GDNF family of ligands

A 3D structure of GDNF

The GDNF family of ligands (GFL) consists of four neurotrophic factors: glial cell line-derived neurotrophic factor (GDNF), neurturin (NRTN), artemin (ARTN), and persephin (PSPN). GFLs have been shown to play a role in a number of biological processes including cell survival, neurite outgrowth, cell differentiation and cell migration. In particular signalling by GDNF promotes the survival of dopaminergic neurons.[1]

## Signalling complex formation

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At the cell surface of target cells, a signalling complex forms, composed of a particular GFL dimer, a receptor tyrosine kinase molecule RET, and a cell surface-bound co-receptor that is a member of the GFRα protein family. The primary ligands for the co-receptors GFRα1, GFRα2, GFRα3, and GFRα4 are GDNF, NRTN, ARTN, and PSPN, respectively.[2] Upon initial GFL-GFRα complex formation, the complex then brings together two molecules of RET, triggering trans-autophosphorylation of specific tyrosine residues within the tyrosine kinase domain of each RET molecule. Phosphorylation of these tyrosines then initiates intracellular signal transduction processes.

It has been shown that in the case of GDNF, heparan sulfate glycosaminoglycans are also required to be present at the cell surface in order for RET mediated GDNF signalling to occur.[3][4]

## Clinical significance

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GFLs are an important therapeutic target for several conditions:

* GDNF has shown promising results in two Parkinson's disease clinical trials [5][6] and in a number of animal trials. Although a different study later reported this as a 'placebo effect', work on perfecting the delivery of GDNF to the putamen is continuing. GDNF is a potent survival factor for central motoneurons and may have clinical importance for the treatment of ALS.[7] Moreover, recent results highlight the importance of GDNF as a new target for drug addiction [8] and alcoholism treatment.[9]
* NRTN can also be used for Parkinson’s disease therapy and for epilepsy treatment.[10] NRTN promotes survival of basal forebrain cholinergic neurons [11] and spinal motor neurons.[12] Therefore, NRTN has a potential in the treatment of Alzheimer’s disease and ALS.
* ARTN also has a therapeutic perspective, for it is considered for chronic pain treatment.[13]
* PSPN promotes the survival of mouse embryonic basal forebrain cholinergic neurons in vitro.[11] Hence, PSPN may be used for the treatment of Alzheimer’s disease. PSPN may also have clinical applications in the treatment of the stroke.[14]

Given a huge spectrum of possible therapeutic applications, the modulation of GFRα/RET receptor complex activity is of great interest. However, natural GDNF ligands are of a limited clinical use. As positively charged polypeptides GFLs are unable to penetrate the blood–brain barrier, and they have very small volume of distribution in the tissues. Therefore, the creation of small-molecule agonists is highly beneficial for the development of effective therapies against devastating neurological diseases.[15]

## References

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1. ^ Airaksinen M, Saarma M (2002). "The GDNF family: signalling, biological functions and therapeutic value". Nat Rev Neurosci. 3 (5): 383–94. doi:10.1038/nrn812. PMID 11988777. S2CID 2480120.
2. ^ Arighi E, Borrello MG, Sariola H (2005). "RET tyrosine kinase signaling in development and cancer". Cytokine Growth Factor Rev. 16 (4–5): 441–467. doi:10.1016/j.cytogfr.2005.05.010. PMID 15982921.
3. ^ Barnett MW, Fisher CE, et al. (2002). "Signalling by glial cell line-derived neurotrophic factor (GDNF) requires heparan sulfate glycosaminoglycan". J. Cell Sci. 115 (23): 4495–4503. doi:10.1242/jcs.00114. PMID 12414995. S2CID 5910562.
4. ^ "Increase BDNF Levels". Thursday, 5 November 2020
5. ^ Gill S, Patel N, Hotton G, O'Sullivan K, McCarter R, Bunnage M, Brooks D, Svendsen C, Heywood P (2003). "Direct brain infusion of glial cell line-derived neurotrophic factor in Parkinson disease". Nat Med. 9 (5): 589–95. doi:10.1038/nm850. PMID 12669033. S2CID 3331090.
6. ^ Slevin JT, Gerhardt GA, Smith CD, Gash DM, Kryscio R, Young B (2005). "Improvement of bilateral motor functions in patients with Parkinson disease through the unilateral intraputaminal infusion of glial cell line-derived neurotrophic factor". J. Neurosurg. 102 (2): 216–22. doi:10.3171/jns.2005.102.2.0216. PMID 15739547.
7. ^ Henderson C, Phillips H, Pollock R, Davies A, Lemeulle C, Armanini M, Simmons L, Moffet B, Vandlen R, Simpson L, et al. (1994). "GDNF: a potent survival factor for motoneurons present in peripheral nerve and muscle". Science. 266 (5187): 1062–1064. Bibcode:1994Sci...266.1062H. doi:10.1126/science.7973664. PMID 7973664.
8. ^ Airavaara M, Planken A, Gäddnäs H, Piepponen T, Saarma M, Ahtee L (2004). "Increased extracellular dopamine concentrations and FosB/DeltaFosB expression in striatal brain areas of heterozygous GDNF knockout mice". Eur J Neurosci. 20 (9): 2336–2344. doi:10.1111/j.1460-9568.2004.03700.x. PMID 15525275. S2CID 24973132.
9. ^ He D, McGough N, Ravindranathan A, Jeanblanc J, Logrip M, Phamluong K, Janak P, Ron D (2005). "Glial cell line-derived neurotrophic factor mediates the desirable actions of the anti-addiction drug ibogaine against alcohol consumption". J Neurosci. 25 (3): 619–28. doi:10.1523/JNEUROSCI.3959-04.2005. PMC 1193648. PMID 15659598.
10. ^ Horger B, Nishimura M, Armanini M, Wang L, Poulsen K, Rosenblad C, Kirik D, Moffat B, Simmons L, Johnson E, Milbrandt J, Rosenthal A, Bjorklund A, Vandlen R, Hynes M, Phillips H (1998). "Neurturin exerts potent actions on survival and function of midbrain dopaminergic neurons". J Neurosci. 18 (13): 4929–4937. doi:10.1523/JNEUROSCI.18-13-04929.1998. PMC 6792569. PMID 9634558.
11. ^ a b Golden J, Milbrandt J, Johnson E (2003). "Neurturin and persephin promote the survival of embryonic basal forebrain cholinergic neurons in vitro". Exp Neurol. 184 (1): 447–55. doi:10.1016/j.expneurol.2003.07.999. PMID 14637114. S2CID 28406766.
12. ^ Garcès A, Livet J, Grillet N, Henderson C, Delapeyrière O (2001). "Responsiveness to neurturin of subpopulations of embryonic rat spinal motoneuron does not correlate with expression of GFR alpha 1 or GFR alpha 2". Dev Dyn. 220 (3): 189–97. doi:10.1002/1097-0177(20010301)220:3<189::AID-DVDY1106>3.0.CO;2-I. PMID 11241828.
13. ^ Gardell L, Wang R, Ehrenfels C, Ossipov M, Rossomando A, Miller S, Buckley C, Cai A, Tse A, Foley S, Gong B, Walus L, Carmillo P, Worley D, Huang C, Engber T, Pepinsky B, Cate R, Vanderah T, Lai J, Sah D, Porreca F (2003). "Multiple actions of systemic artemin in experimental neuropathy". Nat Med. 9 (11): 1383–1389. doi:10.1038/nm944. PMID 14528299. S2CID 24449754.
14. ^ Tomac A, Agulnick A, Haughey N, Chang C, Zhang Y, Bäckman C, Morales M, Mattson M, Wang Y, Westphal H, Hoffer B (2002). "Effects of cerebral ischemia in mice deficient in Persephin". Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 99 (14): 9521–9526. Bibcode:2002PNAS...99.9521T. doi:10.1073/pnas.152535899. PMC 123173. PMID 12093930.
15. ^ Bespalov M.M.; Saarma M. (2007). "GDNF family receptor complexes are emerging drug targets". Trends Pharmacol. Sci. 28 (2): 68–74. doi:10.1016/j.tips.2006.12.005. PMID 17218019.

## External links

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* GDNF+Family+Ligands at the U.S. National Library of Medicine Medical Subject Headings (MeSH)

* v
* t
* e

Cell signaling: Nervous tissue: Neurotrophic factors

Neurotrophins|

* NGF
* BDNF
* NT-3
* NT-4

GDNF family|

* GDNF
* Artemin
* Neurturin
* Persephin

Ephrins|

* A1
* A2
* A3
* A4
* A5
* B1
* B2
* B3

CNTF family|

* CNTF
* LIF
* IL-6

Other|

* GMF
* IGF-1
* Neuregulins
* 1
* 2
* 3
* 4
* PACAP
* VEGF

* v
* t
* e

Growth factor receptor modulators

Angiopoietin|

* Agonists: Angiopoietin 1
* Angiopoietin 4

* Antagonists: Angiopoietin 2
* Angiopoietin 3

* Kinase inhibitors: Altiratinib
* CE-245677
* Rebastinib

* Antibodies: Evinacumab (against angiopoietin 3)
* Nesvacumab (against angiopoietin 2)

CNTF|

* Agonists: Axokine
* CNTF
* Dapiclermin

EGF (ErbB)|

| EGF
(ErbB1/HER1)|

* Agonists: Amphiregulin
* Betacellulin
* EGF (urogastrone)
* Epigen
* Epiregulin
* Heparin-binding EGF-like growth factor (HB-EGF)
* Murodermin
* Nepidermin
* Transforming growth factor alpha (TGFα)

* Kinase inhibitors: Afatinib
* Agerafenib
* Brigatinib
* Canertinib
* Dacomitinib
* Erlotinib
* Gefitinib
* Grandinin
* Icotinib
* Lapatinib
* Neratinib
* Osimertinib
* Vandetanib
* WHI-P 154

* Antibodies: Cetuximab
* Depatuxizumab
* Depatuxizumab mafodotin
* Futuximab
* Imgatuzumab
* Matuzumab
* Necitumumab
* Nimotuzumab
* Panitumumab
* Zalutumumab

|

ErbB2/HER2|

* Agonists: Unknown/none

* Antibodies: Ertumaxomab
* Pertuzumab
* Trastuzumab
* Trastuzumab deruxtecan
* Trastuzumab duocarmazine
* Trastuzumab emtansine

* Kinase inhibitors: Afatinib
* Lapatinib
* Mubritinib
* Neratinib
* Tucatinib

ErbB3/HER3|

* Agonists: Neuregulins (heregulins) (1, 2, 6 (neuroglycan C))

* Antibodies: Duligotumab
* Patritumab
* Seribantumab

ErbB4/HER4|

* Agonists: Betacellulin
* Epigen
* Heparin-binding EGF-like growth factor (HB-EGF)
* Neuregulins (heregulins) (1, 2, 3, 4, 5 (tomoregulin, TMEFF))

FGF|

| FGFR1|

* Agonists: Ersofermin
* FGF (1, 2 (bFGF), 3, 4, 5, 6, 8, 10 (KGF2), 20)
* Repifermin
* Selpercatinib
* Trafermin
* Velafermin

|

FGFR2|

* Agonists: Ersofermin
* FGF (1, 2 (bFGF), 3, 4, 5, 6, 7 (KGF), 8, 9, 10 (KGF2), 17, 18, 22)
* Palifermin
* Repifermin
* Selpercatinib
* Sprifermin
* Trafermin

* Antibodies: Aprutumab
* Aprutumab ixadotin

* Kinase inhibitors: Infigratinib

FGFR3|

* Agonists: Ersofermin
* FGF (1, 2 (bFGF), 4, 8, 9, 18, 23)
* Selpercatinib
* Sprifermin
* Trafermin

* Antibodies: Burosumab (against FGF23)

FGFR4|

* Agonists: Ersofermin
* FGF (1, 2 (bFGF), 4, 6, 8, 9, 19)
* Trafermin

Unsorted|

* Agonists: FGF15/19

HGF (c-Met)|

* Agonists: Fosgonimeton
* Hepatocyte growth factor

* Potentiators: Dihexa (PNB-0408)

* Kinase inhibitors: Altiratinib
* AM7
* AMG-458
* Amuvatinib
* BMS-777607
* Cabozantinib
* Capmatinib
* Crizotinib
* Foretinib
* Golvatinib
* INCB28060
* JNJ-38877605
* K252a
* MK-2461
* PF-04217903
* PF-2341066
* PHA-665752
* SU-11274
* Tivantinib
* Volitinib

* Antibodies: Emibetuzumab
* Ficlatuzumab
* Flanvotumab
* Onartuzumab
* Rilotumumab
* Telisotuzumab
* Telisotuzumab vedotin

IGF|

| IGF-1|

* Agonists: des(1-3)IGF-1
* Insulin-like growth factor-1 (somatomedin C)
* IGF-1 LR3
* Insulin-like growth factor-2 (somatomedin A)
* Insulin
* Mecasermin
* Mecasermin rinfabate

* Kinase inhibitors: BMS-754807
* Linsitinib
* NVP-ADW742
* NVP-AEW541
* OSl-906

* Antibodies: AVE-1642
* Cixutumumab
* Dalotuzumab
* Figitumumab
* Ganitumab
* Robatumumab
* R1507
* Teprotumumab
* Xentuzumab (against IGF-1 and IGF-2)

|

IGF-2|

* Agonists: Insulin-like growth factor-2 (somatomedin A)

* Antibodies: Dusigitumab
* Xentuzumab (against IGF-1 and IGF-2)

Others|

* Binding proteins: IGFBP (1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7)

* Cleavage products/derivatives with unknown target: Glypromate (GPE, (1-3)IGF-1)
* Trofinetide

LNGF (p75NTR)|

* Agonists: BDNF
* BNN-20
* BNN-27
* Cenegermin
* DHEA
* DHEA-S
* NGF
* NT-3
* NT-4

* Antagonists: ALE-0540
* Dexamethasone
* EVT-901 (SAR-127963)
* Testosterone

* Antibodies: Against NGF: ABT-110 (PG110)
* ASP-6294
* Fasinumab
* Frunevetmab
* Fulranumab
* MEDI-578
* Ranevetmab
* Tanezumab

* Aptamers: Against NGF: RBM-004

* Decoy receptors: LEVI-04 (p75NTR-Fc)

PDGF|

* Agonists: Becaplermin
* Platelet-derived growth factor (A, B, C, D)

* Kinase inhibitors: Agerafenib
* Avapritinib
* Axitinib
* Crenolanib
* Imatinib
* Lenvatinib
* Masitinib
* Motesanib
* Nintedanib
* Pazopanib
* Radotinib
* Quizartinib
* Ripretinib
* Sunitinib
* Sorafenib
* Toceranib

* Antibodies: Olaratumab
* Ramucirumab
* Tovetumab

RET (GFL)|

| GFRα1|

* Agonists: Glial cell line-derived neurotrophic factor (GDNF)
* Liatermin

* Kinase inhibitors: Vandetanib

|

GFRα2|

* Agonists: Neurturin (NRTN)

* Kinase inhibitors: Vandetanib

GFRα3|

* Agonists: Artemin (ARTN)

* Kinase inhibitors: Vandetanib

GFRα4|

* Agonists: Persephin (PSPN)

* Kinase inhibitors: Vandetanib

Unsorted|

* Kinase inhibitors: Agerafenib

SCF (c-Kit)|

* Agonists: Ancestim
* Stem cell factor

* Kinase inhibitors: Agerafenib
* Axitinib
* Dasatinib
* Imatinib
* Masitinib
* Nilotinib
* Pazopanib
* Quizartinib
* Sorafenib
* Sunitinib
* Toceranib

TGFβ|

* See here instead.

Trk|

| TrkA|

* Agonists: Amitriptyline
* BNN-20
* BNN-27
* Cenegermin
* DHEA
* DHEA-S
* Gambogic amide
* NGF
* Tavilermide

* Antagonists: ALE-0540
* Dexamethasone
* FX007
* Testosterone

* Negative allosteric modulators: VM-902A

* Kinase inhibitors: Altiratinib
* AZD-6918
* CE-245677
* CH-7057288
* DS-6051
* Entrectinib
* GZ-389988
* K252a
* Larotrectinib
* Lestaurtinib
* Milciclib
* ONO-4474
* ONO-5390556
* PLX-7486
* Rebastinib
* SNA-120 (pegylated K252a))

* Antibodies: Against TrkA: GBR-900; Against NGF: ABT-110 (PG110)
* ASP-6294
* Fasinumab
* Frunevetmab
* Fulranumab
* MEDI-578
* Ranevetmab
* Tanezumab

* Aptamers: Against NGF: RBM-004

* Decoy receptors: ReN-1820 (TrkAd5)

|

TrkB|

* Agonists: 3,7-DHF
* 3,7,8,2'-THF
* 4'-DMA-7,8-DHF
* 7,3'-DHF
* 7,8-DHF
* 7,8,2'-THF
* 7,8,3'-THF
* Amitriptyline
* BDNF
* BNN-20
* Deoxygedunin
* Deprenyl
* Diosmetin
* DMAQ-B1
* HIOC
* LM22A-4
* N-Acetylserotonin
* NT-3
* NT-4
* Norwogonin (5,7,8-THF)
* R7
* R13
* TDP6

* Antagonists: ANA-12
* Cyclotraxin B
* Gossypetin (3,5,7,8,3',4'-HHF)

* Ligands: DHEA

* Kinase inhibitors: Altiratinib
* AZD-6918
* CE-245677
* CH-7057288
* DS-6051
* Entrectinib
* GZ-389988
* K252a
* Larotrectinib
* Lestaurtinib
* ONO-4474
* ONO-5390556
* PLX-7486

TrkC|

* Agonists: BNN-20
* DHEA
* NT-3

* Kinase inhibitors: Altiratinib
* AZD-6918
* CE-245677
* CH-7057288
* DS-6051
* Entrectinib
* GZ-389988
* K252a
* Larotrectinib
* Lestaurtinib
* ONO-4474
* ONO-5390556
* PLX-7486

VEGF|

* Agonists: Placental growth factor (PGF)
* Ripretinib
* Telbermin
* VEGF (A, B, C, D (FIGF))

* Allosteric modulators: Cyclotraxin B

* Kinase inhibitors: Agerafenib
* Altiratinib
* Axitinib
* Cabozantinib
* Cediranib
* Fruquintinib
* Lapatinib
* Lenvatinib
* Motesanib
* Nintedanib
* Pazopanib
* Pegaptanib
* Rebastinib
* Regorafenib
* Semaxanib
* Sorafenib
* Sunitinib
* Toceranib
* Tivozanib
* Vandetanib
* WHI-P 154

* Antibodies: Alacizumab pegol
* Bevacizumab
* Icrucumab
* Ramucirumab
* Ranibizumab

* Decoy receptors: Aflibercept

Others|

* Additional growth factors: Adrenomedullin
* Colony-stimulating factors (see here instead)
* Connective tissue growth factor (CTGF)
* Ephrins (A1, A2, A3, A4, A5, B1, B2, B3)
* Erythropoietin (see here instead)
* Glucose-6-phosphate isomerase (GPI; PGI, PHI, AMF)
* Glia maturation factor (GMF)
* Hepatoma-derived growth factor (HDGF)
* Interleukins/T-cell growth factors (see here instead)
* Leukemia inhibitory factor (LIF)
* Macrophage-stimulating protein (MSP; HLP, HGFLP)
* Midkine (NEGF2)
* Migration-stimulating factor (MSF; PRG4)
* Oncomodulin
* Pituitary adenylate cyclase-activating peptide (PACAP)
* Pleiotrophin
* Renalase
* Thrombopoietin (see here instead)
* Wnt signaling proteins

* Additional growth factor receptor modulators: Cerebrolysin (neurotrophin mixture)

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