz Joseph I of Austria and Hungary

Reference style| His Imperial and Royal Apostolic Majesty
Spoken style| Your Imperial and Royal Apostolic Majesty
Monarchical styles of
Franz Joseph I of Austria

Reference style| His Imperial and Royal Majesty
Spoken style| Your Imperial and Royal Majesty
Monarchical styles of
Ferenc József I of Hungary

Reference style| His Apostolic Majesty
Spoken style| Your Apostolic Majesty

### Name

[edit]

Franz Joseph's names in the languages of his empire included:

* Bosnian: Franjo Josip I
* Croatian: Franjo Josip I.
* Czech: František Josef I
* German: Franz Joseph I
* Hungarian: I. Ferenc József
* Italian: Francesco Giuseppe I
* Polish: Franciszek Józef I
* Romanian: Francisc Iosif
* Serbian: Фрања Јосиф
* Slovak: František Jozef I
* Slovene: Franc Jožef I
* Ukrainian: Фра́нц Йо́сиф I

### Titles and styles

[edit]

* 18 August 1830 – 2 December 1848: His Imperial and Royal Highness Archduke and Prince Francis Joseph of Austria, Prince of Hungary, Bohemia and Croatia[55]
* 2 December 1848 – 21 November 1916: His Imperial and Royal Apostolic Majesty The Emperor of Austria, Apostolic King of Hungary

The full titulature of Francis Joseph after he succeeded his uncle Ferdinand I to the thrones of Empire of Austria and the vast realms of Central and Eastern Europe went as following:

> "His Imperial and Royal Apostolic Majesty, Francis Joseph I, by the Grace of God Emperor of Austria, King of Germany, King of Hungary, Bohemia, Lombardy–Venetia, Dalmatia, Croatia, Slavonia, Galicia, Lodomeria, Illyria, Serbia, Cumania, Bulgaria, Italy, Rama, Romania, King of Jerusalem, etc. etc.; Archduke of Austria; Grand Duke of Tuscany; Duke of Lorraine, Salzburg, Styria, Carinthia, Carniola and Bukovina; Grand Prince of Transylvania, Margrave of Moravia; Duke of Upper and Lower Silesia, of Modena, Parma, Piacenza and Guastalla, of Auschwitz and Zator, of Teschen, Friaul, Ragusa and Zara and Teck; Princely Count of Habsburg and Tyrol, of Kyburg, Gorizia and Gradisca; Prince of Trento and Brixen; Margrave of Upper and Lower Lusatia, Istria; Count of Hohenems, Feldkirch, Bregenz, Sonnenberg, etc. etc.; Lord of Trieste, of Cattaro and on the Windic March; Grand Voivode of the Voivodeship of Serbia, etc. etc."

[56]

### Honours

[edit]

#### National decorations

[edit]

* Knight of the Golden Fleece, 1844;[57] Chief and Sovereign, 2 December 1848 (Orden vom Goldenen Vlies, ex officio as Emperor of Austria)[58]
* Grand Master of the Military Order of Maria Theresa (Militär Maria-Theresien-Orden, ex officio as Emperor of Austria)[59]
* Grand Master of the Royal Hungarian Order of St. Stephen (Königlich ungarischer St. Stephan-Orden, ex officio as Emperor of Austria)[60]
* Grand Master of the Austrian Imperial Order of Leopold (Leopold-Orden, ex officio as Emperor of Austria)[61]
* Grand Master of the Imperial Order of the Iron Crown (Orden der Eisernen Krone, ex officio as Emperor of Austria)[62]

In addition, he founded the Order of Franz Joseph (Franz Joseph-Orden) on 2 December 1849,[63] and the Order of Elizabeth (Elizabeth-Orden) in 1898.[64]

#### Foreign decorations

[edit]

* Ascanian duchies: Grand Cross of the Order of Albert the Bear, 27 October 1849[65]
* Baden:[66]
* Knight of the House Order of Fidelity, 1851
* Grand Cross of the Zähringer Lion, 1851
* Bavaria:
* Knight of St. Hubert, 1849[67]
* Grand Cross of the Military Order of Max Joseph
* Belgium: Grand Cordon of the Order of Leopold (civil), 19 April 1849[68]
* Brunswick: Grand Cross of the Order of Henry the Lion, 1854[69]
* Bulgaria:
* Knight of Saints Cyril and Methodius[70]
* Order of Bravery, Grade I[71]
* Denmark: Knight of the Elephant, 17 January 1849[72]
* Ernestine duchies: Grand Cross of the Saxe-Ernestine House Order, March 1852[73]
* France: Grand Cross of the Legion of Honour[74]
* Hanover:[75]
* Knight of St. George, 1848
* Grand Cross of the Royal Guelphic Order
* Hawaii:
* Grand Cross of the Order of Kamehameha I, 1865[76]
* Grand Cross of the Order of Kalākaua, 1878[77]
* Hesse-Darmstadt: Grand Cross of the Ludwig Order, 3 May 1851[78]
* Hesse-Kassel: Knight of the Golden Lion, 19 November 1851[79]
* Holy See: Grand Cross of the Holy Sepulchre of Jerusalem
* Italy:
* Knight of the Annunciation, 13 April 1869[80]
* Grand Cross of Saints Maurice and Lazarus, 1869
* Grand Cross of the Crown of Italy, 1869
* Japan: Grand Cordon of the Order of the Chrysanthemum, 7 May 1880; Collar, 25 October 1898[81]
* Sovereign Military Order of Malta: Bailiff Grand Cross of Honour and Devotion[70]
* Mecklenburg-Strelitz: Cross for Distinction in War, 1st and 2nd Classes[82]
* Mexico: Grand Cross of the Mexican Eagle, with Collar, 1865[83]
* Modena: Grand Cross of the Eagle of Este, 1856[84]
* Monaco: Grand Cross of St. Charles, 24 September 1872[85]
* Montenegro: Grand Cross of the Order of Prince Danilo I[86]
* Nassau: Knight of the Gold Lion of Nassau, May 1858[87]
* Netherlands: Grand Cross of the Military William Order, 21 June 1849[88]
* Oldenburg: Grand Cross of the Order of Duke Peter Friedrich Ludwig, with Golden Crown, 9 March 1853[89]
* Parma: Senator Grand Cross of the Constantinian Order of St. George, with Collar, 1849[90]
* Prussia:
* Knight of the Black Eagle, 14 August 1844; with Collar, 1851[91]
* Grand Commander's Cross of the Royal House Order of Hohenzollern, 16 September 1884[91]
* Pour le Mérite (military), with Oak Leaves, 27 August 1914[92]
* Romania:
* Collar of the Order of Carol I, 1906[93]
* Grand Cross of the Star of Romania[74]
* Russia:
* Knight of St. Andrew, 30 December 1845[94]
* Knight of St. Alexander Nevsky
* Knight of the White Eagle
* Knight of St. Anna, 1st Class
* Knight of St. George, 4th Class, 2 July 1849[95]
* Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach: Grand Cross of the White Falcon, 1 October 1857[96]
* Saxony:
* Knight of the Rue Crown, 1847[97]
* Grand Cross of the Military Order of St. Henry
* Serbia:
* Grand Cross of the Cross of Takovo[74]
* Order of Miloš the Great, 1st Class
* Siam: Knight of the Order of the Royal House of Chakri, 15 July 1891
* Spain: Grand Cross of the Order of Charles III, with Collar, 10 May 1875[98]
* Sweden-Norway:
* Knight of the Seraphim, with Collar, 9 July 1850[99]
* Knight of the Norwegian Lion, 5 April 1904[100]
* Tuscany: Grand Cross of St. Joseph[101]
* Two Sicilies: Knight of St. Januarius, 1848[102]
* United Kingdom:
* Stranger Knight Companion of the Garter, 14 August 1867 (revoked 1915)[103]
* Recipient of the Royal Victorian Chain, 16 August 1904 (revoked 1915)[104]
* Württemberg: Grand Cross of the Württemberg Crown, 1850[105]

#### Honorary appointments

[edit]

* Honorary General of the Swedish Army, 1888[106]
* Colonel-in-chief of the 1st King's Dragoon Guards, British Army, 25 March 1896 – 1914
* Colonel-in-chief of the Kexholm Life Guards Grenadier Regiment, Russian Army, until 26 June 1914
* Colonel-in-chief of the 12th Belgorod Lancer Regiment, Russian Army, until 26 June 1914
* Colonel-in-chief of the 16th (Schleswig-Holstein) Hussars, German Army[70]
* Colonel-in-chief of the 122nd (Emperor Francis Joseph of Austria, King of Hungary (4th Württemberg) Fusiliers[70]
* Field Marshal of the British Army, 1 September 1903 – 1914Imperial Standard (From 1867 to 1915)[107]

#### Arms and monogram

[edit]

Lesser coat of arms of Franz Joseph I  |
Imperial monogram

|

### Legacy

[edit]

Centennial stamp[108]

Franz Josef Land in the Russian Arctic was named in his honour in 1873 by the Austro-Hungarian North Pole expedition which first reported finding it. The Franz Josef Glacier in New Zealand's South Island also bears his name.

Franz Joseph founded in 1872 the Franz Joseph University (Hungarian: Ferenc József Tudományegyetem, Romanian: Universitatea Francisc Iosif) in the city of Cluj-Napoca (at that time a part of Austria-Hungary under the name of Kolozsvár). The university was moved to Szeged after Cluj became a part of Romania, becoming the University of Szeged.

In certain areas, celebrations are still being held in remembrance of Franz Joseph's birthday. The Mitteleuropean People's Festival takes place every year around 18 August, and is a "spontaneous, traditional and brotherly meeting among peoples of the Central-European Countries".[109] The event includes ceremonies, meetings, music, songs, dances, wine and food tasting, and traditional costumes and folklore from Mitteleuropa.

### Personal motto

[edit]

* "With united forces" (as the Emperor of Austria) – German: "Mit vereinten Kräften" – Latin: "Viribus Unitis"
* "My trust in [the ancient] virtue" (as the Apostolic King of Hungary) – Hungarian: "Bizalmam az Ősi Erényben" – Latin: "Virtutis Confido"

## Issue

[edit]

* Archduchess Sophie of Austria (5 March 1855 – 29 May 1857).
* Archduchess Gisela of Austria (12 July 1856 – 27 July 1932). Married Prince Leopold of Bavaria (second cousin) in 1873. They had four children.
* Rudolf, Crown Prince of Austria (21 August 1858 – 30 January 1889). Married Princess Stephanie of Belgium in 1881. They had one daughter. He died in a murder–suicide.
* Archduchess Marie Valerie of Austria (22 April 1868 – 6 September 1924). Married Archduke Franz Salvator (second cousin) in 1890. They had ten children.

## Ancestry

[edit]

Ancestors of Franz Joseph I of Austria

|  |  |  |  |  |  |  | 8\. Leopold II, Holy Roman Emperor[112]

|
|
|
|
|
|
|

| 4\. Francis II, Holy Roman Emperor[110]|

|  |  |
| 9\. Infanta Maria Louisa of Spain[112]

| 2\. Archduke Franz Karl of Austria|

|  |  |  |  |
| 10\. Ferdinand I of the Two Sicilies[113]

| 5\. Princess Maria Theresa of Naples and Sicily[110]|

|  |  |
| 11\. Archduchess Maria Carolina of Austria[113]

| 1\. Franz Joseph I of Austria|
|  |  |  |  |  |  |
| 12\. Frederick Michael, Count Palatine of Zweibrücken[114]

| 6\. Maximilian I Joseph of Bavaria[111]|

|  |  |
| 13\. Countess Palatine Maria Franziska of Sulzbach[114]

| 3\. Princess Sophie of Bavaria|

|  |  |  |  |
| 14\. Charles Louis, Hereditary Prince of Baden[115]

| 7\. Princess Caroline of Baden[111]|

|  |  |
| 15\. Princess Amalie of Hesse-Darmstadt[115]

|  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |

## See also

[edit]

* Family tree of German monarchs – he was related to every other ruler of Germany
* List of coupled cousins
* Austro-Hungarian entry into World War I
* Franc Jozeph Island, island in Albania named in honor of the Emperor.
* Order of St. George (Habsburg-Lorraine)

## Citations

[edit]

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3. ^ Murad 1968, p. 61.
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5. ^ Murad 1968, p. 33.
6. ^ Murad 1968, p. 8.
7. ^ Murad 1968, p. 6.
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12. ^ a b c This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Phillips, Walter Alison (1911). "Hungary". In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.). Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 13 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 917–918.
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97. ^ Staatshandbuch für den Freistaat Sachsen (1867) (in German), "Königliche Ritter-Orden", p. 4
98. ^ "Real y distinguida orden de Carlos III". Guía Oficial de España (in Spanish). 1887. p. 148. Retrieved 21 March 2019.
99. ^ Sveriges statskalender (in Swedish), 1864, p. 421, retrieved 6 January 2018 - via runeberg.org
100. ^ "The Order of the Norwegian Lion", The Royal House of Norway. Retrieved 10 August 2018.
101. ^ Almanacco Toscano per l'anno 1855. Stamperia Granducale. 1855. p. 272.
102. ^ Angelo Scordo, Vicende e personaggi dell'Insigne e reale Ordine di San Gennaro dalla sua fondazione alla fine del Regno delle Due Sicilie (PDF) (in Italian), p. 8, archived from the original (PDF) on 4 March 2016
103. ^ Shaw, Wm. A. (1906) The Knights of England, I, London, p. 64
104. ^ Shaw, p. 415
105. ^ Hof- und Staats-Handbuch des Königreich Württemberg (1907), "Königliche Orden" p. 27
106. ^ Sveriges statskalender (in Swedish), 1909, p. 155, retrieved 6 January 2018 - via runeberg.org
107. ^ "Imperial Standard of Austria, Flags of the World".
108. ^ 100\. Todestag Kaiser Franz Joseph (100th Anniversary of the death of Emperor Francis Joseph). The stamp uses the design issued on his 80th birthday, which in turn is based on a 1908 design by Koloman Moser to commemorate the 60th anniversary of his accession to the throne.
109. ^ Associazione Culturale Mitteleuropa Archived 14 May 2013 at the Wayback Machine. Retrieved 21 April 2012
110. ^ a b Wurzbach, Constantin von, ed. (1860). "Habsburg, Franz Karl Joseph" . Biographisches Lexikon des Kaiserthums Oesterreich [Biographical Encyclopedia of the Austrian Empire] (in German). Vol. 6\. p. 257 - via Wikisource.
111. ^ a b Wurzbach, Constantin von, ed. (1861). "Habsburg, Sophie (geb. 27. Jänner 1805)" . Biographisches Lexikon des Kaiserthums Oesterreich [Biographical Encyclopedia of the Austrian Empire] (in German). Vol. 7\. p. 149 - via Wikisource.
112. ^ a b Wurzbach, Constantin von, ed. (1860). "Habsburg, Franz I." . Biographisches Lexikon des Kaiserthums Oesterreich [Biographical Encyclopedia of the Austrian Empire] (in German). Vol. 6\. p. 208 - via Wikisource.
113. ^ a b Wurzbach, Constantin von, ed. (1861). "Habsburg, Maria Theresia von Neapel" . Biographisches Lexikon des Kaiserthums Oesterreich [Biographical Encyclopedia of the Austrian Empire] (in German). Vol. 7\. p. 81 - via Wikisource.
114. ^ a b Genealogie ascendante jusqu'au quatrieme degre inclusivement de tous les Rois et Princes de maisons souveraines de l'Europe actuellement vivans [Genealogy up to the fourth degree inclusive of all the Kings and Princes of sovereign houses of Europe currently living] (in French). Bourdeaux: Frederic Guillaume Birnstiel. 1768. p. 94.
115. ^ a b "Maximilian I. Joseph → Karoline Friederike Wilhelmine von Baden". Haus der Bayerischen Geschichte [House of Bavarian History] (in German). Bavarian Ministry of State for Wissenschaft and Kunst. Retrieved 13 June 2020.

## General bibliography

[edit]

* Albertini, Luigi (2005). The Origins of the War of 1914. New York: Enigma Books.[ISBN missing]
* Murad, Anatol (1968). Franz Joseph I of Austria and his Empire. Twayne Publishers. ISBN 978-0-8290-0172-3.
* Palmer, Alan (1994). Twilight of the Habsburgs: The Life and Times of Emperor Francis Joseph. Atlantic Monthly Press. ISBN 978-0-8021-1560-7.

## Further reading

[edit]

* Bagger, E. S. (1927). Francis Joseph: Emperor of Austria - King of Hungary. New York: G.P. Putnam's Sons. OCLC 1658401.
* Beller, S. (1996). Francis Joseph. Profiles in Power. London: Longman. OCLC 605339010.
* Bled, J. (1994). Franz Joseph. Oxford: Blackwell. OCLC 844302638.
* Bridge, F. R. (1972). From Sadowa to Sarajevo: the foreign policy of Austria–Hungary, 1866–1914.
* Cunliffe-Owen, M. (1904). A Keystone of Empire: Francis Joseph of Austria. New York: Harper. OCLC 8393894.
* Gerő, A. (2001). Emperor Francis Joseph: King of the Hungarians. Boulder: Social Science Monogaphs. OCLC 865200178.
* Owens, K. (2013). Franz Joseph and Elisabeth: The Last Great Monarchs of Austria–Hungary. Jefferson: McFarland & Company. ISBN 978-1-4766-1216-4.
* Redlich, J. (1929). Emperor Francis Joseph of Austria. New York: Macmillan. OCLC 936201260.
* Taylor, A.J.P. (1964). The Habsburg monarchy, 1809–1918: a history of the Austrian Empire and Austria–Hungary (2nd ed.). London: Penguin Books.; politics and diplomacy
* Tschuppik, Karl (1930). The reign of the Emperor Francis Joseph.
* Unterreiner, K. (2006). Emperor Franz Joseph, 1830–1916: Myth and Truth. Vienna: Brandstätter. ISBN 978-3-902510-44-0.
* Van der Kiste, J. (2005). Emperor Francis Joseph: Life, Death and the Fall of the Habsburg Empire. Stroud: History Press. ISBN 978-0-7524-9547-7.
* Winkelhofer, M. (2012). The Everyday Life of the Emperor: Francis Joseph and His Imperial Court. Innsbruck: Haymon Taschenbuch. ISBN 978-3-85218-927-7.

## External links

[edit]

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* Works by or about Franz Joseph I of Austria at the Internet Archive
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* Newspaper clippings about Franz Joseph I of Austria in the 20th Century Press Archives of the ZBW

Franz Joseph I of Austria

House of Habsburg-Lorraine

Cadet branch of the House of Lorraine

Born: 18 August 1830 Died: 21 November 1916

Regnal titles
Preceded by

Ferdinand I & V

|  Emperor of Austria
King of Bohemia
King of Galicia and Lodomeria
King of Hungary
King of Croatia, Slavonia and Dalmatia
1848–1916  | Succeeded by

Charles I & IV

Preceded by

Ferdinand I

|  King of Lombardy-Venetia
1848–1866  | Italian unification
Political offices
Preceded by

Ferdinand I of Austria

|  Head of the Präsidialmacht Austria
1850–1866  | Succeeded by

William I of Prussia

as Holder of the Bundespräsidium
of the North German Confederation

Links to related articles

* v
* t
* e

Monarchs of Austria

House of Babenberg|

* Leopold I the Illustrious (976–994)
* Henry I the Strong (994–1018)
* Adalbert the Victorious (1018–1055)
* Ernest the Brave (1055–1075)
* Leopold II the Fair (1075–1095)
* Leopold III the Good (1095–1136)
* Leopold the Generous (1137–1141)
* Henry II Jasomirgott (1141–1177)
* Leopold V the Virtuous (1177–1194)
* Frederick I the Catholic (1195–1198)
* Leopold VI the Glorious (1198–1230)
* Frederick II the Quarrelsome (1230–1246)

Interregnum|

* Vladislaus of Moravia (claimant 1246–1247)
* Herman VI of Baden (claimant 1248–1250)
* Frederick I of Baden (claimant 1250–1268)
* Ottokar II of Bohemia (claimant 1251–1278)

House of Habsburg
Austria|

* Rudolf I (1278–1282)
* Albert I (1282–1308)
* Rudolf II the Debonair (1282–1283)
* Rudolf III the Good (1298–1307)
* Frederick I the Fair (1308–1330)
* Leopold I the Glorious (1308–1326)
* Albert II the Wise (1330–1358)
* Otto I the Merry (1330–1339)
* Frederick II (1339–1344)
* Leopold II (1339–1344)
* Rudolf IV the Founder (1358–1365)
* Leopold III the Just (1365-1379)
* Albert III the Pigtail (1365-1395)
* Albert IV the Patient (1395-1404)
* Albert V (1404–1439)
* Ladislaus I the Posthumous (1440–1457)
* Frederick V the Peaceful (1457–1493)
* Maximilian I the Last Knight (1493–1519)
* Charles I (1519–1521)
* Ferdinand I (1521–1564)
* Maximilian II (1564–1576)
* Rudolf V (1576–1608)
* Matthias (1608–1619)
* Albert VII (1619)
* Ferdinand III (1590, 1619–1637)
* Ferdinand IV (1637–1657)
* Leopold V (1623–1632)
* Ferdinand Charles (1632–1662)
* Sigismund Francis (1662–1665)
* Leopold VI (1657, 1665–1705)
* Joseph I (1705–1711)
* Charles III (1711–1740)
* Maria Theresa (1740–1780)
* Francis I Stephen (1740–1765)
* Joseph II (1765–1790)
* Leopold VII (1790–1792)
* Francis II (1792–1835)
* Ferdinand I (1835–1848)
* Francis Joseph I (1848–1916)
* Charles I (1916–1918)

House of Habsburg
Styria, Carinthia, Carniola|

* Leopold III the Just (1365–1386)
* William the Courteous (1386–1406)
* Leopold IV the Fat (1386–1411)
* Ernest the Iron (1402–1424)
* Frederick V the Peaceful (1424–1493)
* Albert VI the Prodigal (1457–1463)
* Maximilian I the Last Knight (1493–1519)
* Charles I (1519–1521)
* Ferdinand I (1521–1564)
* Charles II (1564–1590)
* Ferdinand III (1590–1637)

House of Habsburg
Tyrol|

* Rudolf IV the Founder (1363–1365)
* Leopold III the Just (1365–1386)
* William the Courteous (1386–1406)
* Frederick IV of the Empty Pockets (1406–1439)
* Sigismund the Rich (1439–1490)
* Maximilian I the Last Knight (1490–1519)
* Charles I (1519–1521)
* Ferdinand I (1521–1564)
* Ferdinand II (1564–1595)
* Matthias (1595–1619)
* Albert VII (1619)
* Ferdinand III (1619–1623)
* Leopold V (1623–1632)
* Ferdinand Charles (1632–1662)
* Sigismund Francis (1662–1665)
* Leopold VI (1665–1705)

* v
* t
* e

German confederations (1806–1871)

Confederation of the Rhine
1806–1813|

| Protector|

* Napoleon I (1806–1813)

|

Prince primate|

* Karl Theodor von Dalberg (1806–1813)
* Eugène de Beauharnais (1813)

German Confederation
1815–1866|

| Presidents|

* Francis I of Austria (1815–1835)
* Ferdinand I of Austria (1835–1848)
* Francis Joseph I of Austria (1850–1866)

|

Imperial regent|

* Archduke Johann of Austria (1848–1849)

North German Confederation
1867–1871|

| President|

* Wilhelm I of Prussia (1867–1871)

|

Chancellor|

* Otto von Bismarck (1867–1871)

* List of German monarchs
* History of Germany
* House of Habsburg-Lorraine
* House of Hohenzollern

* v
* t
* e

Monarchs of Germany

East Francia during the
Carolingian dynasty (843–911)|

* Louis the German
* Carloman
* Louis the Younger
* Charles the Fat
* Arnulf
* Louis the Child

East Francia (911–919)
Kingdom of Germany (919–962)|

* Conrad I
* Henry I
* Arnulf
* Otto I

Kingdom of Germany within the
Holy Roman Empire (962–1806)|

* Otto I
* Otto II
* Otto III
* Henry II
* Conrad II
* Henry III
* Henry IV
* Rudolf
* Hermann
* Conrad (III)
* Henry V
* Lothair II/III
* Conrad III
* Henry (VI)
* Frederick I
* Henry VI
* Philip
* Otto IV
* Frederick II
* Henry (VII)
* Conrad IV
* Henry (VIII)
* William
* Richard
* Alfonso
* Rudolf I
* Adolf
* Albert I
* Henry VII
* Louis IV
* Frederick (III)
* Charles IV
* Günther
* Wenceslaus
* Rupert
* Jobst
* Sigismund
* Albert II
* Frederick III
* Maximilian I
* Charles V
* Ferdinand I
* Maximilian II
* Rudolf II
* Matthias
* Ferdinand II
* Ferdinand III
* Ferdinand IV
* Leopold I
* Joseph I
* Charles VI
* Charles VII
* Francis I
* Joseph II
* Leopold II
* Francis II

Confederation of the Rhine (1806–1813)|

* Napoleon I

German Confederation (1815–1848)|

* Francis I
* Ferdinand I

German Empire (1848/1849)|

* Archduke John of Austria (Imperial Regent)

German Confederation (1850–1866)|

* Franz Joseph I

North German Confederation (1867–1871)|

* William I

German Empire (1871–1918)|

* William I
* Frederick III
* William II

* v
* t
* e

Monarchs of Bohemia

Přemyslid|

| Legendary|

* Czech
* Krok
* Libuše
* Přemysl the Ploughman
* Valasca
* Nezamysl
* Mnata
* Vojen
* Vnislav
* Křesomysl
* Neklan
* Hostivít

|

c. 870-1198 (Dukes)|

* Bořivoj I
* Spytihněv I
* Vratislaus I
* Saint Wenceslaus
* Boleslaus I
* Boleslaus II
* Boleslaus III
* Vladivoj
* Boleslaus the Brave1
* Jaromír
* Oldřich
* Bretislaus I
* Spytihněv II
* Vratislaus II (I)2
* Conrad I
* Bretislaus II
* Bořivoj II
* Svatopluk the Lion
* Vladislaus I
* Sobeslaus I
* Vladislaus II (I)2
* Frederick
* Sobeslaus II
* Frederick
* Conrad II Otto
* Wenceslaus II
* Ottokar I
* Henry Bretislaus
* Vladislaus III Henry

1198-1306 (Kings)|

* Ottokar I
* Wenceslaus I
* Ottokar II
* Wenceslaus II
* Wenceslaus III

Non-dynastic|

| 1306-1310|

* Henry the Carinthian
* Rudolph I

|

Luxembourg|

| 1310-1437|

* John the Blind
* Charles IV (I)
* Wenceslaus IV
* Sigismund

|

Habsburg|

| 1437-1457|

* Albert
* Interregnum
* Ladislaus the Posthumous

|

Non-dynastic|

| 1457-1471|

* George
* Matthias I3

|

Jagiellonian|

| 1471-1526|

* Vladislaus II
* Louis

|

Habsburg|

| 1526-1780|

* Ferdinand I
* Maximilian
* Rudolph II
* Matthias II
* Ferdinand II
* Frederick4
* Ferdinand III
* Ferdinand IV5
* Leopold I
* Joseph I
* Charles II
* Charles Albert (II)3, 6
* Maria Theresa

|

Habsburg-Lorraine|

| 1780-1918|

* Joseph II
* Leopold II
* Francis II (I)
* Ferdinand V
* Francis Joseph
* Charles I (III)

|

* 1 Duke of Poland from the Piast dynasty
* 2 During his reign obtained non-hereditary royal title
* 3 Antiking
* 4 Elector Palatine from the Wittelsbach dynasty
* 5 Junior king who co-ruled with his predecessor and predeceased him, thus never reigning on his own
* 6 Prince-elector of Bavaria from the Wittelsbach dynasty

* v
* t
* e

Monarchs of Hungary

Kings of Hungary family tree, List of Hungarian monarchs

House of Árpád|

| Grand Princes|

* Álmos (c. 850–c. 895)
* Árpád (c. 895–c. 907)
* Zoltán (c. 907–c. 947)
* Fajsz (c. 947–c. 955)
* Taksony (c. 955–c. 972)
* Géza (c. 972–997)
* Stephen (997–1000)

|

Kings|

* Stephen I (1000–1038)
* Peter (1038–1041; 1044–1046)
* Samuel (1041–1044)
* Andrew I (1046–1060)
* Béla I (1060–1063)
* Solomon (1063–1074)
* Géza I (1074–1077)
* Ladislaus I (1077–1095)
* Coloman (1095–1116)
* Stephen II (1116–1131)
* Béla II (1131–1141)
* Géza II (1141–1162)
* Stephen III (1162–1172)
* Ladislaus II (1162–1163)
* Stephen IV (1163–1165)
* Béla III (1172–1196)
* Emeric (1196–1204)
* Ladislaus III (1204–1205)
* Andrew II (1205–1235)
* Béla IV (1235–1270)
* Stephen V (1270–1272)
* Ladislaus IV (1272–1290)
* Andrew III (1290–1301)

House of Přemysl|

* Wenceslaus (1301–1305)

House of Wittelsbach|

* Otto (1305–1307)

Capetian House of Anjou|

* Charles I (1308–1342)
* Louis I (1342–1382)
* Maria (1382–1385; 1386–1395)
* Charles II (1385–1386)

House of Luxembourg|

* Sigismund (1387–1437)

House of Habsburg|

* Albert (1437–1439)
* Ladislaus V (1440–1457)

House of Jagiellon|

* Vladislaus I (1440–1444)

House of Hunyadi|

* Matthias I (1458–1490)

House of Jagiellon|

* Vladislaus II (1490–1516)
* Louis II (1516–1526)

House of Zápolya|

* John (1526–1540)
* John Sigismund (1540–1570)

House of Habsburg|

* Ferdinand I (1526–1564)
* Maximilian (1564–1576)
* Rudolph (1576–1608)
* Matthias II (1608–1619)
* Ferdinand II (1619–1637)
* Ferdinand III (1637–1657)
* Ferdinand IV (1647–1654)
* Leopold I (1657–1705)
* Joseph I (1705–1711)
* Charles III (1711–1740)
* Maria Theresa (1740–1780)

House of Habsburg-Lorraine|

* Joseph II (1780–1790)
* Leopold II (1790–1792)
* Francis (1792–1835)
* Ferdinand V (1835–1848)
* Francis Joseph (1848–1916)
* Charles IV (1916–1918)

Debatable or disputed rulers are in italics.

* v
* t
* e

Monarchs of Croatia

House of Trpimirović|

* Tomislav
* Trpimir II
* Krešimir I
* Miroslav
* Michael Krešimir II
* Stephen Držislav
* Svetoslav Suronja
* Krešimir III / Gojslav
* Stephen I
* Peter Krešimir IV
* Demetrius Zvonimir
* Stephen II

House of Árpád|

* Ladislaus I (Álmos as duke)

House of Snačić|

* Petar Snačić (pretender)

Croatia in personal
union with Hungary|

* Rulers of Croatia after 1102 (1102-1918)

House of Savoy-Aosta
(Independent State of Croatia)|

* Tomislav II (king designate)

* v
* t
* e

Austrian archdukes

Generations are numbered by male-line descent from the first archdukes. Later generations are included although Austrian titles of nobility were abolished in 1919.

1st generation|

* Frederick V
* Albert VI
* Sigismund

2nd generation|

* Maximilian I

3rd generation|

* Philip I of Castile

4th generation|

* Charles I
* Ferdinand I

5th generation|

* Philip II of SpainS
* Maximilian II
* Ferdinand II
* Charles II

6th generation|

* Charles, Prince of AsturiasS
* Ferdinand, Prince of AsturiasS
* Diego, Prince of AsturiasSP
* Philip III of SpainSP
* Rudolf V
* Ernest
* Matthias
* Maximilian III
* Albert VII
* Wenceslaus
* Ferdinand III
* Maximilian Ernest
* Leopold V
* Charles, Bishop of Wroclaw

7th generation|

* Philip IV of SpainSP
* CharlesSP
* FerdinandSP
* AlonsoSP
* Ferdinand IV
* Leopold Wilhelm
* Ferdinand Charles
* Sigismund Francis

8th generation|

* Balthasar Charles, Prince of AsturiasSP
* Philip Prospero, Prince of AsturiasS
* Charles II of SpainS
* Ferdinand IV of Hungary
* Leopold VI
* Charles Joseph

9th generation|

* Joseph I
* Charles III

11th generation|

* Joseph IIT
* Charles JosephT
* Leopold VIIT
* FerdinandT
* Maximilian Franz, Archbishop-Elector of CologneT

12th generation|

* Emperor Francis IT
* Ferdinand III, Grand Duke of TuscanyT
* CharlesT
* Alexander LeopoldT
* JosephT
* Anton VictorT
* JohnT
* Rainer JosephT
* LouisT
* Cardinal RudolfT
* Francis IV, Duke of ModenaM
* Ferdinand Karl JosephM
* MaximilianM
* Karl Ambrosius, Primate of HungaryM

13th generation|

* Emperor Ferdinand I
* Joseph Franz
* Franz Karl
* Leopold II, Grand Duke of TuscanyT
* Albrecht
* Karl Ferdinand
* Frederick Ferdinand
* Wilhelm Franz
* Stephen
* Joseph Karl
* Leopold Ludwig
* Ernest
* Sigismund
* Rainer Ferdinand
* Heinrich Anton
* Francis V, Duke of ModenaM
* Ferdinand Karl ViktorM

14th generation|

* Emperor Franz Joseph I
* Maximilian I of Mexico
* Karl Ludwig
* Ludwig Viktor
* Ferdinand IV, Grand Duke of TuscanyT
* Karl SalvatorT
* Ludwig SalvatorT
* John SalvatorT
* Friedrich
* Charles Stephen
* Eugen
* Joseph August
* Ladislaus Philipp

15th generation|

* Crown Prince Rudolf
* Franz Ferdinand
* Otto
* Ferdinand Karl
* Leopold FerdinandT
* Josef FerdinandT
* Peter FerdinandT
* Leopold SalvatorT
* Franz SalvatorT
* Albrecht Franz
* Karl Albrecht
* Leo Karl
* Wilhelm
* Joseph Francis

16th generation|

* Emperor Charles I
* Maximilian

Habsburg
Tuscany|

* GottfriedT
* RainerT
* Leopold MariaT
* AntonT
* Franz JosephT
* Karl PiusT
* Franz Karl SalvatorT
* Hubert SalvatorT

Palatines
of Hungary|

* Géza

17th generation|

| Descent of
Charles I|

* Crown Prince Otto
* Robert
* Felix
* Carl Ludwig
* Rudolf

|

Tuscany|

* DominicT

Palatines|

* Eduard

18th generation|

| Charles|

* Karl
* Georg
* LorenzB
* Simeon

|

19th generation|

| Charles|

* Ferdinand Zvonimir
* AmedeoB

|

* S: also an infante of Spain
* P: also an infante of Portugal
* T: also a prince of Tuscany
* M: also a prince of Modena
* B: also a prince of Belgium

* v
* t
* e

Heads of state of Hungary

Revolution of 1848|

* Kossuth
* Görgei

Kingdom (1867–1918)|

* Francis Joseph
* Charles IV

First Republic|

* Károlyi

Soviet Republic|

* Garbai
* Peidl

Republic (1919–20)|

* Joseph August
* Friedrich
* Huszár

Kingdom (1920–46)|

* Horthy
* Szálasi
* Miklós
* High National Council

Second Republic|

* Tildy
* Szakasits

People's Republic|

* Szakasits
* Rónai
* Dobi
* Losonczi
* Németh
* Straub

Third Republic|

* Szűrös
* Göncz
* Mádl
* Sólyom
* Schmitt
* Kövér
* Áder
* Novák
* Kövér
* Sulyok

* Italics indicates acting officeholders.

* v
* t
* e

Austro-Hungarian Armed Forces

Army|

* Austro-Hungarian Army
* Common Army
* Imperial Austrian Landwehr
* Privilegiertes uniformiertes Grazer Bürgerkorps
* Royal Hungarian Honvéd
* Royal Croatian Home Guard
* 42nd Inf. Division
* First Army
* Rank insignia
* Military Intelligence
* Weaponry
* Imperial and Royal Infantry
* Alpine companies
* Feldjäger
* Kaiserjäger
* Imperial-Royal Mountain Troops
* Imperial and Royal Dragoons
* Imperial and Royal Hussars
* Imperial and Royal Uhlans
* Standschützen
* Schutzkorps
* Grenz infantry
* Stormtroopers

Navy|

* Kriegsmarine
* Ranks
* Battleships
* Cruisers
* U-Boats
* Seefliegerkorps
* Danube Flotilla
* Naval Academy

Air Force|

* Luftfahrtruppen
* Aircraft

Leadership|

| Emperors|

* Francis Joseph I
* Charles I

|

Ministers for War|

* Feldmarschalleutnant (FML) Franz Freiherr von John
* FML Franz Kuhn Freiherr Kuhn von Kuhnenfeld
* General der Kavallerie (GdK) Alexander Freiherr von Koller
* Feldzeugmeister (FZM) Arthur Maximilian Graf Bylandt-Rheydt (der Ältere)
* FZM Ferdinand Freiherr Bauer
* FZM Rudolf Freiherr Merkl
* GdK Edmund Freiherr von Krieghammer
* FZM Heinrich Ritter von Pitreich
* General der Infanterie (GdI) Franz Freiherr Schönaich
* GdI Moritz Ritter Auffenberg von Komarów
* Feldmarschall Alexander Freiherr von Krobatin
* Generaloberst Rudolf Stöger-Steiner von Steinstätten

Supreme Commander of the Imperial
and Royal Armed Forces|

* Archduke Albrecht, Duke of Teschen
* Francis Joseph I
* Archduke Friedrich, Duke of Teschen
* Charles I
* Hermann Kövess von Kövessháza

Chiefs of the
General Staff|

* FML Josef Wilhelm Freiher von Gallina
* FML Franz Freiherr von John
* FML Anton Freiherr von Schönfeld
* FZM Friedrich Graf von Beck-Rzikowsky
* Franz Conrad von Hötzendorf
* Generalmajor Blasius von Schemua
* GdI Arthur Arz von Straußenburg

Commanders-in-Chief
of the Navy|

* VAdm Wilhelm von Tegetthoff
* VAdm Friedrich Freiherr von Pöck
* VAdm Maximilian Daublebsky Freiherr von Sterneck
* VAdm Hermann Freiherr von Spaun
* VAdm Rudolf Graf/Conte Montecuccoli
* Grand Adm Anton Haus
* Adm Maximilian Njegovan
* Adm Miklós Horthy

Heads of the
Naval Section|

* VAdm Wilhelm von Tegetthoff
* VAdm Friedrich Freiherr von Pöck
* VAdm Maximilian Daublebsky Freiherr von Sterneck
* VAdm Hermann Freiherr von Spaun
* VAdm Rudolf Graf/Conte Montecuccoli
* Grand Adm Anton Haus
* Adm Karl Kailer von Kaltenfels
* Adm Maximilian Njegovan
* RAdm Franz von Holub

Commanders|

* Archduke Eugen of Austria
* Franz Rohr von Denta
* Eduard von Böhm-Ermolli
* Svetozar Boroević
* Archduke Joseph August of Austria
* Franz Böhme
* Josip Jelačić
* Günther Burstyn
* Georg Dragičević
* Karol Durski-Trzaska
* Gheorghe Flondor
* Tadeusz Rozwadowski
* Archduke Joseph Ferdinand of Austria
* Rudolf Maister
* Artur Phleps
* Oskar Potiorek
* Alfred Redl
* Maximilian Ronge
* Viktor Dankl von Krasnik
* Viktor Graf von Scheuchenstuel
* Stjepan Sarkotić
* Gottfried Freiherr von Banfield
* Archduke Charles Stephen of Austria
* Miklós Horthy
* Franz von Keil
* Giovanni Luppis
* Georg von Trapp
* Janko Vuković

* v
* t
* e

Hungarian Revolution of 1848

Belligerents|

* Austrian Empire
* Hungarian Revolutionary Army
* Kingdom of Hungary
* Russian Empire

Pretext|

* April Laws

Major battles|

* Pákozd
* Schwechat
* Mór
* Kápolna
* Battles of Komárom
* First battle
* Second battle
* Third battle
* Isaszeg
* Buda
* Pered
* Segesvár
* Szőreg
* Temesvár
* Kishegyes

Other events|

* 1848–1849 massacres in Transylvania
* Vienna Uprising

Influence|

* Hungarian Declaration of Independence
* Surrender at Világos
* Austro-Hungarian Compromise of 1867

Leaders for Austria|

* Ferdinand I of Austria
* Franz Joseph I of Austria
* Eduard Clam-Gallas
* Julius Jacob von Haynau
* Josip Jelačić
* Prince Franz de Paula of Liechtenstein
* Franz Schlik
* Alfred I, Prince of Windisch-Grätz

Leaders for Hungary|

* Lajos Batthyány
* Józef Bem
* János Damjanich
* Henryk Dembiński
* Antal Vetter
* Arisztid Dessewffy
* András Gáspár
* Artúr Görgey
* Richard Guyon
* György Klapka
* György Kmety
* Lajos Kossuth
* Vilmos Lázár
* Lázár Mészáros
* János Móga
* Alessandro Monti
* Ferenc Ottinger
* Mór Perczel
* István Széchenyi
* Bertalan Szemere

Leaders for Russia|

* Alexander von Lüders
* Fyodor Sergeevich Panyutin
* Grigory Yakovlevich Skariatin
* Ivan Fyodorovich Paskevich
* Grigory Khristoforovich Zass
* Nikolai Fyodorovich Engelhardt
* Maksim Maksimovich Grotenhelm

Commons

* v
* t
* e

Unification of Italy (Risorgimento)

Pre-unitary states|

* Kingdom of Sardinia (House of Savoy)
* Kingdom of the Two Sicilies
* Kingdom of Lombardy–Venetia
* Papal States
* Grand Duchy of Tuscany
* Duchy of Parma
* Duchy of Modena and Reggio

Timeline|

* Rimini Proclamation
* Carbonari
* Revolutions during the 1820s
* Revolutions of 1830
* Young Italy
* Neo-Guelphism
* Revolutions of 1848
* Revolutions of 1848 in the Italian states
* Republic of San Marco
* Roman Republic
* Quadrilatero
* First Italian War of Independence
* Five Days of Milan
* Sortie on Mestre
* Sicilian revolution of 1848
* Ten Days of Brescia
* Belfiore martyrs
* Crimean War
* Plombières Agreement
* Second Italian War of Independence
* United Provinces of Central Italy
* Expedition of the Thousand
* Dictatorship of Garibaldi
* Proclamation of the Kingdom of Italy
* Brigandage in Southern Italy after 1861
* Roman Question
* Third Italian War of Independence
* Capture of Rome
* Law of Guarantees
* Italian entry into World War I
* Impresa di Fiume

Symbols|

* Cockade of Italy
* Flag of Italy

Main leaders|

* Massimo d'Azeglio
* Agostino Bertani
* Camillo Benso, Count of Cavour
* Celso Ceretti
* Federico Confalonieri
* Francesco Crispi
* Giuseppe Garibaldi
* Daniele Manin
* Giuseppe Mazzini
* Bettino Ricasoli
* Aurelio Saffi
* Annibale Santore di Santarosa
* Ruggero Settimo
* Victor Emmanuel II

Literature and philosophy|

* Giovanni Arrivabene
* Cesare Balbo
* Giosuè Carducci
* Carlo Cattaneo
* Felice Cavallotti
* Vincenzo Cuoco
* Giuseppe Ferrari
* Ugo Foscolo
* Vincenzo Gioberti
* Francesco Domenico Guerrazzi
* Giacomo Leopardi
* Francesco Lomonaco
* Goffredo Mameli
* Alessandro Manzoni
* Ippolito Nievo
* Silvio Pellico
* Carlo Pisacane
* Gian Domenico Romagnosi
* Antonio Rosmini
* Francesco Saverio Salfi

Opponents|

* Pope Pius IX
* Franz Joseph I of Austria
* Francis II of the Two Sicilies
* Klemens von Metternich
* Joseph Radetzky von Radetz

Museums|

* Museum of the Risorgimento (Bologna)
* Museum of the Risorgimento (Milan)
* Museum of the Risorgimento (Rome)
* Museum of the Risorgimento (Turin)
* Tricolour Flag Museum

National days|

* Anniversary of the Unification of Italy
* National Unity and Armed Forces Day

Other|

* Altare della Patria
* Italian irredentism
* Italian nationalism
* Redshirts
* Revisionism of Risorgimento
* Southern question
* Third Rome

Authority control databases

International|

* ISNI
* VIAF
* FAST
* WorldCat

National|

* Germany
* United States
* France
* BnF data
* Japan
* Italy
* Australia
* Czech Republic
* Spain
* Portugal
* Netherlands
* Norway
* Latvia
* Croatia
* Chile
* Greece
* Sweden
* Poland
* Vatican
* Israel
* Catalonia
* Belgium

Academics|

* CiNii

Artists|

* ULAN
* MusicBrainz
* RKD Artists
* KulturNav
* FID

People|

* Trove
* Deutsche Biographie
* DDB

Other|

* IdRef
* NARA
* Te Papa (New Zealand)
* RISM

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