Grape

Fruit growing on woody vines in clusters

Not to be confused with Grapefruit.

This article is about the fruits of the genus Vitis. For other uses, see Grape (disambiguation).

"Black" (dark blue) and "white" (light green) table grapes

A grape is a fruit, botanically a berry, of the deciduous woody vines of the flowering plant genus Vitis. Grapes are a non-climacteric type of fruit, generally occurring in clusters.

The cultivation of grapes began approximately 8,000 years ago, and the fruit has been used as human food throughout its history. Eaten fresh or in dried form (as raisins, currants and sultanas), grapes also hold cultural significance in many parts of the world, particularly for their role in winemaking. Other grape-derived products include various types of jam, juice, vinegar and oil.

## History

[edit]

Grape producing countries in 2020

The Middle East is generally described as the homeland of grapes and the cultivation of this plant began there 6,000–8,000 years ago.[1][2] Yeast, one of the earliest domesticated microorganisms, occurs naturally on the skins of grapes, leading to the discovery of alcoholic drinks such as wine. The earliest archeological evidence for a dominant position of wine-making in human culture dates from 8,000 years ago in Georgia.[3][4][5]

The oldest known winery, the Areni-1 winery, was found in Armenia and dates back to around 4000 BC.[6] By the 9th century AD, the city of Shiraz was known to produce some of the finest wines in the Middle East. Thus it has been proposed that Syrah red wine is named after Shiraz, a city in Persia where the grape was used to make Shirazi wine.[7]

Ancient Egyptian hieroglyphics record the cultivation of purple grapes, and history attests to the ancient Greeks, Cypriots, Phoenicians, and Romans growing purple grapes for eating and wine production.[8] The growing of grapes would later spread to other regions in Europe, North Africa, and eventually in North America.

In 2005, a team of archaeologists concluded that Chalcolithic wine jars discovered in Cyprus in the 1930s dated back to 3500 BC, making them the oldest of their kind in the world.[9] Commandaria, a sweet dessert wine from Cyprus, is the oldest manufactured wine in the world with origins as far back as 2000 BC.[10]

In North America, native grapes belonging to various species of the genus Vitis proliferate in the wild across the continent and were a part of the diet of many Native Americans, but early European colonists considered them to be unsuitable for wine. In the 19th century, Ephraim Bull of Concord, Massachusetts, cultivated seeds from wild Vitis labrusca vines to create the Concord grape, which would become an important agricultural crop in the United States.[11]

Grapes, red or greenNutritional value per 100 g (3.5 oz)

Energy| 288 kJ (69 kcal)

Carbohydrates

18.1 g

Sugars| 15.48 g
Dietary fiber| 0.9 g

Fat

0.16 g

Protein

0.72 g

Vitamins and minerals

Vitamins| Quantity

%DV†

Thiamine (B1)|

0.069 mg
Riboflavin (B2)|

0.07 mg
Niacin (B3)|

0.188 mg
Pantothenic acid (B5)|

0.05 mg
Vitamin B6|

0.086 mg
Folate (B9)|

2 μg
Choline|

5.6 mg
Vitamin C|

3.2 mg
Vitamin E|

0.19 mg
Vitamin K|

12%

14.6 μg
Minerals| Quantity

%DV†

Calcium|

10 mg
Iron|

0.36 mg
Magnesium|

7 mg
Manganese|

0.071 mg
Phosphorus|

20 mg
Potassium|

191 mg
Sodium|

2 mg
Zinc|

0.07 mg
Other constituents| Quantity
Water| 81 g

* * *

Link to USDA Database entry

†Percentages estimated using US recommendations for adults,[12] except for potassium, which is estimated based on expert recommendation from the National Academies[13]

## Description

[edit]

Grapes are a type of fruit that grow in clusters of 15 to 300 and can be crimson, black, dark blue, yellow, green, orange, and pink. "White" grapes are actually green in color and are evolutionarily derived from the purple grape. Mutations in two regulatory genes of white grapes turn off production of anthocyanins, which are responsible for the color of purple grapes.[14] Anthocyanins and other pigment chemicals of the larger family of polyphenols in purple grapes are responsible for the varying shades of purple in red wines.[15][16] Grapes are typically an ellipsoid shape resembling a prolate spheroid.

## Nutrition

[edit]

Raw grapes are 81% water, 18% carbohydrates, 1% protein, and have negligible fat (table). A 100-gram (3+1⁄2-ounce) reference amount of raw grapes supplies 288 kilojoules (69 kilocalories) of food energy and a moderate amount of vitamin K (12% of the Daily Value), with no other micronutrients in significant amounts (table).

## Grapevines

[edit]

Main article: Vitis

Concord is a variety of North American labrusca grape

Most domesticated grapes come from cultivars of Vitis vinifera, a grapevine native to the Mediterranean and Central Asia. Minor amounts of fruit and wine come from American and Asian species such as:

* Vitis amurensis, the most important Asian species
* Vitis labrusca, the North American table and grape juice grapevines (including the Concord cultivar), sometimes used for wine, are native to the Eastern United States and Canada.
* Vitis mustangensis (the mustang grape), found in Mississippi, Alabama, Louisiana, Texas, and Oklahoma
* Vitis riparia, a wild vine of North America, is sometimes used for winemaking and jam. It is native to the entire Eastern United States and north to Quebec.
* Vitis rotundifolia (the muscadine), used for jams and wine, is native to the Southeastern United States from Delaware to the Gulf of Mexico.

Grape production
2023, millions of tonnes China | 13.5

|

Italy | 6.7
France | 6.2
United States | 5.4
Spain | 4.8
Turkey | 3.4
Chile | 2.3
World | 72.5
Source: FAOSTAT of the United Nations[17]

## Distribution of agriculture

[edit]

In 2023, the world total of land dedicated to grape growing (in hectares, ha) was 6,595,680 ha (16,298,300 acres).[18] By country dedicating farmland for grape growing in 2023, Spain had 913,000 ha (2,260,000 acres), France 753,340 ha (1,861,500 acres), Italy 713,350 ha (1,762,700 acres), and China 607,030 ha (1,500,000 acres).[18] Approximately 71% of world grape production is used for wine, 27% as fresh fruit, and 2% as dried fruit.[citation needed]

There are no reliable statistics that break down grape production by variety. It is believed that the most widely planted variety is Sultana, also known as Thompson Seedless, with at least 3,600 km2 (880,000 acres) dedicated to it. The second most common variety is Airén. Other popular varieties include Cabernet Sauvignon, Sauvignon blanc, Cabernet Franc, Merlot, Grenache, Tempranillo, Riesling, and Chardonnay.[19]

## Production

[edit]

In 2023, world production of grapes was 72.5 million tonnes, led by China with 19% of the total, with Italy and France as major secondary producers (table).

Grape exports
2023, tonnes Peru | 647,967

|

Chile | 529,470
China | 483,373
Italy | 386,672
Netherlands | 346,128
South Africa | 318,126
Source: FAOSTAT of the United Nations[20]

## Exports

[edit]

In 2023, the leading exporters of grapes were Peru and Chile, each with more than half a million tonnes (table).

## Table and wine grapes

[edit]

See also: Wine

Commercially cultivated grapes can usually be classified as either table or wine grapes, based on their intended method of consumption: eaten raw (table grapes) or used to make wine (wine grapes). The sweetness of grapes depends on when they are harvested, as they do not continue to ripen once picked.[21] While almost all belong to the same species, Vitis vinifera, table and wine grapes have significant differences, brought about through selective breeding. Table grape cultivars tend to have large, seedless fruit (see below) with relatively thin skin. Wine grapes are smaller, usually seeded, and have relatively thick skins (a desirable characteristic in winemaking, since much of the aroma in wine comes from the skin).

Grapes accumulate sugars as they grow on the grapevine through the transportation of sucrose molecules that are produced by photosynthesis from the leaves. During ripening the sucrose molecules are hydrolyzed (separated) into glucose and fructose. Wine grapes tend to be very sweet: they are harvested at the time when their juice is approximately 24% sugar by weight. By comparison, commercially produced "100% grape juice", made from table grapes, is usually around 15% sugar by weight.[22]

Wine grapes on the vine

## Seedless grapes

[edit]

Seedless cultivars now make up the overwhelming majority of table grape plantings. Because grapevines are vegetatively propagated by cuttings, the lack of seeds does not present a problem for reproduction. It is an issue for breeders, who must either use a seeded variety as the female parent or rescue embryos early in development using tissue culture techniques.

There are several sources of the seedlessness trait, and essentially all commercial cultivators get it from one of three sources: Thompson Seedless, Russian Seedless, and Black Monukka, all being cultivars of Vitis vinifera.[citation needed] There are currently more than a dozen varieties of seedless grapes. Several, such as Einset Seedless, Benjamin Gunnels's Prime seedless grapes, Reliance, and Venus, have been specifically cultivated for hardiness and quality in the relatively cold climates of northeastern United States and southern Ontario.[23]

An offset to the improved eating quality of seedlessness is the loss of potential health benefits provided by the enriched phytochemical content of grape seeds (see Health claims, below).[24][25]

## Uses

[edit]

Grape leaves in cuisine (dolma)

### Culinary

[edit]

Grapes are eaten raw, dried (as raisins, currants and sultanas), or cooked. Also, depending on the grape cultivar, grapes are used in winemaking. Grapes can be processed into a multitude of products such as jams, juices, vinegars and oils. Commercially cultivated grapes are classified as either table or wine grapes. These categories are based on their intended method of consumption: grapes that are eaten raw (table grapes), or grapes that are used to make wine (wine grapes). Table grape cultivars normally have large, seedless fruit and thin skins. Wine grapes are smaller (in comparison to table grapes), usually contains seeds, and have thicker skins (a desirable characteristic in making wine). Most of the aroma in wine is from the skin. Wine grapes tend to have a high sugar content. They are harvested at peak sugar levels (approximately 24% sugar by weight.) In comparison, commercially produced "100% grape juice" made from table grapes are normally around 15% sugar by weight.[22]

#### Raisins, currants and sultanas

[edit]

Main article: Raisin

Raisins

In most of Europe and North America, dried grapes are referred to as "raisins" or the local equivalent. In Britain and Ireland, three different varieties are recognized, forcing the EU to use the term "dried vine fruit" in official documents.

A raisin is any dried grape. While raisin is a French loanword, the word in French refers to the fresh fruit; grappe (from which the English grape is derived) refers to the bunch (as in une grappe de raisins). A raisin in French is called raisin sec ("dry grape").

A currant is a dried Zante Black Corinth grape, the name being a corruption of the French raisin de Corinthe (Corinth grape). The names of the black and red currant, now more usually blackcurrant and redcurrant, two berries unrelated to grapes, are derived from this use. Some other fruits of similar appearance are also so named, for example, Australian currant, native currant, Indian currant.[26]

A sultana was originally a raisin made from Sultana grapes of Turkish origin (known as Thompson Seedless in the United States), but the word is now applied to raisins made from either white grapes or red grapes that are bleached to resemble the traditional sultana.

#### Juice

[edit]

Grape juice

Main article: Grape juice

Grape juice is obtained from crushing and blending grapes into a liquid. The juice is often sold in stores or fermented and made into wine, brandy, or vinegar.[27] Grape juice that has been pasteurized, removing any naturally occurring yeast, will not ferment if kept sterile, and thus contains no alcohol. In the wine industry, grape juice that contains 7–23% of pulp, skins, stems and seeds is often referred to as "must".[27]

In North America, the most common grape juice is purple and made from Concord grapes, while white grape juice is commonly made from Niagara grapes, both of which are varieties of native American grapes, a different species from European wine grapes. In California, Sultana (known there as Thompson Seedless) grapes are sometimes diverted from the raisin or table market to produce white juice.[28]

#### Vinegars

[edit]

Husrum, also known as verjuice, is a type of vinegar made from sour grapes in the Middle East. It is produced by crushing unripened grapes, collecting and salting the juice, simmering it to remove foam, and then storing it with a layer of olive oil to prevent contamination and oxidation. It is then used as an acidic ingredient in salads and stuffed vegetables.[29] Unripened husrum grapes sent from Ashkelon to Egypt are mentioned in a 12th-century document found in the Cairo Geniza.[30] In Iran, a sour grape vinegar is used for making Shirazi salad.

## Pomace and phytochemicals

[edit]

Winemaking from red and white grape flesh and skins produces substantial quantities of organic residues, collectively called pomace (also "marc"), which includes crushed skins, seeds, stems, and leaves generally used as compost.[31] Grape pomace - some 10–30% of the total mass of grapes crushed - contains various phytochemicals, such as unfermented sugars, alcohol, polyphenols, tannins, anthocyanins, and numerous other compounds, some of which are harvested and extracted for commercial applications (a process sometimes called "valorization" of the pomace).[31][32]

### Skin

[edit]

Grape cross-section

Anthocyanins tend to be the main polyphenolics in purple grapes, whereas flavan-3-ols (i.e. catechins) are the more abundant class of polyphenols in white varieties.[33] Total phenolic content is higher in purple varieties due almost entirely to anthocyanin density in purple grape skin compared to absence of anthocyanins in white grape skin.[33] Phenolic content of grape skin varies with cultivar, soil composition, climate, geographic origin, and cultivation practices or exposure to diseases, such as fungal infections.

Muscadine grapes contain a relatively high phenolic content among dark grapes.[34][35] In muscadine skins, ellagic acid, myricetin, quercetin, kaempferol, and trans-resveratrol are major phenolics.[36]

The flavonols syringetin, syringetin 3-O-galactoside, laricitrin and laricitrin 3-O-galactoside are also found in purple grape but absent in white grape.[37]

### Seeds

[edit]

Main articles: Grape seed extract and Grape seed oil

Muscadine grape seeds contain about twice the total polyphenol content of skins.[35] Grape seed oil from crushed seeds is used in cosmeceuticals and skincare products. Grape seed oil, including tocopherols (vitamin E) and high contents of phytosterols and polyunsaturated fatty acids such as linoleic acid, oleic acid, and alpha-linolenic acid.[38][39][40]

### Resveratrol

[edit]

Main article: Resveratrol

Resveratrol, a stilbene compound, is found in widely varying amounts among grape varieties, primarily in their skins and seeds.[41] Muscadine grapes have about one hundred times higher concentration of stilbenes than pulp. Fresh grape skin contains about 50 to 100 micrograms of resveratrol per gram.[42]

### Grape and raisin toxicity in dogs

[edit]

Main article: Grape and raisin toxicity in dogs

The consumption of grapes and raisins presents a potential health threat to dogs. Their toxicity to dogs can cause the animal to develop acute kidney failure (the sudden development of kidney failure) with anuria (a lack of urine production) and may be fatal.[43]

## Gallery

[edit]

* Flower buds

* Flowers

* Immature fruit

* Grapes in Abhar County, Iran

* Vineyard in the Troodos Mountains

* seedless grapes

* Grapes in the La Union, Philippines

* Moldy grapes

## See also

[edit]

* Food portal
* Wine portal

* Annual growth cycle of grapevines
* Drakshasava, a traditional Ayurvedic tonic made from grapes
* Grape syrup
* List of grape dishes
* List of grape varieties
* Menispermum canadense, a poisonous species resembling wild grapes
* Propagation of grapevines
* The Fox and the Grapes

## References

[edit]

1. ^ "ANGŪR – Encyclopaedia Iranica". iranicaonline.org. Retrieved 6 April 2021. "According to A. de Candolle (L'Origine des plantes cultivées, Paris, 5th ed., 1912, p. 152) the grape-vine is at home in the region south of the Caucasus, from the Black Sea to the Caspian region of Iran, where "it has the shape of a strong liana climbing over high trees and producing abundant fruit without any pruning or cultivation." His statement is still generally accepted, since the greatest diversity in varieties can be observed there."
2. ^ This, Patrice, Lacombe, Thierry, Thomash, Mark R. (2006). "Historical Origins and Genetic Diversity of Wine Grapes" (PDF). Trends in Genetics. 22 (9): 511–519\. doi:10.1016/j.tig.2006.07.008. PMID 16872714. Archived from the original (PDF) on 4 October 2013.
3. ^ McGovern, Patrick E. (2003). Ancient Wine: The Search for the Origins of Viniculture (PDF). Princeton University Press. Archived (PDF) from the original on 4 October 2013.
4. ^ McGovern, P. E. "Georgia: Homeland of Winemaking and Viticulture". Archived from the original on 30 May 2013.
5. ^ Keys, David (2003-12-28) Now that's what you call a real vintage: professor unearths 8,000-year-old wine Archived 2013-06-03 at the Wayback Machine. archaeology.ws.
6. ^ Owen J (12 January 2011). "Earliest Known Winery Found in Armenian Cave". National Geographic. Archived from the original on 3 June 2017. Retrieved 8 July 2017.
7. ^ Hugh Johnson, "The Story of Wine", New Illustrated Edition, pp. 58, 131, Mitchell Beazley 2004, ISBN 1-84000-972-1.
8. ^ "Grape". Better Health Channel Victoria. October 2015. Archived from the original on 9 January 2018. Retrieved 8 July 2017.
9. ^ "Wine History Cyprus".
10. ^ "Oldest manufactured wine". Guinness World Records.
11. ^ Jancis Robinson, Vines, Grapes & Wines (Mitchell Beazley, 1986, ISBN 1-85732-999-6), pp. 8, 18, 228.
12. ^ United States Food and Drug Administration (2024). "Daily Value on the Nutrition and Supplement Facts Labels". FDA. Archived from the original on 27 March 2024. Retrieved 28 March 2024.
13. ^ "TABLE 4-7 Comparison of Potassium Adequate Intakes Established in This Report to Potassium Adequate Intakes Established in the 2005 DRI Report". p. 120. In: Stallings VA, Harrison M, Oria M, eds. (2019). "Potassium: Dietary Reference Intakes for Adequacy". Dietary Reference Intakes for Sodium and Potassium. pp. 101–124\. doi:10.17226/25353. ISBN 978-0-309-48834-1. PMID 30844154. NCBI NBK545428.
14. ^ Walker AR, Lee E, Bogs J, et al. (2007). "White grapes arose through the mutation of two similar and adjacent regulatory genes". The Plant Journal. 49 (5): 772–785\. doi:10.1111/j.1365-313X.2006.02997.x. PMID 17316172.
15. ^ Waterhouse AL (2002). "Wine phenolics". Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences. 957 (1): 21–36\. Bibcode:2002NYASA.957...21W. doi:10.1111/j.1749-6632.2002.tb02903.x. PMID 12074959. S2CID 36937910.
16. ^ Brouillard R, Chassaing S, Fougerousse A (2003). "Why are grape/fresh wine anthocyanins so simple and why is it that red wine color lasts so long?". Phytochemistry. 64 (7): 1179–1186\. Bibcode:2003PChem..64.1179B. doi:10.1016/S0031-9422(03)00518-1. PMID 14599515.
17. ^ "Grape production in 2023, Crops/Regions/World list/Production Quantity/Year (pick lists)". UN Food and Agriculture Organization, Corporate Statistical Database (FAOSTAT). 2025. Retrieved 9 April 2025.
18. ^ a b "World acreage for grape growing in 2023, Crops/Regions/World list/Area harvested/Year (pick lists)". UN Food and Agriculture Organization, Corporate Statistical Database (FAOSTAT). 2025. Retrieved 9 April 2025.
19. ^ "The most widely planted grape in the world". FreshPlaza. 1 October 2008. Archived from the original on 10 May 2013. Retrieved 10 April 2010.
20. ^ "Grape exports in 2023". UN Food and Agriculture Organization, Corporate Statistical Database (FAOSTAT). 2025. Retrieved 9 April 2025.
21. ^ Ottolenghi Y (13 October 2017). "Grapes, Sour or Sweet, Are Ripe for Dessert". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved 9 July 2025.
22. ^ a b "WineLoversPage – Straight talk in plain English about fine wine". WineLoversPage. Archived from the original on 16 July 2011.
23. ^ Reisch BI, Peterson DV, Martens M-H. "Seedless Grapes" Archived 2008-06-19 at the Wayback Machine, in "Table Grape Varieties for Cool Climates", Information Bulletin 234, Cornell University, New York State Agricultural Experiment Station, retrieved December 30, 2008.
24. ^ Shi J, Yu J, Pohorly JE, et al. (2003). "Polyphenolics in Grape Seeds—Biochemistry and Functionality". Journal of Medicinal Food. 6 (4): 291–299\. doi:10.1089/109662003772519831. PMID 14977436.
25. ^ Parry J, Su L, Moore J, et al. (2006). "Chemical Compositions, Antioxidant Capacities, and Antiproliferative Activities of Selected Fruit Seed Flours". Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry. 54 (11): 3773–3778\. doi:10.1021/jf060325k. PMID 16719495.
26. ^ "currant". Oxford English Dictionary (Online ed.). Oxford University Press. (Subscription or participating institution membership required.)
27. ^ a b "Wine - Fermentation, Aging, Varietals | Britannica". Britannica. 9 February 2025. Retrieved 18 February 2025.
28. ^ "Thompson Seedless Grape Juice". sweetwatercellars.com. Archived from the original on 25 March 2012. Retrieved 17 February 2012.
29. ^ Cosme, F., Pinto, T., & Vilela, A. (2018). Phenolic compounds and antioxidant activity in grape juices: A chemical and sensory view. Beverages, 4(1), 22, p. 9
30. ^ Amar Z (2000). Agricultural Produce in the Land of Israel in the Middle Ages (in Hebrew). Jerusalem: Yad Izhak Ben Zvi. p. 116.
31. ^ a b Gómez-Brandón M, Lores M, Insam H, et al. (2 April 2019). "Strategies for recycling and valorization of grape marc". Critical Reviews in Biotechnology. 39 (4): 437–450\. doi:10.1080/07388551.2018.1555514. ISSN 0738-8551. PMID 30939940. S2CID 93000616.
32. ^ Muhlack RA, Potumarthi R, Jeffery DW (2018). "Sustainable wineries through waste valorisation: A review of grape marc utilisation for value-added products". Waste Management. 72: 99–118\. Bibcode:2018WaMan..72...99M. doi:10.1016/j.wasman.2017.11.011. ISSN 0956-053X. PMID 29132780.
33. ^ a b Cantos E, Espín JC, Tomás-Barberán FA (2002). "Varietal differences among the polyphenol profiles of seven table grape cultivars studied by LC-DAD-MS-MS". Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry. 50 (20): 5691–5696\. doi:10.1021/jf0204102. PMID 12236700.
34. ^ Ector BJ, Magee JB, Hegwood CP, et al. (1996). "Resveratrol Concentration in Muscadine Berries, Juice, Pomace, Purees, Seeds, and Wines". Am. J. Enol. Vitic. 47 (1): 57–62\. doi:10.5344/ajev.1996.47.1.57. S2CID 98822789. Archived from the original on 19 November 2006. Retrieved 21 November 2006.
35. ^ a b Xu C, Yagiz Y, Zhao L, et al. (2017). "Fruit quality, nutraceutical and antimicrobial properties of 58 muscadine grape varieties (Vitis rotundifolia Michx.) grown in United States". Food Chemistry. 215: 149–156\. doi:10.1016/j.foodchem.2016.07.163. ISSN 0308-8146. PMID 27542461.
36. ^ Pastrana-Bonilla E, Akoh CC, Sellappan S, et al. (2003). "Phenolic content and antioxidant capacity of muscadine grapes". Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry. 51 (18): 5497–5503\. doi:10.1021/jf030113c. PMID 12926904.
37. ^ Mattivi F, Guzzon R, Vrhovsek U, et al. (2006). "Metabolite Profiling of Grape: Flavonols and Anthocyanins". Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry. 54 (20): 7692–7702\. doi:10.1021/jf061538c. PMID 17002441.
38. ^ Beveridge TH, Girard B, Kopp T, et al. (2005). "Yield and Composition of Grape Seed Oils Extracted by Supercritical Carbon Dioxide and Petroleum Ether: Varietal Effects". Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry. 53 (5): 1799–1804\. doi:10.1021/jf040295q. PMID 15740076.
39. ^ Crews C, Hough P, Godward J, et al. (2006). "Quantitation of the Main Constituents of Some Authentic Grape-Seed Oils of Different Origin". Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry. 54 (17): 6261–6265\. doi:10.1021/jf060338y. PMID 16910717.
40. ^ Tangolar SG, Özoğul YI, Tangolar S, et al. (2009). "Evaluation of fatty acid profiles and mineral content of grape seed oil of some grape genotypes". International Journal of Food Sciences and Nutrition. 60 (1): 32–39\. doi:10.1080/09637480701581551. PMID 17886077. S2CID 29294873.
41. ^ "Resveratrol". Micronutrient Information Center, Linus Pauling Institute, Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR. 11 June 2015. Retrieved 26 August 2019.
42. ^ Li X, Wu B, Wang L, et al. (2006). "Extractable Amounts of trans-Resveratrol in Seed and Berry Skin in Vitis Evaluated at the Germplasm Level". Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry. 54 (23): 8804–8811\. doi:10.1021/jf061722y. PMID 17090126.
43. ^ Raisins/Grapes Archived 2007-09-29 at the Wayback Machine. The Merck Veterinary Manual.

## Further reading

[edit]

* Creasy, G. L. and L. L. Creasy (2009). Grapes (Crop Production Science in Horticulture). CABI. ISBN 978-1-84593-401-9.

## External links

[edit]

Wikiquote has quotations related to Grapes.

* The dictionary definition of grape at Wiktionary
* Media related to Grapes at Wikimedia Commons

* v
* t
* e

Grape varieties

Grape varieties|

| Top 20
by acreage|

| White|

* Airén
* Aligoté
* Catarratto
* Cayetana blanca
* Chardonnay
* Chenin blanc
* Colombard
* Glera / Prosecco
* Grüner Veltliner
* Macabeo
* Müller-Thurgau
* Muscat Blanc à Petits Grains
* Muscat of Alexandria
* Palomino Fino
* Riesling
* Rkatsiteli
* Sauvignon blanc
* Sémillon
* Trebbiano Toscano
* Welschriesling

|

Red|

* Alicante Henri Bouschet
* Barbera
* Bobal
* Cabernet Franc
* Cabernet Sauvignon
* Carignan
* Cinsaut
* Cot / Malbec
* Douce Noir
* Gamay
* Grenache
* Isabella
* Merlot
* Montepulciano
* Mourvèdre
* Pinot Noir
* Sangiovese
* Syrah / Shiraz
* Tempranillo
* Zinfandel

Top 21–50
by acreage|

| White|

* Albariño
* Ansonica / Inzolia
* Bianca
* Chasselas
* Chelva
* Fernão Pires
* Fetească albă
* Fetească regală
* Furmint
* Garganega
* Gewürztraminer
* Grenache blanc
* Grillo
* Malvasia Bianca di Candia
* Melon de Bourgogne
* Muscat Ottonel
* Parellada
* Pedro Giménez
* Pedro Ximénez
* Pinot blanc
* Savatiano
* Roupeiro / Siria
* Torrontés Riojano
* Trebbiano Giallo
* Trebbiano Romagnolo
* Tsolikouri
* Verdejo
* Vermentino
* Viognier
* Xarel·lo
* See full list

|

Red|

* Aglianico
* Blaufränkisch
* Bordô
* Carménère
* Castelao
* Concord
* Corvina Veronese
* Criolla Grande
* Croatina
* Dolcetto
* Dornfelder
* Marufo
* Mencía
* Black Muscat
* Nebbiolo
* Negroamaro
* Nero d'Avola
* Pamid
* Petit Verdot
* Pinot Meunier
* Pinotage
* Prokupac
* Ruby Cabernet
* Saperavi
* Tannat
* Tinta Barroca
* Touriga Franca
* Touriga Nacional
* Trincadeira
* Zweigelt
* See full list

* Food portal

* v
* t
* e

Viticulture

Biology and
horticulture|

* Ampelography
* Annual growth cycle of grapevines
* Grape varieties
* Grapes
* Hybrid grape
* International Grape Genome Program
* Ripening (Veraison)
* Rootstock
* Vineyard
* Vitis
* Vitis vinifera

Environmental
variation|

* Climate categories
* Diurnal temperature variation
* Drainage
* Microclimate
* Regional climate levels
* Soil types
* Terroir
* Topography
* aspect
* elevation
* slope

Vineyard
planting|

* Grapevine planting
* Propagation
* Row orientation
* Trellis design
* Vine training
* Yield

Vineyard
management|

* Canopy
* Clos
* Coulure
* Erosion control
* Fertilizer
* Frost damage prevention
* Green harvest (Vendange verte)
* Integrated pest management
* Irrigation
* Klopotec
* Millerandage
* Pruning
* Weed control

Harvest|

* Brix
* Festivals
* Noble rot
* Ripeness
* Vintage
* Weather

Pests and
diseases|

* Birds
* Black rot
* Botrytis bunch rot
* Bot canker
* Dead arm
* Downy mildew
* Grapevine yellows
* Great French Wine Blight
* Nematodes
* Phylloxera
* Pierce's disease
* Powdery mildew
* Uncinula necator
* Red spider mite
* Vine moth

Approaches
and issues|

* Adaptive management
* Biodynamic wine
* Effects of climate change on wine production
* Environmental stewardship
* Organic farming
* Sustainable agriculture

See also|

* Glossary of viticulture terms
* Glossary of wine terms
* Glossary of winemaking terms
* Oenology
* Outline of wine
* Wine
* Winemaking

Category

* v
* t
* e

Juice

List of juices

Fruit juice|

* Apple
* Cherry
* Coconut
* Cranberry
* Cucumber
* Grape
* Grapefruit
* Lemonade
* Lingonberry
* Noni
* Orange
* Pineapple
* Pomegranate
* Prune
* Raspberry
* Tamarind
* Tomato

Orange juice

Vegetable juice|

* Carrot
* Hemp
* Sugarcane
* Turnip
* Turmeric
* Wheatgrass

Animal liquid|

* Clam juice

Related|

* Cold-pressed juice
* Juice fasting
* Juicer
* fruit press
* Juicing
* Smoothie

* Drink portal
* Category:Fruit juice
* Category:Vegetable juice

* v
* t
* e

Sources of tannins

Sources of
condensed tannins|

* Areca catechu seed
* arecatannins
* Broad bean
* Vicia faba
* Grape
* Vitis vinifera
* Mimosa bark
* Acacia mollissima
* Myrtan or black marlock
* Eucalyptus redunca
* Quebracho wood

Sources of
hydrolysable tannins|

* Chestnut wood
* Dhawa
* Anogeissus latifolia
* Myrobalan fruit
* Terminalia chebula
* Oak bark
* Oak wood
* Valonia oak
* Quercus macrolepis
* Sumac
* Tanner's sumach leaves - Rhus coriaria or Chinese gall on Rhus chinensis
* Tara pod
* Tara spinosa

Other sources
by organ|

| Barks|

* General : Tanbark

* Acacias (most notably Acacia pycnantha and Acacia decurrens)
* Alder
* Alnus sp
* Avaram
* Senna auriculata
* Babul
* Acacia nilotica
* Birch
* Betula sp
* Button mangrove
* Conocarpus erectus
* Hemlock
* Tsuga sp
* Larch
* Larix sp
* Mangrove
* Pine
* Pinus sp
* Spruce
* Picea sp
* Urunday
* Myracrodruon urundeuva
* Willow
* Salix caprea

|

Leaves|

* Badan
* Bergenia crassifolia
* Gambier
* Uncaria gambir
* Redoul
* Coriaria myrtifolia

Roots|

* Canaigre
* Rumex hymenosepalus
* Garouille
* Quercus coccifera
* Sea lavender
* Limonium sp

Woods|

* Cutch
* Senegalia catechu

Fruit|

* Divi-divi pod
* Libidibia coriaria
* Sant pod
* Acacia nilotica
* Teri pod
* Moullava digyna

Galls|

* Gall oak
* Quercus lusitanica
* Quercus infectoria

Whole plant|

* Prosopis sp. bark and wood
* Prosopis humilis
* Prosopis nigra
* Tanoak
* Notholithocarpus
* Tizra heartwood and root
* Searsia pentaphylla

Undetermined organ|

* Anadenanthera colubrina (vilca)

* v
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* e

Bioenergy

Biofuels|

* Alcohol
* Algae
* Babassu oil
* Bagasse
* Biobutanol
* Biodiesel
* Biogas
* Biogasoline
* Bioliquids
* Biomass
* Cooking oil
* vegetable oil
* Ethanol
* cellulosic
* mixtures
* Methanol
* Stover
* corn
* Straw
* Water hyacinth
* Wood gas

Energy from
foodstock|

* Camelina sativa
* Cassava
* Coconut oil
* Grape
* Hemp
* Maize
* Oat
* Palm oil
* Potato
* Rapeseed
* Rice
* Sorghum
* Soybean
* Sugar beet
* Sugarcane
* Sunflower
* Wheat
* Yam

Non-food
energy crops|

* Arundo
* Big bluestem
* Camelina
* Chinese tallow
* Duckweed
* Jatropha curcas
* Miscanthus × giganteus
* Pongamia pinnata
* Salicornia
* Switchgrass
* Wood

Technology|

* Bioconversion of biomass to mixed alcohol fuels
* Bioenergy with carbon capture and storage
* Biomass heating systems
* Biorefinery
* Fischer–Tropsch process
* Industrial biotechnology
* Pellet fuel
* mill
* stove
* Sabatier reaction
* Thermal depolymerization

Concepts|

* Agflation
* Cellulosic ethanol commercialization
* Energy content of biofuel
* Energy crop
* Energy forestry
* Energy return on investment
* Food vs. fuel
* Issues relating to biofuels
* Sustainable biofuel

* Category

Authority control databases: National |

* Germany
* United States
* Japan
* Czech Republic
* Israel

|

*[%DV]: Percentage of Daily Value
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