French India

Former French colony

French Settlements in India

Établissements français dans l'Inde (French)

1664–1954

Flag

French India (shaded in white) after 1815

Status| Colony of France (1664–1946)
Overseas Territory of France (1946–1954)
Capital| Pondichéry
Common languages| French (de jure)[1]
Bengali
Malayalam
Tamil
Telugu

Government| Colonial administration
Governor|

• 1668–1673

| François Caron (first) [2]

• 1954

| Georges Escaragueil[3]
Legislature| Representative Assembly of French India
History|

• First French East India Company Commissioner of Surat

| 1664

• De facto transfer

| 1 November 1954
Area
1936| 510 km2 (200 sq mi)
Population

• 1936

| 298,861
Currency| French Indian rupee

Preceded by | Succeeded by

|

|  | French East India Company

|

| Puducherry (union territory) |

|

West Bengal |
Today part of| India
Colonial India

Map of colonial India, distributed by the British Information Services (1942)

|  Austrian India|  1778–1785

|

Swedish India|  1731–1813
Dutch India|  1605–1825
Danish India|  1620–1869
French India|  1668–1954

Portuguese India
(1505–1961)

|  Casa da Índia|  1434–1833

|

Portuguese East India Company|  1628–1633

British India
(1600–1947)

|  EIC in India|  1600–1757

|

Company rule in India|  1757–1858
British rule in Portuguese India|  1797–1813
British Raj in India|  1858–1947
British rule in Burma|  1824–1948
Princely states|  1721–1949
Partition of India|  1947

* v
* t
* e

French India, formally the Établissements français dans l'Inde[a] (English: French Settlements in India), was a French colony comprising five geographically separated enclaves on the Indian subcontinent that had initially been factories of the French East India Company. They were de facto incorporated into the Republic of India in 1950 and 1954. The enclaves were Pondichéry, Karikal, Yanam on the Coromandel Coast, Mahé on the Malabar Coast and Chandernagor in Bengal. The French also possessed several loges ('lodges', tiny subsidiary trading stations) inside other towns, but after 1816, the British denied all French claims to these, which were not reoccupied.

By 1950, the total area measured 510 km2 (200 sq mi), of which 293 km2 (113 sq mi) belonged to the territory of Pondichéry. In 1936, the population of the colony totalled 298,851 inhabitants, of which 63% (187,870) lived in the territory of Pondichéry.[4]

## Background

[edit]

See also: Franco-Indian alliances, Colonial History of Yanam, and History of Puducherry

India at the height of French influence (1751) A portrait of Ananda Ranga Pillai Colonial Yanaon View of Pondicherry in the late 18th century French factory (trading post) at Patna on the Ganges Governor's Garden at Pondicherry, 18th century View of the Palace of the Governor of Pondicherry in 1850

France was the last of the major European maritime powers of the 17th century to enter the East India trade. Six decades after the foundation of the English and Dutch East India companies (in 1600 and 1602 respectively), and at a time when both companies were multiplying factories (trading posts) on the shores of India, the French still did not have a viable trading company or a single permanent establishment in the East.

Seeking to explain France's late entrance in the East India trade, historians cite geopolitical circumstances such as the inland position of the French capital, France's numerous internal customs barriers, and parochial perspectives of merchants on France's Atlantic coast, who had little appetite for the large-scale investment required to develop a viable trading enterprise with the distant East Indies.[5][6]

## History

[edit]

### Initial marine voyages to India (16th century)

[edit]

The first French commercial venture to India is believed to have taken place in the first half of the 16th century, in the reign of King Francis I, when two ships were fitted out by some merchants of Rouen to trade in eastern seas; they sailed from Le Havre and were never heard of again. In 1604, a company was granted letters patent by King Henry IV, but the project failed. Fresh letters patent were issued in 1615, and two ships went to India, only one returning.[7]

La Compagnie française des Indes orientales (French East India Company) was formed under the auspices of Cardinal Richelieu (1642) and reconstructed under Jean-Baptiste Colbert (1664) when he sent an expedition to Madagascar.[8][9][7]

### First factory in India (1668)

[edit]

In 1667, the French India Company sent out another expedition, under the command of François Caron (who was accompanied by a Persian named Marcara), which reached Surat in 1668 and established the first French factory in India.[8][9]

### French expansion in India (1669-1672)

[edit]

In 1669, Marcara succeeded in establishing another French factory at Masulipatam. In 1672, the French captured Fort Saint Thomas, but they were driven out by the Dutch after a long and costly siege. Chandernagore (present-day Chandannagar) was established in 1692, with the permission of Nawab Shaista Khan, the Mughal governor of Bengal. In 1673, the French acquired the area of Pondicherry from the qiladar of Valikondapuram under the Sultan of Bijapur, and thus the foundation of Pondichéry was laid. By 1720, the French had lost their factories at Surat, Masulipatam and Bantam to the British East India Company.

### Establishment of colony at Pondichéry (1673)

[edit]

On 4 February 1673, Bellanger de l'Espinay, a French officer, took up residence in the Danish Lodge in Pondichéry, thereby commencing the French administration of Pondichéry. In 1674, François Martin, the first Governor, initiated ambitious projects to transform Pondichéry from a small fishing village into a flourishing port-town. However, the French found themselves in continual conflict with the Dutch and the English. In 1693, the Dutch captured Pondichéry and augmented the fortifications. The French regained the town in 1699 through the Treaty of Ryswick, signed on 20 September 1697.

### Establishment of colonies at Yanon (1723) and Karaikal (1739)

[edit]

From their arrival until 1741, the objectives of the French, like those of the British, were purely commercial. During this period, the French East India Company peacefully acquired Yanam (about 840 kilometres or 520 miles north-east of Pondichéry on Andhra Coast) in 1723, Mahe on Malabar Coast in 1725 and Karaikal (about 150 kilometres or 93 miles south of Pondichéry) in 1739. In the early 18th century, the town of Pondichéry was laid out on a grid pattern and grew considerably. Able governors like Pierre Christophe Le Noir (1726–1735) and Pierre Benoît Dumas (1735–1741) expanded the Pondichéry area and made it a large and rich town.

### Ambition of establishment of French territorial empire in India and defeat (1741–1754)

[edit]

Soon after his arrival in 1741, the most famous governor of French India, Joseph François Dupleix, began to hold the ambition of a French territorial empire in India in spite of the pronounced uninterested attitude of his distant superiors and of the French government, which didn't want to provoke the British. Dupleix's ambition clashed with British interests in India and a period of military skirmishes and political intrigues began and continued even in rare periods when France and Great Britain were officially at peace. Under the command of the Marquis de Bussy-Castelnau, Dupleix's army successfully controlled the area between Hyderabad and Cape Comorin. However, Robert Clive, a British officer, arrived in India in 1744, and dashed the hopes of Dupleix to create a French empire in India.

After a defeat and failed peace talks, Dupleix was summarily dismissed and recalled to France in 1754.

### French vs British intrigues (1754–1871)

[edit]

In spite of a treaty between the British and French agreeing not to interfere in regional Indian affairs, their colonial intrigues continued. The French expanded their influence at the court of the Nawab of Bengal and increased their trading activity in Bengal. In 1756, the French encouraged the Nawab (Siraj ud-Daulah) to attack and take the British Fort William in Calcutta. This led to the Battle of Plassey in 1757, where the British decisively defeated the Nawab and his French allies, resulting in the extension of British power over the entire province of Bengal.

Subsequently, France sent Lally-Tollendal to recover the lost French possessions and drive the British out of India. Lally arrived in Pondichéry in 1758, had some initial success and razed Fort St. David in Cuddalore District to the ground in 1758, but strategic mistakes by Lally led to the loss of the Hyderabad region, the Battle of Wandiwash and the siege of Pondicherry in 1760. In 1761, the British razed Pondichéry to the ground in revenge for the French depredations; it lay in ruins for four years. The French had lost their hold now in South India too.

In 1765, Pondichéry was returned to France in accordance with a 1763 peace treaty with Britain. Governor Jean Law de Lauriston set to rebuild the town on its former layout and after five months 200 European and 2000 Tamil houses had been erected. In 1769, the French East India Company, unable to support itself financially, was abolished by the French Crown, which assumed administration of the French possessions in India. During the next 50 years, Pondichéry changed hands between France and Britain with the regularity of their wars and peace treaties.

In 1816, after the conclusion of the Napoleonic Wars, the five establishments of Pondichéry, Chandernagore, Karaikal, Mahe and Yanam and the lodges at Machilipatnam, Kozhikode and Surat were returned to France. Pondichéry had lost much of its former glory, and Chandernagore dwindled into an insignificant outpost to the north of the rapidly growing British metropolis of Calcutta. Successive governors tried, with mixed results, to improve infrastructure, industry, law and education over the next 138 years.

By a decree of 25 January 1871, French India was to have an elective general council (conseil général) and elective local councils (conseil local). The results of this measure were not very satisfactory, and the qualifications for and the classes of the franchise were modified. The governor resided at Pondichéry and was assisted by a council. There were two Tribunaux d'instance (Tribunals of first instance) (at Pondichéry and Karikal) one Cour d'appel (Court of Appeal) (at Pondichéry) and five Juges de paix (Justices of the Peace). Agricultural production consisted of rice, peanuts, tobacco, betel nuts and vegetables.[7]

Pondichéry

Karikal

Masulipatam

Mahé

Calicut

Chandernagore

Cassimbazar

Jugdia

Dacca

Balasore

Patna

Surat

Yanaon

class=notpageimage|

French establishments and loges as of 1947
Bengal Coromandel coast Gujarat Malabar coast Orissa

1954 French ID issued at their colony of Pondicherry before the transfer.

### Independence movement (18th–20th century) and merger with India (1954)

[edit]

The Independence of India on 15 August 1947 gave impetus to the union of France's Indian possessions with former British India. The lodges in Machilipatnam, Kozhikode and Surat were ceded to India on 6 October 1947.[10] An agreement between France and India in 1948 agreed to an election in France's remaining Indian possessions to choose their political future. Governance of Chandernagore was ceded to India on 2 May 1950; it was then merged with West Bengal state on 2 October 1954. On 1 November 1954, the four enclaves of Pondichéry, Yanam, Mahe– and Karikal were de facto transferred to the Indian Union and became the Union Territory of Puducherry. The de jure union of French India with India did not take place until 1962 when the French Parliament in Paris ratified the treaty with India.

### The myth of "our immense empire in India"

[edit]

From the mid-19th century onward there developed in France the belief that the five tiny settlements recovered from Britain after the Napoleonic Wars were remnants of the "immense empire" acquired by Dupleix in the 18th century. "Our immense empire of India was reduced to five settlements" wrote French economist and colonial expansion promoter Pierre Paul Leroy-Beaulieu in 1886.[11] An atlas published in the 1930s described those five settlements as "remnants of the great colonial empire that France had created in India in the 18th century".[12] More recently, a historian of French India post-1816 described them as "debris of an empire" and the "last remnants of an immense empire forever lost".[13] However, France never held much more than the five settlements recovered in 1816. The historian of French India and archivist Alfred Martineau, who was also governor of French India, pointed out that the authority granted to Dupleix over the Carnatic in 1750 should not be construed as a transfer of sovereignty, as wrote most historians, given that Dupleix only became so to speak the lieutenant of the Indian subah, who could withdraw his power delegation at his convenience.[14] Philippe Haudrère, historian of the French East India Company, also wrote that Dupleix controlled those territories through a complex system of treaties and alliances, a system almost feudal in nature, territories guarded by garrisons with French commanders, but neither annexed nor transformed into protectorates.[15]

## List of French settlements in India

[edit]

Further information: Municipal administration in French India

French establishments in the Indian peninsula as of 1839 were:[16]

1. On the Coramandel coast,
* Pondichéry and its territory comprising districts of Pondichéry, Villenour and Bahour;
* Karikal and its dependent maganams, or districts.
2. On the coast of Andhra Pradesh,
* Yanaon and its territory comprising dependent aldées or villages;
* The Masulipatam lodge[note 1] and a garden named Francepeth.[note 2]
3. On the Malabar coast,
* Mahé and its territory;
* The Calicut lodge.[note 3]
4. In Bengal,
* Chandernagore and its territory;
* The five lodges[18] of Cassimbazar,[note 4] Jougdia,[note 5] Dacca,[note 6] Balasore[note 7] and Patna.[note 8]
5. In Gujarat,
* Surat factory.[note 9]

Under the French East India Company's regime, the name 'lodge' was given to factories or insulated establishments consisting of a home and adjacent ground where France had the right to fly its flag and establish trading posts.

* Pro-merger movement of French Settlements in India, 1954

* Dupleix meeting the Soudhabar of the Deccan, Murzapha Jung

* Suffren meeting with ally Hyder Ali in 1782, J. B. Morret engraving, 1789

* French India postage stamps

* Chandernagore's Government House c. 1850

## List of chief governing officers

[edit]

### Commissioners

[edit]

* François Caron, 1668–1672
* François Baron, 1672–1681
* François Martin, 1681 – November 1693
* Dutch occupation, September 1693 – September 1699 — Treaty of Ryswick (1697)

### Governors

[edit]

In the days of the French East India Company, the title of the top official was most of the time Governor of Pondicherry and General Commander of the French settlements in the East Indies (French: Gouverneur de Pondichéry et commandant général des établissements français aux Indes orientales). After 1816, it was Governor of French establishments in India (French: Gouverneur des établissements français de l'Inde').

Quai Dupleix at Strand Road ChandernagorChandernagore Government House and Convent

* François Martin, September 1699 – 31 December 1706
* Pierre Dulivier (Acting), January 1707 – July 1708
* Guillaume André d'Hébert, 1708–1712
* Pierre Dulivier, 1713–1715
* Guillaume André d'Hébert, 1715–1718
* Pierre André Prévost de La Prévostière, August 1718 – 11 October 1721
* Pierre Christoph Le Noir (Acting), 1721–1723
* Joseph Beauvollier de Courchant, 1723–1726
* Pierre Christoph Le Noir, 1727–1734
* Pierre Benoît Dumas, 1735–1741
* Joseph François Dupleix, 14 January 1742 – 15 October 1754
* Charles Godeheu, Le commissaire (Acting), 15 October 1754 – 1754
* Georges Duval de Leyrit, 1756–1758
* Thomas Arthur, comte de Lally, 1758 – January 1761
* First British occupation, January 15, 1761 – June 25, 1765 — Treaty of Paris (1763)
* Jean Law de Lauriston, 1765–1766
* Antoine Boyellau (Acting), 1766–1767
* Jean Law de Lauriston, 1767 – January 1777Chandernagor Government House
* Second British occupation, 1778 – 1783 – Treaty of Paris (1783)
* Guillaume de Bellecombe, January 1777 – 1778
* Marquis de Bussy-Castelnau, 1783–1785
* François de Souillac, 1785
* David Charpentier de Cossigny, October 1785 – 1787
* Thomas Conway, October 1787 – 1789
* Camille Charles Leclerc, Chevalier de Fresne, 1789–1792
* Dominique Prosper de Chermont, November 1792 – 1793
* L. Leroux de Touffreville, 1793
* Third British occupation, 23 August 1793 – 18 June 1802 — Treaty of Amiens (1802)
* Charles Mathieu Isidore Decaen, 18 June 1802 – August 1803
* Louis Binot, 1803
* Fourth British occupation, August 1803 – 26 September 1816 — Treaty of Paris (1814)
* Comte Dupuy, 26 September 1816 – October 1825
* Joseph Cordier, Marie Emmanuel (Acting), October 1825 – 19 June 1826
* Eugène Desbassayns de Richemont, 1826 – 2 August 1828
* Joseph Cordier, Marie Emmanuel (Acting), 2 August 1828 – 11 April 1829
* Auguste Jacques Nicolas Peureux de Mélay, 11 April 1829 – 3 May 1835
* Hubert Jean Victor, Marquis de Saint-Simon, 3 May 1835 – April 1840
* Paul de Nourquer du Camper, April 1840 – 1844
* Louis Pujol, 1844–1849
* Hyacinthe Marie de Lalande de Calan, 1849–1850
* Philippe Achille Bédier, 1851–1852
* Raymond de Saint-Maur, August 1852 – April 1857
* Alexandre Durand d'Ubraye, April 1857 – January 1863
* Napoléon Joseph Louis Bontemps, January 1863 – June 1871
* Antoine-Léonce Michaux, June 1871 – November 1871
* Pierre Aristide Faron, November 1871 – 1875
* Adolph Joseph Antoine Trillard, 1875–1878
* Léonce Laugier, February 1879 – April 1881
* Théodore Drouhet, 1881 – October 1884
* Étienne Richaud, October 1884 – 1886
* Édouard Manès, 1886–1888
* Georges Jules Piquet, 1888–1889
* Louis Hippolyte Marie Nouet, 1889–1891
* Léon Émile Clément-Thomas, 1891–1896
* Louis Jean Girod, 1896 – February 1898
* François Pierre Rodier, February 1898 – 11 January 1902
* Louis Pelletan (Acting), 11 January 1902
* Victor Louis Marie Lanrezac, 1902–1904
* Philema Lemaire, August 1904 – April 1905
* Joseph Pascal François, April 1905 – October 1906
* Gabriel Louis Angoulvant, October 1906 – 3 December 1907
* Adrien Jules Jean Bonhoure, 1908–1909
* Ernest Fernand Lévecque, 1909 – 9 July 1910
* Alfred Albert Martineau, 9 July 1910 – July 1911
* Pierre Louis Alfred Duprat, July 1911 – November 1913
* Alfred Albert Martineau, November 1913 – 29 June 1918
* Pierre Étienne Clayssen (Acting), 29 June 1918 – 21 February 1919
* Louis Martial Innocent Gerbinis, 21 February 1919 – 11 February 1926
* Henri Léo Eugène Lagroua (Acting), 11 February 1926 – 5 August 1926
* Pierre Jean Henri Didelot, 1926–1928
* Robert Paul Marie de Guise, 1928–1931
* François Adrien Juvanon, 1931–1934
* Léon Solomiac, August 1934 – 1936
* Horace Valentin Crocicchia, 1936–1938
* Louis Alexis Étienne Bonvin, 26 September 1938 – 1945
* Nicolas Ernest Marie Maurice Jeandin, 1945–1946
* Charles François Marie Baron, 20 March 1946 – 20 August 1947

French India became an Overseas territory (French: territoire d'outre-mer) of France in 1946.

### Commissioners

[edit]

* Charles François Marie Baron, 20 August 1947 – May 1949
* Charles Chambon, May 1949 – 31 July 1950
* André Ménard, 31 July 1950 – October 1954
* Georges Escargueil, October 1954 – 1 November 1954

French India de facto transferred to the Republic of India in 1954.

### High Commissioners

[edit]

See also: List of lieutenant governors of Puducherry

Further information: List of consuls general of India in the French India

The first High Commissioner, Kewal Singh was appointed immediately after the Kizhoor referendum on 21 October 1954 as per Foreign Jurisdiction Act, 1947.[19]: 964 The Chief Commissioner had the powers of the former French commissioner, but was under the direct control of the Union Government.[20]: 198

The list of Chief Commissioners is given below[19]: 977

No. | Name  | Took office  | Left office

|
|
|

1 | Kewal Singh | 21 October 1954 | 16 November 1956
2 | M.K. Kripalani[21]: 103 | 17 November 1956 | 27 August 1958
3 | Lal Ram Saran Singh[22]: 197 | 30 August 1958 | 8 February 1961
4 | Sisir Kumar Dutta[23] | 2 May 1961 | 1 August 1963
5 | K.J. Somasundaram | 2 August 1963 | 13 October 1963

## See also

[edit]

* France portal
* India portal
* History portal

* Apostolic Prefecture of French Colonies in India (Catholic mission)
* British Raj
* Colonial India
* Coup d'état of Yanaon
* Danish India
* Dutch India
* Municipal administration in French India
* Portuguese India

## Notes

[edit]

1. ^ In France, it was popularly known as les Comptoirs de l'Inde. Strictly speaking though, a comptoir is a trading station, whereas the five French settlements were entire towns with the surrounding area, and not mere trading stations.

1. ^ The French Factory at Masulipatam was founded in 1669
2. ^ It is the largest and most significant loge among all others and was located on the outskirts of Masulipatam. It included two bungalows, a chapel and some other buildings. Its total area is around 61 acres (0.28sqkm).[17]: 64
3. ^ This French Loge was within the British-held Calicut town and consisted of 6 acres on the seashore about half a mile north of the Calicut Lighthouse and adjoins the old district jail site.
4. ^ This factory supplied silk goods cargoes and situated in the heart of silk belt.
5. ^ This factory supplied ordinary fabrics to the French East India Company. It was established in 1735 by Dupleix.
6. ^ This factory exported muslins of 4 lakh rupees per annum by the mid-eighteen century. It was founded in 1722.
7. ^ This factory was founded at the end of the seventeenth century but suffered from a lack of proper road transport and it lost its commercial activity during the next century.
8. ^ This factory used to sell drapes from Europe and bought saltpetre and opium. It was founded in 1727.
9. ^ This factory was founded in 1668 after securing a firman and a factory site from Emperor Aurangazeb.

## References

[edit]

1. ^ Not as widespread as English
2. ^ as Commissioner
3. ^ as High Commissioner
4. ^ Jacques Weber, Pondichéry et les comptoirs de l'Inde après Dupleix, Éditions Denoël, Paris, 1996, p. 347.
5. ^ Holden Furber, Rival Empires of Trade in the Orient, 1600–1800, University of Minnesota Press, 1976, p. 201.
6. ^ Philippe Haudrère, Les Compagnies des Indes Orientales, Paris, 2006, p 70.
7. ^ a b c One or more of the preceding sentences incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "India, French". Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 14 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 421.
8. ^ a b Lach, Donald Frederick (1998), Asia in the making of Europe, University of Chicago Press, p. 747, ISBN 9780226467672.
9. ^ a b Benians, Ernest Alfred; Newton, Arthur Percival; Rose, John Holland (1940), The Cambridge history of the British Empire, p. 66.
10. ^ Accord par échange de lettres relatif à la date de la cession des anciennes loges françaises de l'Inde au gouvernement de l'Inde [Agreement by exchange of letters relating to the date of the cession of the former French lodges of India to the Government of India] (in French). Paris: Ministère de l'Europe et des Affaires étrangères. 1947. p. 5. Retrieved 2 September 2022. "the Government of India note and accept with pleasure the decision of the Government of France that October 6th will be the day from which the historic rights which France has exercised in the areas known as the French Loges in India will be renounced."
11. ^ Paul Leroy-Beaulieu, De la colonisation chez les peuples modernes, Librairie Guillaumin et Cie (2nd edition, 1886), p. vi
12. ^ Kathryn Dale, France’s Lost Empires. Fragmentation, Nostalgia and la fracture coloniale, edited by Kate Marsh and Nicola Frith, Lexington Books, (2010) p. 37
13. ^ Jacques Weber, Les établissements français en Inde au XIXe siècle (1816-1914), Librairie de l'Inde Éditeur (1988), p. 24-25
14. ^ "Elle n'entraînait pas le droit de l'exercice de la souveraineté, ainsi que l'ont écrit presque tous les historiens; Dupleix ne devenant en réalité que le lieutenant, ou naëb, du soubab; celui-ci conservait le pouvoir éminent et pouvait à sa convenance retirer sa délégation" Alfred Martineau, Dupleix, sa vie et son œuvre, Société d'éditions géographiques, maritimes et coloniales (Paris 1931) p. 168-169
15. ^ "Dupleix mène une grande politique visant à contrôler un vaste territoire, il s'agit bien de contrôle et non d'annexion, ni même de protectorat; c’est un ensemble compliqué reposant sur une série de traités et d'alliances et sur l'installation de garnisons commandées par des officiers français. [...] C'est un système très souple de caractère presque féodal" Philippe Haudrère, Présence française en Inde et dans l’Océan indien, in Présences françaises outre-mer (XVIe-XXIe siècles), Philippe Bonichon et al., Karthala (2012), tome 1, p. 245
16. ^ Chapitre II, Notices statistiques sur les colonies françaises, 1839.
17. ^ Thomas Bowrey (1993). A Geographical Account of Countries Round the Bay of Bengal, 1669 to 1679. Asian Educational Services. ISBN 9788120608481.
18. ^ Claude Markovits (2004). A History of Modern India, 1480-1950. Anthem Press. p. 210\. ISBN 9781843311522.
19. ^ a b Cabinet Responsibility to Legislature. Lok Sabha Secretariat. 2004. ISBN 9788120004009. `{{cite book}}`: `|work=` ignored (help)
20. ^ The Statesman's Year-Book 1963: The One-Volume ENCYCLOPAEDIA of all nations. MACMILLAN&Co.LTD, London. 1963. ISBN 9780230270893. `{{cite book}}`: `|work=` ignored (help)
21. ^ "Civil Affairs". Monthly Journal of Local Govt. and Public Administration in India. 1958.
22. ^ The Statesman's Year-Book 1960: The One-Volume ENCYCLOPAEDIA of all nations. MACMILLAN&Co.LTD, London. 1960. ISBN 9780230270893. `{{cite book}}`: `|work=` ignored (help)
23. ^ The Statesman's Year-Book 1963: The One-Volume ENCYCLOPAEDIA of all nations. MACMILLAN&Co.LTD, London. 1963. pp. 474–475. ISBN 9780230270923. `{{cite book}}`: `|work=` ignored (help)

## Bibliography

[edit]

* Sudipta Das (1992). Myths and realities of French imperialism in India, 1763–1783. New York: P. Lang. ISBN 0820416762. 459pp.

## External links

[edit]

Wikimedia Commons has media related to French India.

* Frenchbooksonindia.com, an open access multilingual discovery tool with book data from 1531 to 2020, full-text ebooks from 1531 to 1937 and in-text search from c. 1830 to c. 1920
* V. Sankaran, Freedom struggle in Pondicherry – Gov't of India publication

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* Bombay Mutiny
* Royal Air Force strikes
* Coup d'état of Yanaon
* Provisional Government of India
* Independence Day
* Praja Mandala movement
* Lucknow Pact

Organisations|

* All India Kisan Sabha
* All-India Muslim League
* Anushilan Samiti
* Arya Samaj
* Azad Hind
* Berlin Committee
* Ghadar Movement
* Hindustan Socialist Republican Association
* Indian National Congress
* India House
* Indian Home Rule movement
* Indian Independence League
* Indian National Army
* Jugantar
* Khaksar movement
* Khudai Khidmatgar
* Swaraj Party
* more

Social
reformers|

* Ashfaqulla Khan
* A. Vaidyanatha Iyer
* Ayya Vaikundar
* Ayyankali
* B. R. Ambedkar
* Baba Amte
* Bal Gangadhar Tilak
* Dayananda Saraswati
* Dhondo Keshav Karve
* G. Subramania Iyer
* Gazulu Lakshminarasu Chetty
* Gopal Ganesh Agarkar
* Gopal Hari Deshmukh
* Gopaldas Ambaidas Desai
* Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar
* J. B. Kripalani
* Jyotirao Phule
* Kandukuri Veeresalingam
* Mahadev Govind Ranade
* Mahatma Gandhi
* Muthulakshmi Reddy
* Narayana Guru
* Niralamba Swami
* Pandita Ramabai
* Periyar
* Ram Mohan Roy
* Rettamalai Srinivasan
* Sahajanand Saraswati
* Savitribai Phule
* Shahu
* Sister Nivedita
* Sri Aurobindo
* Syed Ahmad Khan
* Vakkom Moulavi
* Vinayak Damodar Savarkar
* Vinoba Bhave
* Vitthal Ramji Shinde
* Vivekananda

Independence
activists|

* Abul Kalam Azad
* Accamma Cherian
* Achyut Patwardhan
* A. K. Fazlul Huq
* Alluri Sitarama Raju
* Annapurna Maharana
* Annie Besant
* Ashfaqulla Khan
* Babu Kunwar Singh
* Bagha Jatin
* Bahadur Shah II
* Bakht Khan
* Bal Gangadhar Tilak
* Basawon Singh
* Begum Hazrat Mahal
* Bhagat Singh
* Bharathidasan
* Bhavabhushan Mitra
* Bhikaiji Cama
* Bhupendra Kumar Datta
* Bidhan Chandra Roy
* Bipin Chandra Pal
* C. Rajagopalachari
* Chandra Shekhar Azad
* Chetram Jatav
* Chittaranjan Das
* Dadabhai Naoroji
* Dayananda Saraswati
* Dhan Singh
* Dukkipati Nageswara Rao
* Gopal Krishna Gokhale
* Govind Ballabh Pant
* Har Dayal
* Hemu Kalani
* Inayatullah Khan Mashriqi
* Jatindra Mohan Sengupta
* Jatindra Nath Das
* Jawaharlal Nehru
* K. Kamaraj
* Kanaiyalal Maneklal Munshi
* Khan Abdul Ghaffar Khan
* Khudiram Bose
* Shri Krishna Singh
* Lala Lajpat Rai
* M. Bhaktavatsalam
* M. N. Roy
* Maghfoor Ahmad Ajazi
* Mahadaji Shinde
* Mahatma Gandhi
* Mangal Pandey
* Mir Qasim
* Mithuben Petit‎
* Mohammad Ali Jauhar
* Muhammad Ali Jinnah
* Muhammad Mian Mansoor Ansari
* Nagnath Naikwadi
* Nana Fadnavis
* Nana Saheb
* P. Kakkan
* Prafulla Chaki
* Pritilata Waddedar
* Purushottam Das Tandon
* Rafi Ahmed Kidwai
* R. Venkataraman
* Rahul Sankrityayan
* Rajendra Prasad
* Ram Prasad Bismil
* Rani Lakshmibai
* Rash Behari Bose
* Sahajanand Saraswati
* Sangolli Rayanna
* Sarojini Naidu
* Satyapal Dang
* Shuja-ud-Daula
* Shyamji Krishna Varma
* Sibghatullah Shah Rashidi
* Siraj ud-Daulah
* Subhas Chandra Bose
* Subramania Bharati
* Subramaniya Siva
* Surya Sen
* Syama Prasad Mukherjee
* Tara Rani Srivastava
* Tarak Nath Das
* Tatya Tope
* Tiruppur Kumaran
* Ubaidullah Sindhi
* V. O. Chidamabaram
* V. K. Krishna Menon
* Vallabhbhai Patel
* Vanchinathan
* Veeran Sundaralingam
* Vinayak Damodar Savarkar
* Virendranath Chattopadhyaya
* Yashwantrao Holkar
* Yogendra Shukla
* more

British leaders|

* Wavell
* Canning
* Cornwallis
* Irwin
* Chelmsford
* Curzon
* Ripon
* Minto
* Dalhousie
* Bentinck
* Mountbatten
* Wellesley
* Lytton
* Clive
* Outram
* Cripps
* Linlithgow
* Hastings

Independence|

* Cabinet Mission
* Constitution
* Republic of India
* Indian annexation of Goa
* Indian Independence Act
* Partition of India
* Political integration
* Simla Conference

* v
* t
* e

French overseas empire

Former|

* v
* t
* e

Former French colonies in Africa and the Indian Ocean

North Africa|

* Algeria
* Morocco
* Tunisia

West Africa|

* Côte d'Ivoire
* Dahomey
* Sudan
* Guinea
* Mauritania
* Arguin Island
* Niger
* Senegal
* Four Communes
* Upper Volta
* Togoland
* James Island
* Albreda

Equatorial Africa|

* Chad
* Gabon
* Middle Congo
* Ubangi-Shari
* Cameroons

Comoros|

* Anjouan
* Grande Comore
* Mohéli

* Somaliland (Djibouti)
* Madagascar
* Isle de France

* v
* t
* e

Former French colonies in the Americas

French North America|

* Acadia
* Louisiana
* Canada
* Terre Neuve
* French Florida
* French Texas

French Caribbean|

* Dominica
* Grenada
* The Grenadines
* Saint-Domingue
* Haïti, Dominican Republic
* Saint Kitts & Nevis
* Saint Lucia
* Saint Vincent
* Tobago
* Virgin Islands

Equinoctial France|

* Berbice
* France Antarctique
* Inini

* French colonization of the Americas
* French West India Company

* v
* t
* e

Former French colonies in Asia and Oceania

French India|

* Chandernagor
* Coromandel Coast
* Madras
* Mahé
* Pondichéry
* Karaikal
* Yanaon

Indochinese Union|

* Cambodia
* Laos
* Vietnam[vi]
* Cochinchina
* Annam
* Tonkin
* Kouang-Tchéou-Wan

Mandate for Syria
and the Lebanon|

* State of Syria
* Aleppo
* Damascus
* Alawite State
* Greater Lebanon
* Jabal al-Druze
* Sanjak of Alexandretta

Oceania|

* New Hebrides
* Vanuatu
* Port Louis-Philippe (Akaroa)

* France–Asia relations
* French East India Company

Present|

* v
* t
* e

Overseas France

Inhabited territories

| Overseas​ regions1|

* French Guiana
* Guadeloupe
* Martinique
* Mayotte2
* Réunion

|

Overseas​ collectivities|

* French Polynesia
* Saint Barthélemy
* Saint Martin
* Saint Pierre and Miquelon
* Wallis and Futuna

Sui generis​ collectivity|

* New Caledonia

Uninhabited territories

| North Pacific Ocean|

* Clipperton Island

|

Overseas territory​ (French Southern​ and Antarctic Lands)|

* Adélie Land
* Crozet Islands
* French domains of Saint Helena
* French domains of the Holy Land
* Kerguelen Islands
* Saint Paul and Amsterdam Islands

Scattered Islands in​ the Indian Ocean|

* Bassas da India3
* Europa Island3
* Glorioso Islands2, 3
* Banc du Geyser
* Juan de Nova Island3
* Tromelin Island4

* 1 Also known as overseas departments
* 2 Claimed by the Comoros
* 3 Claimed by Madagascar
* 4 Claimed by Mauritius

Authority control databases

International|

* VIAF
* WorldCat

National|

* Germany
* United States
* France
* BnF data
* Israel

Other|

* IdRef

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*[e]: Edit this template
*[No.]: Number