Gaels

Celtic ethnolinguistic group

Not to be confused with Gauls.

"Gael" and "Gàidheal" redirect here. For other uses, see Gael (disambiguation). For the BBC's Gaelic language radio station, see BBC Radio nan Gàidheal.

Ethnic group

Gaels

Na Gaeil * Na Gàidheil * Ny Gaeil

Areas which were linguistically and culturally Gaelic c. 1000 (light green) and c. 1700 (medium green); areas that are Gaelic-speaking in the present day (dark green)

Total population
c. 2.1 million
(linguistic grouping)
Regions with significant populations
Ireland| 1,873,997 (linguistic)[1]
United Kingdom| 122,518 (linguistic)[2]
United States| 27,475 (linguistic)[3]
Canada| 9,000 (linguistic)[4]
Australia| 2,717 (linguistic)[5]
New Zealand| 670 (linguistic)
Languages
Gaelic languages
(Irish * Scottish Gaelic * Manx * Shelta * Beurla Reagaird)
also non-Gaelic English and Scots
Religion
Christianity * Irreligion * (historic: paganism)
Related ethnic groups
Norse-Gaels * Gaelicised Normans * Celtic Britons * Irish Travellers * Scottish Travellers

The Gaels (/ɡeɪlz/ GAYLZ; Irish: Na Gaeil [n̪ˠə ˈɡeːlʲ]; Scottish Gaelic: Na Gàidheil [nə ˈkɛː.al]; Manx: Ny Gaeil [nə ˈɡeːl]) are an Insular Celtic ethnolinguistic group[6] native to Ireland, Scotland, and the Isle of Man.[a][10] They are associated with the Gaelic languages: a branch of the Celtic languages comprising Irish, Manx, and Scottish Gaelic.

Gaelic language and culture originated in Ireland, extending to Dál Riata in western Scotland. In antiquity, the Gaels traded with the Roman Empire and also raided Roman Britain. In the Middle Ages, Gaelic culture became dominant throughout the rest of Scotland and the Isle of Man. There was also some Gaelic settlement in Wales, as well as cultural influence through Celtic Christianity. In the Viking Age, small numbers of Vikings raided and settled in Gaelic lands, becoming the Norse-Gaels. In the 9th century, Dál Riata and Pictland merged to form the Gaelic Kingdom of Alba. Meanwhile, Gaelic Ireland was made up of several kingdoms, with a High King often claiming lordship over them.

In the 12th century, Anglo-Normans conquered parts of Ireland, while parts of Scotland also became Normanized. However, Gaelic culture remained strong throughout Ireland, and in Scotland in the Highlands, Hebrides, and Galloway. In the early 17th century, the last Gaelic kingdoms in Ireland fell under English control. James VI and I sought to subdue the Gaels and wipe out their culture;[11] first in the Scottish Highlands via repressive laws such as the Statutes of Iona, and then in Ireland by colonizing Gaelic land with English and Scots-speaking Protestant settlers. In the following centuries Gaelic language was suppressed and mostly supplanted by English. However, it continues to be the main language in Ireland's Gaeltacht and Scotland's Gàidhealtachd (Outer Hebrides and pockets of the north-west Highlands). The modern descendants of the Gaels have spread throughout the rest of the British Isles, the Americas and Australasia.

Traditional Gaelic society was organised into clans, each with its own territory and king (or chief), elected through tanistry. The Irish were previously pagans who had many gods, venerated their ancestors and believed in an Otherworld. Their four yearly festivals – Samhain, Imbolc, Beltane and Lughnasa – continued to be celebrated into modern times. The Gaels have a strong oral tradition, traditionally maintained by shanachies. Inscription in the ogham alphabet began in the 4th century. The Gaels' conversion to Christianity accompanied the introduction of writing in the Roman alphabet. Irish mythology and Brehon law were preserved and recorded by medieval Irish monasteries.[12] Gaelic monasteries were renowned centres of learning and played a key role in developing Insular art; Gaelic missionaries and scholars were highly influential in western Europe. In the Middle Ages, most Gaels lived in roundhouses and ringforts. The Gaels long have had their own styles of dress; that in Ireland was typified for centuries by the léine croich ('saffron shirt'), and in Gaelic Scotland by the belted plaid (precursor of the modern kilt). Gaelic peoples have produced distinctive music, dances, festivals, and sports (including the Gaelic games in Ireland and Highland games in Scotland) into the modern era. Gaelic culture continues to be a major component of Irish, Scottish, and Manx society.

## Ethnonyms

[edit]

Part of a series on

Indo-European topics

Languages

* * *

* List of Indo-European languages

* * *

Extant

* Albanoid
* Albanian
* Armenian
* Balto-Slavic
* Baltic
* Slavic
* Celtic
* Germanic
* Hellenic
* Greek
* Indo-Iranian
* Indo-Aryan
* Iranian
* Nuristani
* Italic
* Romance

Extinct

* Anatolian
* Tocharian
* Paleo-Balkan
* Dacian
* Illyrian
* Liburnian
* Messapic
* Mysian
* Paeonian
* Phrygian
* Thracian

* * *

Reconstructed

* Proto-Indo-European language

* Phonology: Sound laws, Accent, Ablaut

* * *

Hypothetical

* Balkanic
* Daco-Thracian
* Graeco-Albanian
* Graeco-Armenian
* Graeco-Aryan
* Graeco-Phrygian
* Indo-Hittite
* Italo-Celtic
* Thraco-Illyrian

* * *

Grammar

* Vocabulary
* Root
* Verbs
* Nouns
* Pronouns
* Numerals
* Particles

* * *

Other

* Proto-Albanian
* Proto-Anatolian
* Proto-Armenian
* Proto-Germanic (Proto-Norse)
* Proto-Italo-Celtic (Proto-Celtic · Proto-Italic)
* Proto-Greek
* Proto-Balto-Slavic (Proto-Slavic · Proto-Baltic)
* Proto-Indo-Iranian (Proto-Indo-Aryan, Proto-Iranian, Proto-Nuristani)

Philology

* Hittite inscriptions
* Hieroglyphic Luwian
* Linear B
* Rigveda
* Avesta
* Homer
* Behistun
* Greek epigraphy
* Phrygian epigraphy
* Messapic epigraphy
* Latin epigraphy
* Gaulish epigraphy
* Runic epigraphy
* Ogham
* Gothic Bible
* Bible translations into Armenian
* Tocharian script
* Old Irish glosses
* Albanian Kanun

Origins

* Homeland
* Proto-Indo-Europeans
* Society
* Religion

* * *

Mainstream

* Kurgan hypothesis
* Indo-European migrations
* Eurasian nomads

* * *

Alternative and fringe

* Anatolian hypothesis
* Armenian hypothesis
* Beech argument
* Indigenous Aryanism
* Baltic homeland
* Paleolithic continuity theory

Archaeology

Chalcolithic (Copper Age)

Pontic Steppe

* Domestication of the horse
* Kurgan
* Kurgan stelae
* Kurgan culture
* Steppe cultures
* Bug–Dniester
* Sredny Stog
* Dnieper–Donets
* Samara
* Khvalynsk
* Yamnaya
* Mykhailivka culture
* Novotitarovskaya culture

Caucasus

* Maykop

East Asia

* Afanasievo

Eastern Europe

* Usatove
* Cernavodă
* Cucuteni

Northern Europe

* Corded ware
* Baden
* Middle Dnieper

* * *

Bronze Age
Pontic Steppe

* Chariot
* Yamnaya
* Catacomb
* Multi-cordoned ware
* Poltavka
* Srubnaya

Northern/Eastern Steppe

* Abashevo culture
* Andronovo
* Sintashta

Europe

* Globular Amphora
* Corded ware
* Bell Beaker
* Únětice
* Trzciniec
* Nordic Bronze Age
* Terramare
* Tumulus
* Urnfield
* Proto-Villanovan
* Lusatian
* Este

South Asia

* Bishkent
* Vakhsh
* BMAC
* Ochre Coloured Pottery
* Copper Hoard
* Cemetery H
* Gandhara grave

* * *

Iron Age
Steppe

* Chernoles

Europe

* Thraco-Cimmerian
* Hallstatt
* Latial
* Jastorf

Caucasus

* Colchian

Central Asia

* Yaz

India

* Painted Grey Ware
* Northern Black Polished Ware

Peoples and societies

Bronze Age

* Anatolian peoples (Hittites)

* Armenians
* Mycenaean Greeks
* Indo-Iranians

Iron Age Indo-Aryans

* Indo-Aryans

Iranians

* Iranians

Nuristanis

* Nuristanis

East Asia

* Wusun
* Yuezhi

Europe

* Celts
* Gauls
* Celtiberians
* Insular Celts
* Cimmerians
* Hellenic peoples
* Italic peoples
* Germanic peoples
* Paleo-Balkan/Anatolia
* Thracians
* Dacians
* Illyrians
* Paeonians
* Phrygians
* Scythians

Middle Ages
East Asia

* Tocharians

Europe

* Albanians
* Balts
* Slavs
* Norsemen/Medieval Scandinavians
* Middle Ages

Indo-Aryan

* Medieval India

Iranian

* Greater Iran

Religion and mythology

Reconstructed

* Proto-Indo-European mythology
* Proto-Indo-Iranian religion
* Historical Vedic religion
* Ancient Iranian religion

* * *

Historical

* Hittite

Indo-Aryan

* Vedic
* Hinduism
* Buddhism
* Jainism
* Sikhism

Iranian

* Persian
* Zoroastrianism
* Kurdish
* Yazidism
* Yarsanism
* Scythian
* Ossetian

Others

* Armenian

European

* Paleo-Balkan (Albanian · Illyrian · Thracian · Dacian)
* Greek
* Roman
* Celtic
* Irish
* Scottish
* Breton
* Welsh
* Cornish
* Germanic
* Anglo-Saxon
* Continental
* Norse
* Baltic
* Latvian
* Lithuanian
* Slavic

Practices

* Fire rituals
* Horse sacrifice
* Sati
* Winter solstice/Yule

Indo-European studies

Scholars

* Marija Gimbutas
* J. P. Mallory

Institutes

* Copenhagen Studies in Indo-European

Publications

* Encyclopedia of Indo-European Culture
* The Horse, the Wheel, and Language
* Journal of Indo-European Studies
* Indogermanisches etymologisches Wörterbuch
* Indo-European Etymological Dictionary

Category

* v
* t
* e

Throughout the centuries, Gaels and Gaelic-speakers have been known by a number of names. The most consistent of these have been Gael, Irish, and Scots. In Latin, the Gaels were called Scoti,[13] but this later came to mean only the Gaels of Scotland. Other terms, such as Milesian, are not as often used.[14] An Old Norse name for the Gaels was Vestmenn (meaning "Westmen", due to inhabiting the Western fringes of Europe).[15] Informally, archetypal forenames such as Tadhg or Dòmhnall are sometimes used for Gaels.[16]

### Gael

[edit]

The word 'Gaelic' is first recorded in print in the English language in the 1770s,[17] replacing the earlier 'Gathelik' which is attested as far back as 1596.[17] 'Gael', defined as a 'member of the Gaelic race', is first attested in print in 1810.[18] 'Goidelic' has also been used in English since the 19th century, but usually refers to the language group.[19]

These names all come from the Old Irish word Goídel/Gaídel. In Early Modern Irish, it was spelled Gaoidheal (singular) and Gaoidheil/Gaoidhil (plural).[20] In modern Irish, it is spelled Gael (singular) and Gaeil (plural). According to scholar John T. Koch, the Old Irish form of the name was borrowed from an Archaic Welsh form Guoidel, meaning 'forest people', 'wild men' or, later, 'warriors'.[20] Guoidel is recorded as a personal name in the Book of Llandaff. The root of the name is cognate at the Proto-Celtic level with Old Irish fíad 'wild', and Féni, derived ultimately from Proto-Indo-European *weidh-n-jo-.[20][21] This latter word is the origin of Fianna and Fenian.

In medieval Ireland, the bardic poets who were the cultural intelligentsia of the nation, limited the use of Gaoidheal specifically to those who claimed genealogical descent from the mythical Goídel Glas.[22] Even the Gaelicised Normans who were born in Ireland, spoke Irish and sponsored Gaelic bardic poetry, such as Gearóid Iarla, were referred to as Gall ('foreigner') by Gofraidh Fionn Ó Dálaigh, a 14th-century Chief Ollam of Ireland.[22]

### Irish

[edit]

The Iverni are one of the population groups mentioned in Ptolemy's Geographia.

The ethnic name Irish has existed in the English language since the 11th century, in the form Irisce, which derived from the stem of Old English Iras, 'inhabitant of Ireland', from Old Norse irar.[23] The origin of this word is the Old Irish Ériu, which is from Old Celtic *Iveriu, likely associated with the Proto-Indo-European term *pi-wer- meaning 'fertile'.[23] Ériu is mentioned as a goddess in the Lebor Gabála Érenn.

The ancient Greeks, in particular Ptolemy in his second-century Geographia, possibly based on earlier sources, located a group known as the Iverni (from Ancient Greek: Ιουερνοι, Iouernoi) in the south-west of Ireland.[24] This group has been associated with the Érainn of Irish tradition by T. F. O'Rahilly and others.[24] The Érainn included peoples such as the Corcu Loígde and Dál Riata. Ancient Roman writers, such as Caesar, Pliny, and Tacitus, derived from Ivernia the name Hibernia;[24] although the Romans tended to call the isle Scotia, and the Gaels Scoti.[25]

Within Ireland, the term Éireannach, 'Irish', only gained its modern political significance as a primary denominator from the 17th century onwards, as in the works of Geoffrey Keating, where a Catholic alliance between the native Gaoidheal and Seanghaill, 'old foreigners' (of Norman descent), was proposed against the Nuaghail, 'new foreigners', or Sacsanach, 'English' (the ascendant Protestant New English settlers).[22]

### Scots

[edit]

Place names in Scotland that contain the element -bal- from the Scottish Gaelic baile meaning 'home, farmstead, town or city'. This data gives some indication of the extent of medieval Gaelic settlement in Scotland.

The Scots Gaels derive from the kingdom of Dál Riata, which included parts of western Scotland and northern Ireland. It has various explanations of its origins, including a foundation myth of an invasion from Ireland. Other historians believe that the Gaels colonized parts of Western Scotland over several decades and some archaeological evidence may point to a pre-existing maritime province united by the sea and isolated from the rest of Scotland by the Scottish Highlands or Druim Alban; however, this is disputed.[26][27] The genetic exchange includes passage of the M222 genotype within Scotland.[28]

From the 5th to 10th centuries, early Scotland was home not only to the Gaels of Dál Riata but also the Picts, the Britons, Angles and lastly the Vikings.[29] The Romans began to use the term Scoti to describe the Gaels in Latin from the 4th century onward.[30][31] At the time, the Gaels were raiding the west coast of Britain; it is thus conjectured that the term means "raider, pirate". The term "Scot" applied to the Gaels in general, not just those in Scotland. Examples are Johannes Scotus Eriugena and other figures from Hiberno-Latin culture, and the Schottenkloster founded by Irish Gaels in Germanic lands.

The Gaels of northern Britain referred to themselves as Albannaich in their own tongue and their realm as the Kingdom of Alba (founded as a successor kingdom to Dál Riata and Pictland). Germanic groups tended to refer to the Gaels as Scottas[31] and so when Anglo-Saxon influence grew at court with Duncan II, the Latin Rex Scottorum began to be used and the realm was known as Scotland. Eventually, 'Scot' and 'Scottish' came to refer to all inhabitants of Scotland, whether Gaelic or not. Germanic-speakers in Scotland began to refer to Scottish Gaelic as Erse (meaning "Irish").[32]

## Population

[edit]

### Kinship groups

[edit]

Main articles: Irish clans and Scottish clans

Clan tartan of the MacGregors. Distinctive patterns were adopted during the Victorian era.

In traditional Gaelic society, a patrilineal kinship group is referred to as a clann[33] or, in Ireland, a fine.[34][35] Both in technical use signify a dynastic grouping descended from a common ancestor, much larger than a personal family, which may also consist of various kindreds and septs. (Fine is not to be confused with the term fian, a 'band of roving men whose principal occupations were hunting and war, also a troop of professional fighting-men under a leader; in wider sense a company, number of persons; a warrior (late and rare)'[36]).

Using the Munster-based Eóganachta as an example, members of this clann claim patrilineal descent from Éogan Mór. It is further divided into major kindreds, such as the Eóganacht Chaisil, Glendamnach, Áine, Locha Léin and Raithlind.[37][38] These kindreds themselves contain septs that have passed down as Irish Gaelic surnames, for example the Eóganacht Chaisil includes O'Callaghan, MacCarthy, O'Sullivan and others.[39][40]

The Irish Gaels can be grouped into the following major historical groups; Connachta (including Uí Néill, Clan Colla, Uí Maine, etc.), Dál gCais, Eóganachta, Érainn (including Dál Riata, Dál Fiatach, etc.), Laigin and Ulaid (including Dál nAraidi). In the Highlands, the various Gaelic-originated clans tended to claim descent from one of the Irish groups, particularly those from Ulster. The Dál Riata (i.e. – MacGregor, MacDuff, MacLaren, etc.) claimed descent from Síl Conairi, for instance.[41] Some arrivals in the High Middle Ages (i.e. – MacNeill, Buchanan, Munro, etc.) claimed to be of the Uí Néill. As part of their self-justification; taking over power from the Norse-Gael MacLeod in the Hebrides; the MacDonalds claimed to be from Clan Colla.[42][43]

For the Irish Gaels, their culture did not survive the conquests and colonisations by the English between 1534 and 1692 (see History of Ireland (1536–1691), Tudor conquest of Ireland, Plantations of Ireland, Cromwellian conquest of Ireland, Williamite War in Ireland. As a result of the Gaelic revival, there has been renewed interest in Irish genealogy; the Irish Government recognised Gaelic Chiefs of the Name since the 1940s.[44] The Finte na hÉireann (Clans of Ireland) was founded in 1989 to gather together clan associations;[45] individual clan associations operate throughout the world and produce journals for their septs.[46] The Highland clans held out until the 18th century Jacobite risings. During the Victorian-era, symbolic tartans, crests and badges were retroactively applied to clans. Clan associations built up over time and Na Fineachan Gàidhealach (The Highland Clans) was founded in 2013.[47]

### Genetics

[edit]

Frequency distribution of Haplogroup R-L21 in Europe

A 2009 genetic study recorded the world's highest frequencies of Haplogroup R-M269 among populations on the Atlantic fringes of northwestern Europe; including the Irish (85%), Scots, Welsh, Bretons and Basques.[48]

R-L21, a sub-group of R-M269, is dominant among males of Gaelic ancestry, reaching a peak frequency of 94% in western Ireland. The world's highest frequencies of lactase persistence (the ability to digest milk into adulthood), and hereditary haemochromatosis, are also found among Irish people of Gaelic ancestry.[10]

In 2016, an archaeogenetics study analyzing ancient DNA found that Bronze Age men buried on Rathlin Island between 2000–1500 BC were most genetically similar to the modern Irish, Scots and Welsh. They all belonged to Haplogroup R-L21 and had the gene for lactase persistence; one also had the gene for hereditary haemochromatosis.[10][49] This shows that the genetic traits associated with the Gaels, and the Insular Celts as a whole, had emerged by 4,000 years ago. The study's authors suggested that the proto-Celtic language, ancestral to the Gaelic languages, may have arrived around this time.[10]

Developments in genetic genealogy have allowed geneticists to link genetic subclades with specific Gaelic kindred groups (and their surnames),[50][51] vindicating elements of Gaelic genealogy as found in works such as the Leabhar na nGenealach. For example, the Uí Néill (O'Neill, O'Donnell, Gallagher, etc.), are associated with R-M222[52] and the Dál gCais (O'Brien, McMahon, Kennedy, etc.) are associated with R-L226.[53]

A 2017 genetic study, the "Irish DNA Atlas", shows that the Irish population can be divided into ten geographic genetic clusters; seven of Gaelic Irish ancestry, and three of shared Irish-British ancestry. The differences between the Gaelic clusters are small, and are "surprisingly faithful to the historical boundaries of Irish provinces and kingdoms".[54] These clusters are "Ulster" in the northwest, "Connacht" in the west and midlands, "North Munster" (corresponding to historical Thomond), "South Munster" (corresponding to historical Desmond), "Leinster" (corresponding to the historical kingdom), "Central Ireland", and "Dublin". The Gaelic "Ulster" cluster shows the biggest genetic distance from Britain;[54] this was the region that remained outside English control for the longest. The study also showed that a cluster in Argyll in western Scotland is genetically closer to the Gaelic Irish clusters than the other Scottish clusters. This area was historically Gaelic-speaking (part of the kingdom of Dál Riata).[54]

Another genetic trait very common in Gaelic populations is red hair, with 10% of Irish and at least 13% of Scots having red hair, much larger numbers being carriers of variants of the MC1R gene, and which is possibly related to an adaptation to the cloudy conditions of the regional climate.[55][56]

### Demographics

[edit]

In countries where Gaels live, census records documenting population statistics exist. The following chart shows the number of speakers of the Gaelic languages (Irish, Scottish Gaelic, or Manx). The question of ethnic identity is slightly more complex, but included below are those who identify as ethnic Irish, Manx or Scottish. Not all are of Gaelic descent, especially in the case of Scotland, due to the nature of the Lowlands. It also depends on the self-reported response of the individual and so is a rough guide rather than an exact science.[citation needed]

The two comparatively "major" Gaelic nations in the modern era are Ireland (which had 71,968 "daily" Irish speakers and 1,873,997 people claiming "some ability of Irish", as of the 2022 census)[1] and Scotland (58,552 fluent "Gaelic speakers" and 92,400 with "some Gaelic language ability" in the 2001 census).[57] Communities where the languages still are spoken natively are restricted largely to the west coast of each country and especially the Hebrides islands in Scotland. However, a large proportion of the Gaelic-speaking population now lives in the cities of Glasgow and Edinburgh in Scotland, and Dublin, Cork as well as Counties Donegal and Galway in Ireland. There are about 2,000 Scottish Gaelic speakers in Canada (Canadian Gaelic dialect), although many are elderly and concentrated in Nova Scotia and more specifically Cape Breton Island.[58] According to the U.S. Census in 2000,[3] there are more than 25,000 Irish-speakers in the United States, with the majority found in urban areas with large Irish-American communities such as Boston, New York City and Chicago.

State  | Gaeilge | Ethnic Irish  | Gàidhlig | Ethnic Scots  | Gaelg | Ethnic Manx

|
|
|
|
|
|

Ireland  | 1,873,997 (2022)[1] | 3,969,319 (2011) | not recorded | not recorded | not recorded | not recorded
United Kingdom and dependencies

[b]

| 64,916 (2011)[2] | 1,101,994 (2011)[2][59] | 57,602 (2011) | 4,446,000 (2011) | 1,689 (2000)[60] | 38,108 (2011)
United States  | 25,870 (2000)[3] | 33,348,049 (2013)[61] | 1,605 (2000)[3] | 5,310,285 (2013)[61] | not recorded | 6,955
Canada  | 7,500 (2011)[4] | 4,354,155 (2006)[62] | 1,500 (2011)[4] | 4,719,850 (2006)[62] | not recorded | 4,725
Australia  | 1,895 (2011)[5] | 2,087,800 (2011)[63] | 822 (2001) | 1,876,560 (2011) | not recorded | 46,000
New Zealand  | not recorded | 14,000 (2013)[64] | 670 (2006) | 12,792 (2006) | not recorded | not recorded
Total | 1,974,178  | 44,875,317  | 62,199  | 16,318,487  | 1,689  | 95,788

### Diaspora

[edit]

Main articles: Irish diaspora and Scottish diaspora

The Emigrants, painting from 1844. This depicts a Highland Scots family in Gaelic dress migrating to New Zealand.

As the Western Roman Empire began to collapse, the Irish (along with the Anglo-Saxons) were one of the peoples able to take advantage in Great Britain from the 4th century onwards. The proto-Eóganachta Uí Liatháin and the Déisi Muman of Dyfed both established colonies in today's Wales. Further to the north, the Érainn's Dál Riata colonised Argyll (eventually founding Alba) and there was a significant Gaelic influence in Northumbria[65] and the MacAngus clan arose to the Pictish kingship by the 8th century. Gaelic Christian missionaries were also active across the Frankish Empire. With the coming of the Viking Age and their slave markets, Irish were also dispersed in this way across the realms under Viking control; as a legacy, in genetic studies, Icelanders exhibit high levels of Gaelic-derived mDNA.[66]

Since the fall of Gaelic polities, the Gaels have made their way across parts of the world, successively under the auspices of the Spanish Empire, French Empire, and the British Empire. Their main destinations were Iberia, France, the West Indies, North America (what is today the United States and Canada) and Oceania (Australia and New Zealand). There has also been a mass "internal migration" within Ireland and Britain from the 19th century, with Irish and Scots migrating to the English-speaking industrial cities of London, Dublin, Glasgow, Liverpool, Manchester, Birmingham, Cardiff, Leeds, Edinburgh and others. Many underwent a linguistic "Anglicisation" and eventually merged with Anglo populations.

In a more narrow interpretation of the term Gaelic diaspora, it could be interpreted as referring to the Gaelic-speaking minority among the Irish, Scottish, and Manx diaspora. However, the use of the term "diaspora" in relation to the Gaelic languages (i.e., in a narrowly linguistic rather than a more broadly cultural context) is arguably not appropriate, as it may suggest that Gaelic speakers and people interested in Gaelic necessarily have Gaelic ancestry, or that people with such ancestry naturally have an interest or fluency in their ancestral language. Research shows that this assumption is inaccurate.[67]

## Origins

[edit]

See also: Prehistoric Ireland and Prehistoric Scotland

The Lia Fáil at the Hill of Tara, sacred site of inauguration for the Gaelic High Kings.

There is disagreement about when Ireland and Britain became Celtic. Some scholars associate it with the arrival of the Bell Beaker culture in the Bronze Age (c.2400 BC onward). This is associated with a genetic change in the population. Archaeologist J. P. Mallory writes that the arrival of Bell Beaker culture and spread of Bell Beaker genes "provides a simple and clear model" of Irish Gaelic origins, as there is scant evidence of later large migrations to Ireland, either archaeologically or genetically.[68] Others argue that "Celts" arrived much later at the beginning of the Iron Age.[69]

There are two main theories on the origin of the Goidelic (or Gaelic) and Brittonic (or Brythonic) branches of the Celtic languages. The "Q-Celtic and P-Celtic hypothesis" posits that the Goidelic (Gaelic) languages are older and the Brittonic (Brythonic) languages are newer. This is because the Goidelic languages tend to be more conservative and retain more archaic features.[70][71] The "Insular Celtic hypothesis" posits that Goidelic and Brittonic languages developed together in that region, as they have more shared innovations than the "Continental Celtic languages".[72]

Archaic Irish first appears in ogham inscriptions in the 4th century AD. The oldest examples of Ogham have survived in the form of memorial inscriptions or short epitaphs on pillar-like stone monuments (see Mac Cairthinn mac Coelboth). Ogham stones are found throughout Ireland and neighbouring parts of Britain.

During the Iron Age, there was heightened activity at a number of important royal ceremonial sites, including Tara, Dún Ailinne, Rathcroghan and Emain Macha.[73] Each was associated with a Gaelic tribe. The most important was Tara, where the High King (also known as the King of Tara) was inaugurated on the Lia Fáil (Stone of Destiny), which stands to this day.

### Origin legends

[edit]

Scota and Goídel Glas voyaging from Egypt. From the 15th century chronicle the Scotichronicon.

In their own national epic contained within medieval works such as the Lebor Gabála Érenn, the Gaels trace the origin of their people to an eponymous ancestor named Goídel Glas. He is described as a Scythian prince (the grandson of Fénius Farsaid), who is credited with creating the Gaelic languages. Goídel's mother is called Scota, described as an Egyptian princess. The Gaels are depicted as wandering from place to place for hundreds of years; they spend time in Egypt, Crete, Scythia, the Caspian Sea and Getulia, before arriving in Iberia, where their king, Breogán, is said to have founded Galicia.[14]

The Gaels are then said to have sailed to Ireland via Galicia in the form of the Milesians, sons of Míl Espáine.[14] The Gaels fight a battle of sorcery with the Tuatha Dé Danann, the gods, who inhabited the land at the time. Ériu, a goddess of the land, promises the Gaels that land shall be theirs so long as they pay tribute to her. They agree, and their bard Amergin recites an incantation known as the Song of Amergin. The two groups agree to divide the land between them: the Gaels take the world above, while the Tuath Dé Danann take the world below (i.e. the Otherworld). The Gaels call the land Éire, which is later anglicised as 'Ireland'.

## History

[edit]

### Antiquity

[edit]

See also: Protohistory of Ireland and Scotland during the Roman Empire

According to medieval Irish legend, High King Túathal Techtmar was exiled to Roman Britain before returning to claim Tara. Based on the accounts of Tacitus, some modern historians associate him with an "Irish prince" said to have been entertained by Agricola, Governor of Britain, and speculate at Roman sponsorship.[74] His grandson, Conn Cétchathach, is the ancestor of the Connachta who would dominate the Irish Middle Ages. They gained control of what would now be named Connacht. Their close relatives the Érainn (both groups descend from Óengus Tuirmech Temrach) and the Ulaid would later lose out to them in Ulster, as the descendants of the Three Collas in Airgíalla and Niall Noígíallach in Ailech extended their hegemony.[75]

The Gaels emerged into the clear historical record during the classical era, with ogham inscriptions and quite detailed references in Greco-Roman ethnography (most notably by Ptolemy). The Roman Empire conquered most of Britain in the 1st century, but did not conquer Ireland or the far north of Britain. The Gaels had relations with the Roman world, mostly through trade. Roman jewellery and coins have been found at several Irish royal sites, for example.[76] Gaels, known to the Romans as Scoti, also carried out raids on Roman Britain, together with the Picts. These raids increased in the 4th century, as Roman rule in Britain began to collapse.[76] This era was also marked by a Gaelic presence in Britain; in what is today Wales, the Déisi founded the Kingdom of Dyfed and the Uí Liatháin founded Brycheiniog.[77] There was also some Irish settlement in Cornwall.[76] To the north, the Dál Riata are held to have established a territory in Argyll and the Hebrides.[c]

### Early Middle Ages

[edit]

Main articles: Medieval Ireland and Scotland in the Middle Ages

The Isles in the 5th century.

Mainly Goidelic areas.

Mainly Pictish areas.

Mainly Brythonic areas.

Christianity reached Ireland during the 5th century, most famously through a Romano-British slave Patrick,[78] but also through Gaels such as Declán, Finnian and the Twelve Apostles of Ireland. The abbot and the monk eventually took over certain cultural roles of the aos dána (not least the roles of druí and seanchaí) as the oral culture of the Gaels was transmitted to script by the arrival of literacy. Thus Christianity in Ireland during this early time retained elements of Gaelic culture.[78]

In the Middle Ages, Gaelic Ireland was divided into a hierarchy of territories ruled by a hierarchy of kings or chiefs. The smallest territory was the túath (plural: túatha), which was typically the territory of a single kin-group. Several túatha formed a mór túath (overkingdom), which was ruled by an overking. Several overkingdoms formed a cóiced (province), which was ruled by a provincial king. In the early Middle Ages the túath was the main political unit, but during the following centuries the overkings and provincial kings became ever more powerful.[79][80] By the 6th century, the division of Ireland into two spheres of influence (Leath Cuinn and Leath Moga) was largely a reality. In the south, the influence of the Eóganachta based at Cashel grew further, to the detriment of Érainn clans such as the Corcu Loígde and Clann Conla. Through their vassals the Déisi (descended from Fiacha Suidhe and later known as the Dál gCais), Munster was extended north of the River Shannon, laying the foundations for Thomond.[81] Aside from their gains in Ulster (excluding the Érainn's Ulaid), the Uí Néill's southern branch had also pushed down into Mide and Brega. By the 9th century, some of the most powerful kings were being acknowledged as High King of Ireland.

A page from the 9th century Book of Kells, one of the finest examples of Insular art. It is believed to have been made in Gaelic monasteries in Ireland and Scotland.

Some, particularly champions of Christianity, hold the 6th to 9th centuries to be a Golden Age for the Gaels. This is due to the influence which the Gaels had across Western Europe as part of their Christian missionary activities. Similar to the Desert Fathers, Gaelic monastics were known for their asceticism.[82] Some of the most celebrated figures of this time were Columba, Aidan, Columbanus and others.[82] Learned in Greek and Latin during an age of cultural collapse,[83] the Gaelic scholars were able to gain a presence at the court of the Carolingian Frankish Empire; perhaps the best known example is Johannes Scotus Eriugena.[84] Aside from their activities abroad, insular art flourished domestically, with artifacts such as the Book of Kells and Tara Brooch surviving. Clonmacnoise, Glendalough, Clonard, Durrow and Inis Cathaigh are some of the more prominent Ireland-based monasteries founded during this time.

High King Máel Sechnaill mac Domnaill was one of the leaders in the struggle with the Norsemen.

There is some evidence in early Icelandic sagas such as the Íslendingabók that the Gaels may have visited the Faroe Islands and Iceland before the Norse, and that Gaelic monks known as papar (meaning father) lived there before being driven out by the incoming Norsemen.[85]

The late 8th century heralded outside involvement in Gaelic affairs, as Norsemen from Scandinavia, known as the Vikings, began to raid and pillage settlements. The earliest recorded raids were on Rathlin and Iona in 795; these hit and run attacks continued for some time until the Norsemen began to settle in the 840s at Dublin (setting up a large slave market), Limerick, Waterford and elsewhere. The Norsemen also took most of the Hebrides and the Isle of Man from the Dál Riata clans and established the Kingdom of the Isles.

The monarchy of Pictland had kings of Gaelic origin, since the 7th century with Bruide mac Der-Ilei, around the times of the Cáin Adomnáin. However, Pictland remained a separate realm from Dál Riata, until the latter gained full hegemony during the reign of Kenneth MacAlpin from the House of Alpin, whereby Dál Riata and Pictland were merged to form the Kingdom of Alba. This meant an acceleration of Gaelicisation in the northern part of Great Britain. The Battle of Brunanburh in 937 defined the Anglo-Saxon Kingdom of England as the hegemonic force in Great Britain, over a Gaelic-Viking alliance.[86]

After a spell when the Norsemen were driven from Dublin by Leinsterman Cerball mac Muirecáin, they returned in the reign of Niall Glúndub, heralding a second Viking period. The Dublin Norse—some of them, such as Uí Ímair king Ragnall ua Ímair now partly Gaelicised as the Norse-Gaels—were a serious regional power, with territories across Northumbria and York. At the same time, the Uí Néill branches were involved in an internal power struggle for hegemony between the northern or southern branches. Donnchad Donn raided Munster and took Cellachán Caisil of the Eóganachta hostage. The destabilisation led to the rise of the Dál gCais and Brian Bóruma. Through military might, Brian went about building a Gaelic Imperium under his High Kingship, even gaining the submission of Máel Sechnaill mac Domnaill. They were involved in a series of battles against the Vikings: Tara, Glenmama and Clontarf. The last of these saw Brian's death in 1014. Brian's campaign is glorified in the Cogad Gáedel re Gallaib ("The War of the Gaels with the Foreigners").

### Later Middle Ages

[edit]

See also: History of Ireland (1169–1536) and Scotland in the High Middle Ages

The Irish Church became closer to Continental models with the Synod of Ráth Breasail and the arrival of the Cistercians. There was also more trade and communication with Normanised Britain and France. Between themselves, the Ó Briain and the Ó Conchobhair attempted to build a national monarchy.

Political boundaries in Ireland in 1450, before the plantations

The remainder of the Middle Ages was marked by conflict between Gaels and Anglo-Normans. The Norman invasion of Ireland took place in stages during the late 12th century. Norman mercenaries landed in Leinster in 1169 at the request of Diarmait Mac Murchada, who sought their help in regaining his throne. By 1171 the Normans had gained control of Leinster, and King Henry II of England, with the backing of the Papacy, established the Lordship of Ireland. The Norman kings of England claimed sovereignty over this territory, leading to centuries of conflict between the Normans and the native Irish. At this time, a literary anti-Gaelic sentiment was born and developed by the likes of Gerald of Wales as part of a propaganda campaign (with a Gregorian "reform" gloss) to justify taking Gaelic lands. Scotland also came under Anglo-Norman influence in the 12th century. The Davidian Revolution saw the Normanisation of Scotland's monarchy, government and church; the founding of burghs, which became mainly English-speaking; and the royally-sponsored immigration of Norman aristocrats.[87] This Normanisation was mainly limited to the Scottish Lowlands. In Ireland, the Normans carved out their own semi-independent lordships, but many Gaelic Irish kingdoms remained outside Norman control and gallowglass warriors were brought in from the Highlands to fight for various Irish kings.

In 1315, a Scottish army landed in Ireland as part of Scotland's war against England. It was led by Edward Bruce, brother of Scottish king Robert the Bruce. Despite his own Norman ancestry, Edward urged the Irish to ally with the Scots by invoking a shared Gaelic ancestry and culture, and most of the northern kings acknowledged him as High King of Ireland.[88] However, the campaign ended three years later with Edward's defeat and death in the Battle of Faughart.

A Gaelic Irish resurgence began in the mid-14th century: English royal control shrank to an area known as the Pale and, outside this, many Norman lords adopted Gaelic culture, becoming culturally Gaelicised. The English government tried to prevent this through the Statutes of Kilkenny (1366), which forbade English settlers from adopting Gaelic culture, but the results were mixed and particularly in the West, some Normans became Gaelicised.

Gaelic Irish men and noblewomen, c.1575 Scottish Highlanders depicted in R. R. McIan's Clans of The Scottish Highlands (1845)

### Imperial era

[edit]

See also: History of Ireland (1536–1691) and Scotland in the early modern period

During the 16th and 17th centuries, the Gaels were affected by the policies of the Tudors and the Stewarts who sought to anglicise the population and bring both Ireland and the Highlands under stronger centralised control,[89] as part of what would become the British Empire. In 1542, Henry VIII of England declared the Lordship of Ireland a Kingdom and himself King of Ireland. The new English, whose power lay in the Pale of Dublin, then began to conquer the island. Gaelic kings were encouraged to apply for a surrender and regrant: to surrender their lands to the king, and then have them regranted as freeholds. Those who surrendered were also expected to follow English law and customs, speak English, and convert to the Protestant Anglican Church. Decades of conflict followed in the reign of Elizabeth I, culminating in the Nine Years' War (1594–1603). The war ended in defeat for the Irish Gaelic alliance and brought an end to the independence of the last Irish Gaelic kingdoms.

In 1603, with the Union of the Crowns, King James of Scotland also became king of England and Ireland. James saw the Gaels as a barbarous and rebellious people in need of civilising,[90] and believed that Gaelic culture should be wiped out.[11] Also, while most of Britain had converted to Protestantism, most Gaels had held on to Catholicism. When the leaders of the Irish Gaelic alliance fled Ireland in 1607, their lands were confiscated. James set about colonising this land with English-speaking Protestant settlers from Britain, in what became known as the Plantation of Ulster. It was meant to establish a loyal British Protestant colony in Ireland's most rebellious region and to sever Gaelic Ulster's links with Gaelic Scotland.[90] In Scotland, James attempted to subdue the Gaelic clans and suppress their culture through laws such as the Statutes of Iona.[89] He also attempted to colonise the Isle of Lewis with settlers from the Lowlands.

Since then, the Gaelic language has gradually diminished in most of Ireland and Scotland. The 19th century was the turning point as The Great Hunger in Ireland, and across the Irish Sea the Highland Clearances, caused mass emigration (leading to Anglicisation, but also a large diaspora). The language was rolled back to the Gaelic strongholds of the north west of Scotland, the west of Ireland and Cape Breton Island in Nova Scotia.

### Modern era

[edit]

The Gaelic revival also occurred in the 19th century, with organisations such as Conradh na Gaeilge and An Comunn Gàidhealach attempting to restore the prestige of Gaelic culture and the socio-communal hegemony of the Gaelic languages. Many of the participants in the Irish Revolution of 1912–1923 were inspired by these ideals and so when a sovereign state was formed (the Irish Free State), post-colonial enthusiasm for the re-Gaelicisation of Ireland was high and promoted through public education. Results were very mixed however and the Gaeltacht where native speakers lived continued to retract. In the 1960s and 70s, pressure from groups such as Misneach (supported by Máirtín Ó Cadhain), the Gluaiseacht Chearta Siabhialta na Gaeltachta and others; particularly in Connemara; paved the way for the creation of development agencies such as Údarás na Gaeltachta and state media (television and radio) in Irish.

The last native speaker of Manx died in the 1970s, though use of the Manx language never fully ceased. There is now a resurgent language movement and Manx is once again taught in all schools as a second language and in some as a first language.

## Culture

[edit]

Main articles: Gaelic Ireland and Culture of Scotland in the High Middle Ages

Gaelic society was traditionally made up of kin groups known as clans, each with its own territory and headed by a male chieftain. Succession to the chieftainship or kingship was through tanistry. When a man became chieftain or king, a relative was elected to be his deputy or 'tanist' (tánaiste). When the chieftain or king died, his tanist would automatically succeed him. The tanist had to share the same great-grandfather as his predecessor (i.e. was of the same derbfhine) and he was elected by freemen who also shared the same great-grandfather.[91][92] Gaelic law is known as the Fénechas or Brehon law. The Gaels have always had a strong oral tradition, maintained by shanachies.[93] In the ancient and medieval era, most Gaels lived in roundhouses and ringforts. The Gaels had their own style of dress, which became the modern belted plaid and kilt in Scotland. They also have their own extensive Gaelic literature, style of music and dances (Irish dancing and Highland dancing), social gatherings (Feis and Ceilidh), and their own sports (Gaelic games and Highland games).

### Language

[edit]

Main articles: History of the Irish language, History of the Manx language, and History of Scottish Gaelic

See also: Gaelic languages, Scots language, Scottish English, Hiberno-English, Highland English, and Manx English

Auraicept na n-Éces, 7th century, explaining ogham.

The Goidelic (or Gaelic) languages are a branch of the Celtic languages, descending from proto-Celtic.

Respondents who stated they could speak Irish and Scottish Gaelic in the 2011 censuses.

The Gaelic languages have been in steep decline since the beginning of the 19th century, when they were majority languages of Ireland and the Scottish Highlands; today they are endangered languages.[94][95] As far back as the Statutes of Kilkenny in 1366, the English government had dissuaded use of Gaelic for political reasons.[96] The Statutes of Iona in 1609 and the Society in Scotland for Propagating Christian Knowledge in the Highlands (for most of its history) are also notable examples. As the old Gaelic aristocracy was displaced or assimilated, the language lost its prestige and became primarily a peasant language, rather than one of education and government. The spread of the English language has resulted in a vast majority of people of Gaelic ancestry being unable to speak a Goidelic language.

During the 19th century, a number of Gaeilgeoir organisations were founded to promote a broad cultural and linguistic revival. Conradh na Gaeilge (English: the Gaelic League) was set up in 1893 and had its origins in Charles Owen O'Conor's Gaelic Union, itself a derivative of the Society for the Preservation of the Irish Language. Similar Highland Gaelic groups existed, such as An Comunn Gàidhealach. At this time, Irish Gaelic was widely spoken along the Western seaboard (and a few other enclaves) and the Gaelic League began defining it as the "Gaeltacht", idealised as the core of true Irish-Ireland, rather than the Anglo-dominated Dublin.[97] Although the Gaelic League itself aimed to be apolitical, this ideal was attractive to militant republicans such as the Irish Republican Brotherhood, who formulated and led the Irish Revolution at the turn of the 20th century; a key leader, Pádraig Pearse, imagined an Ireland "Not merely Free but Gaelic as well – Not merely Gaelic but Free as well." Scottish Gaelic did not undergo as extensive of a politicisation at this juncture, as nationalists there tended to focus on the Lowland mythos of William Wallace rather than the Gàidhealtachd.[98]

During the 1950s, the independent Irish state developed An Caighdeán Oifigiúil as a national standard for the Irish language (using elements from local dialects but leaning towards Connacht Irish), with a simplified spelling. Until 1973, school children had to pass Modern Irish to achieve a Leaving Cert and studying the subject remains obligatory. There are also Gaelscoileanna where children are taught exclusively through the medium of Irish. In the Gaeltacht itself, the language has continued to be in crisis under the pressure of globalism, but there are institutions such as Údarás na Gaeltachta and a Minister for Culture, Heritage and the Gaeltacht, as well as media outlets such as TG4 and RTÉ Raidió na Gaeltachta to support it. The last native Manx Gaelic speaker died in 1974, although there are ongoing attempts at revival.[99] While the Gàidhealtachd has retracted in the Highlands, Scottish Gaelic has enjoyed renewed support[100] with the Gaelic Language (Scotland) Act 2005, establishing the Bòrd na Gàidhlig under the devolved Scottish Government. This has seen the growth of Gaelic medium education. There are also media outlets such as BBC Alba and BBC Radio nan Gàidheal, although these have been criticised for excessive use of English and pandering to an English-speaking audience.[101]

### Religion

[edit]

#### Pre-Christian

[edit]

Main article: Ancient Celtic religion

An artistic rendering of the hero Fionn mac Cumhaill

The traditional, or "pagan", worldview of the pre-Christian Gaels of Ireland is typically described as animistic,[102] polytheistic, ancestor venerating and focused on the hero cult of archetypal Gaelic warriors such as Cú Chulainn and Fionn mac Cumhaill. The four seasonal festivals celebrated in the Gaelic calendar, still observed to this day, are Imbolc, Beltane, Lughnasadh and Samhain.[103] While the general worldview of the Gaelic tradition has been recovered, a major issue for academic scholars is that Gaelic culture was oral prior to the coming of Christianity and monks were the first to record the beliefs of this rival worldview as a "mythology". Unlike other religions, there is no overall "holy book" systematically setting out exact rules to follow, but various works, such as the Lebor Gabála Érenn, Dindsenchas, Táin Bó Cúailnge and Acallam na Senórach, represent the metaphysical orientation of Gaelachas.

The main gods held in high regard were the Tuatha Dé Danann, the superhuman beings said to have ruled Ireland before the coming of the Milesians, known in later times as the aes sídhe.[104] Among the gods were male and female deities such as The Dagda, Lugh, Nuada, The Morrígan, Aengus, Brigid and Áine, as well as many others. Some of them were associated with specific social functions, seasonal events and personal archetypal qualities. Some physical locations of importance in Ireland related to these stories include the Brú na Bóinne, Hill of Tara and Hill of Uisneach. Although the sídhe were held to intervene in worldly affairs sometimes, particularly battles and issues of sovereignty, the gods were held to reside in the Otherworld, also known as Mag Mell (Plain of Joy) or Tír na nÓg (Land of the Young). This realm was variously held to be located on a set of islands or underground. The Gaels believed that certain heroic persons could gain access to this spiritual realm, as recounted in the various echtra (adventure) and immram (voyage) tales.

#### Christianity

[edit]

Main article: Gaelic Christianity

Medieval high cross at Monasterboice

The Gaels underwent Christianisation during the 5th century and that religion, de facto, remains the predominant one to this day, although irreligion is fast rising.[105] At first the Christian Church had difficulty infiltrating Gaelic life: Ireland had never been part of the Roman Empire and was a decentralised tribal society, making patron-based mass conversion problematic.[78] It gradually penetrated through the remnants of Roman Britain and is especially associated with the activities of Patrick, a Briton who had been a slave in Ireland.[78] He tried to explain its doctrines by using elements of native folk tradition, so Gaelic culture itself was not completely cast aside and to some extent local Christianity was Gaelicised.[78] The last High King inaugurated in the pagan style was Diarmait mac Cerbaill. The 6th–9th centuries are generally held to be the height of Gaelic Christianity, with numerous saints, scholars and works of devotional art.

This balance began to unravel during the 12th century with the polemics of Bernard of Clairvaux, who attacked various Gaelic customs (including polygamy[106] and hereditary clergy) as "pagan".[107] The Catholic Church of the time, fresh from its split with the Eastern Orthodox Church, was becoming more centralised and uniform throughout Europe with the Gregorian Reform and military reliance on Germanic peoples at the fringes of Latin Christendom, particularly the warlike Normans. As part of this, the Catholic Church actively participated in the Norman conquest of Gaelic Ireland, with the issuing of Laudabiliter (claiming to gift the King of England the title "Lord of Ireland") and in Scotland strongly encouraged king David who Normanised that country. Even within orders such as the Franciscans, ethnic tensions between Norman and Gael continued throughout the later Middle Ages,[108] as well as competition for ecclesiastic posts.

During the 16th century, with the emergence of Protestantism and Tridentine Catholicism, a distinct Christian sectarianism made its way into Gaelic life, with societal effects carrying on down to this day. The Tudor state used the Anglican Church to bolster their power and enticed native elites into the project, without making much initial effort to convert the Irish Gaelic masses; meanwhile, the mass of Gaeldom (as well as the "Old English") became staunchly Catholic. Due to the geopolitical rivalry between Protestant Britain and Catholic France and Spain, the Catholic religion and its mostly Gaelic followers in Ireland were persecuted for a long time. In the Scottish Highlands too, the Gaels were generally slow to accept the Scottish Reformation. Efforts at persuading Highlanders in general of the value of this primarily Lowland movement were hampered by the complicated politics of the Highlands, with religious rivalries and clan antagonism becoming entwined (a prominent example was the intense rivalry, even hatred, between the generally Presbyterian Campbells and the generally Catholic MacDonalds), but most Highlanders later converted to Presbyterianism in the 19th century during the breakdown of the clan system. In a few remote areas, however, Catholicism was kept alive and even rejuvenated to some extent by Irish Franciscan missionaries,[citation needed] but in most of the Highlands it was replaced by Presbyterianism.

The adoption of the Free Church of Scotland (1843–1900) in the Highlands following the Disruption of 1843 was a reassertion of Gaelic identity in opposition to forces of improvement and clearance.[109][110][111]

## Notes

[edit]

1. ^ Origin and migration theories about the Gaelic peoples vary, as do those about the Gaels as victims of colonization and the roles of the colonists.[7][8][9]
2. ^ Census data for the United Kingdom are broken down by the constituency country. White Irish was an option in the ethnicity section of the 2011 Census of the United Kingdom; this did not distinguish between those of Gaelic-Irish descent and those of Anglo-Irish descent. The results for this were: 531,087 in England and Wales; 517,907 in Northern Ireland; and 53,000 in Scotland. According to the census, 83% (or 4,399,000) of the population in Scotland identified as "Scottish" and this did not distinguish between Gaelic Highlander and Anglo Lowlander ethnicities. In the rest of the United Kingdom, the Scots were included under White British.
3. ^ A minority of historical revisionists have come to challenge the traditional account of the origins of Gaelic Scotland as being derived directly from Gaelic Ireland via population movement as laid out in works such as the Senchus fer n-Alban and the Annals of Tigernach. The pioneering figure in this direction is Dr. Ewan Campbell of the University of Glasgow with his 2001 paper Were the Scots Irish?; an archaeologist, he argues that there is no evidence of mass population movement across the Irish Sea for this time period at Dunadd.

## References

[edit]

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3. ^ a b c d Osbourn 2006, p. 204.
4. ^ a b c "National Household Survey (NHS) 2011". Statistics Canada. 8 May 2013. Retrieved 7 February 2015.
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7. ^ Brown, Daniel Guy (2014). The Highland Clearances and the Politics of Memory (Thesis). Retrieved 2 July 2017.
8. ^ "The Scottish Highlands in Colonial & Psychodynamic Perspective". www.alastairmcintosh.com. Retrieved 2 July 2017.
9. ^ Mackinnon, Iain (1 May 2017). "Colonialism and the Highland Clearances" (PDF). Northern Scotland. 8 (1): 22–48\. doi:10.3366/nor.2017.0125. ISSN 0306-5278.
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13. ^ O'Duffy 2005, p. 698
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16. ^ O'Leary 2004, p. 376.
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30. ^ Koch 2004, p. 1571.
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45. ^ Ellis 2002, p. 95.
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51. ^ "Genetic investigation of the patrilineal kinship structure of early Medieval Ireland". American Journal of Physical Anthropology. 26 January 2015. doi:10.1002/(ISSN)1096-8644.
52. ^ "Insights into the O'Neills of Ireland from DNA Testing". Edwin. B. O'Neill. 26 January 2015. Archived from the original on 3 March 2016.
53. ^ "A Set of Distinctive Marker Values Defines a Y-STR Signature for Gaelic Dalcassian Families". Denis M. Wright. 26 January 2015. Archived from the original on 24 August 2012. Retrieved 26 January 2015.
54. ^ a b c Gilbert, Edmund; O’Reilly, Seamus; Merrigan, Michael; McGettigan, Darren; Molloy, Anne M.; Brody, Lawrence C.; Bodmer, Walter; Hutnik, Katarzyna; Ennis, Sean; Lawson, Daniel J.; Wilson, James F.; Cavalleri, Gianpiero L. (8 December 2017). "The Irish DNA Atlas: Revealing Fine-Scale Population Structure and History within Ireland". Scientific Reports. 7 (1): 17199. Bibcode:2017NatSR...717199G. doi:10.1038/s41598-017-17124-4. PMC 5722868. PMID 29222464.
55. ^ Moffat, Alistair. "Celts' red hair could be attributed to the cloudy weather". Retrieved 31 December 2014.
56. ^ Katsara, M. and Nothnagel, M. (2019). True colors: A literature review on the spatial distribution of eye and hair pigmentation. Forensic Science International: Genetics, 39,109-118. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fsigen.2019.01.001
57. ^ General Register Office, Scotland's Census 2001, Gaelic Report Archived 11 September 2008 at the Wayback Machine
58. ^ Oifis Iomairtean na Gaidhlig/Office of Gaelic Affairs Archived 29 October 2008 at the Wayback Machine
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60. ^ "Manx". World Directory of Minorities and Indigenous Peoples. 7 February 2014. Archived from the original on 7 March 2015.
61. ^ a b "Selected Social Characteristics in the United States (DP02): 2013 American Community Survey 1-Year Estimates". U.S. Census Bureau. Archived from the original on 12 February 2020. Retrieved 11 December 2014.
62. ^ a b "Visual census, Ethnic origin and visible minorities, Canada". Statistics Canada. 7 December 2010. Retrieved 7 February 2015.
63. ^ "The People of Australia: Statistics from the 2013 Census" (PDF). Department of Immigration and Border Protection. 7 February 2015. Archived from the original (PDF) on 14 July 2014. Retrieved 7 February 2015.
64. ^ "Census reveals scale of NZ Irish population". Irish Echo. 7 February 2015. Archived from the original on 8 February 2015.
65. ^ "Seventh-Century Ireland as a Study Abroad Destination" (PDF). Colin Ireland. 10 February 2015.
66. ^ ""They Accuse Us of Being Descended from Slaves": Settlement History, Cultural Syncretism and the Foundation of Medieval Icelandic Identity". Rutgers University. 10 February 2015. Archived from the original on 11 February 2015. Retrieved 10 February 2015.
67. ^ MacCaluim, Alasdair (2001). Research on Language Policy and Planning. Department of Celtic and Scottish Studies, University of Edinburgh.
68. ^ Mallory, J. P. (2023). "From the Steppe to Ireland: The impact of aDNA research". The Indo-European Puzzle Revisited: Integrating Archaeology, Genetics, and Linguistics. Cambridge University Press. pp. 129–142.
69. ^ J.X.W.P. Corcoram, "The origin of the Celts", in Nora Chadwick, The Celts (1970); David W. Anthony, The Horse, the Wheel and Language: How Bronze-Age riders from the Eurasian steppes shaped the modern world (2007).
70. ^ Ó Cróinín, Dáibhí, ed. (2005). A New History of Ireland: Prehistoric and Early Ireland. Oxford University Press. pp. 423–424.
71. ^ O'Kelly, Michael (1989). Early Ireland: An Introduction to Irish Prehistory. Cambridge University Press. p. 249.
72. ^ Mallory, J. P., ed. (1997). Encyclopedia of Indo-European Culture. Taylor & Francis. pp. 98–100.
73. ^ Ó Cróinín 2005, p. 166. sfn error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFÓ_Cróinín2005 (help)
74. ^ Rankin 2002, p. 306.
75. ^ Byrne 1973, p. 73.
76. ^ a b c Foster, Robert (2001). The Oxford History of Ireland. Oxford University Press. pp. 5–7.
77. ^ Byrne 1973, p. 72.
78. ^ a b c d e "The Adoption of Christianity by the Irish and Anglo-Saxons: The Creation of Two Different Christian Societies". Thomas Martz. 8 February 2015.
79. ^ Stafford, Pauline (2013). A Companion to the Early Middle Ages: Britain and Ireland c.500 – 1100. John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 9781118499474.
80. ^ Duffy, Seán (2005). Medieval Ireland: An Encyclopedia. Routledge. p. 421.
81. ^ Byrne 1973, p. 180.
82. ^ a b "Ancient Ireland: The Monastic Tradition". Daily Kos. 28 March 2015.
83. ^ MacManus 1990, p. 215.
84. ^ "John Scottus Eriugena". Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. 28 March 2015.
85. ^ Ureland, Per Sture (1996). Language Contact across the North Atlantic. Walter de Gruyter. pp. 115–116.
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87. ^ Taylor, Alice (2016). The Shape of the State in Medieval Scotland, 1124–1290. Oxford University Press. pp. 17–18.
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90. ^ a b Ellis, Steven (2014). The Making of the British Isles: The State of Britain and Ireland, 1450–1660. Routledge. p. 296.
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92. ^ Newton, Michael (2000). A handbook of the Scottish Gaelic world. Four Courts Press. p. 114.
93. ^ Glaser, Konstanze (2007). Minority Languages and Cultural Diversity in Europe. Multilingual Matters. pp. 265–266.
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95. ^ "'Endangered' Gaelic on map of world's dead languages". The Scotsman. 21 July 2015.
96. ^ "Words Between Worlds: The Irish Language, the English Army, and the Violence of Translation in Brian Friel's Translations". Collin Meissner. 21 July 2015.
97. ^ "Let's speak Gaeilge however we can and wherever we want". Irish Examiner. 21 July 2015.
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99. ^ "Manx: Bringing a language back from the dead". BBC. 21 July 2015.
100. ^ "Language as activism: the big Gaelic comeback". New Statesman. 21 July 2015.
101. ^ "BBC Alba is not a Gaelic channel". BBCAlbaNews. 9 September 2014. Retrieved 12 September 2014.
102. ^ Welch 1992, p. 4.
103. ^ Welch 1992, p. 12.
104. ^ Welch 1992, p. 2.
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110. ^ Withers, Charles W. J. (2015). Gaelic Scotland: The Transformation of a Culture Region. Routledge. p. 342\. ISBN 9781317332817.
111. ^ Symonds, James (1999). "Toiling in the Vale of Tears: Everyday Life and Resistance in South Uist, Outer Hebrides, 1760—1860". International Journal of Historical Archaeology. 3 (2): 101–122\. doi:10.1023/A:1021949701139. JSTOR 20852924. S2CID 160384214.

### Bibliography

[edit]

* Bartlett, Robert (1994). The Making of Europe: Conquest, Colonization and Cultural Change, 950–1350. Penguin. ISBN 978-0140154092.
* Bateman, Mary (2007). Duanaire Na Sracaire: Songbook of the Pillagers, Anthology of Scottish Gaelic Verse to 1600. Birlinn. ISBN 978-1841581811.
* Bradshaw, Brendan (1993). Representing Ireland: Literature and the Origins of Conflict, 1534-1660. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0521416344.
* Bradshaw, Brendan (2015). 'And so began the Irish Nation': Nationality, National Consciousness and Nationalism in Pre-modern Ireland. Ashgate Publishing. ISBN 978-1472442567.
* Byrne, Francis J. (1973). Irish Kings and High Kings. Four Courts Press. ISBN 978-1851821969.
* Calloway, Colin G. (2010). White People, Indians, and Highlanders: Tribal People and Colonial Encounters in Scotland and America. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0199737826.
* Canny, Nicholas (2001). Making Ireland British, 1580-1650. OUP Oxford. ISBN 978-0199259052.
* Charles-Edwards, T. M. (2007). Early Christian Ireland. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9780521037167.
* Clancy, Thomas Owen (2008). The Triumph Tree: Scotland's Earliest Poetry AD 550-1350. Canongate Classics. ISBN 978-0862417871.
* Connolly, S. J. (2009). Contested Island: Ireland 1460-1630. OUP Oxford. ISBN 978-0199563715.
* Connolly, S. J. (2010). Divided Kingdom: Ireland 1630-1800. OUP Oxford. ISBN 978-0199583874.
* Coogan, Tim Pat (2013). The Famine Plot: England's Role in Ireland's Greatest Tragedy. Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 978-1137278838.
* Crowley, Tony (2008). Wars of Words: The Politics of Language in Ireland 1537-2004. OUP Oxford. ISBN 978-0199532766.
* Doyle, Aidan (2015). A History of the Irish Language: From the Norman Invasion to Independence. OUP Oxford. ISBN 978-0198724766.
* Ellis, Peter Berresford (2002). Erin's Blood Royal: The Gaelic Noble Dynasties of Ireland. Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 978-0312230494.
* Denvir, John (1892). The Irish in Britain from the Earliest Times to the Fall and Death of Parnell. Kegan Paul, Trench, Trübner.
* Gibbons, Luke (2004). Gaelic Gothic: Race, Colonization and Irish Culture. Alren House. ISBN 978-1903631393.
* Gibson, D. Blair (2012). From Chiefdom to State in Early Ireland. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1107015630.
* Harbison, Peter (1999). The Golden Age of Irish Art: The Medieval Achievement 600-1200. Thames & Hudson. ISBN 978-0500019276.
* Kinsella, Thomas (1981). An Duanaire 1600-1900: Poems of the Dispossessed. Dolmen Press. ISBN 978-0851053646.
* Koch, John T. (2003). "Celts, Britons, and Gaels—Names, Peoples, and Identities". Trafodion Anhrydeddus Gymdeithas y Cymmrodorion; Cyfres Newydd. 9. The Honourable Society of Cymmrodorion: 41–56\. ISSN 0959-3632.
* Koch, John T. (2004). Celtic Culture: A Historical Encyclopedia. ABC-CLIO. ISBN 978-1851094400.
* Leerssen, Joep (1997). Mere Irish and Fior-Ghael: Studies in the Idea of Irish Nationality, Its Development and Literary Expression Prior to the Nineteenth Century. University of Notre Dame Press. ISBN 978-0268014278.
* Lenihan, Patrick (2007). Consolidating Conquest: Ireland 1603-1727. Routledge. ISBN 978-0582772175.
* Mac Giolla Chríost, Diarmait (2005). The Irish Language in Ireland: From Goídel to Globalisation. Routledge. ISBN 978-0415320467.
* Mac Síomoín, Tomás (2014). The Broken Harp: Identity and Language in Modern Ireland. Nuascealta. ISBN 978-1502974570.
* Macleod, John (1997). Highlanders: A History of the Gaels. Sceptre. ISBN 978-0340639917.
* MacManus, Seamus (1990) [1921]. The Story of the Irish Race: A Popular History of Ireland. Irish Publishing Company. ISBN 978-0-517-06408-5.
* McLeod, Wilson (2004). Divided Gaels: Gaelic Cultural Identities in Scotland and Ireland C.1200-C.1650. OUP Oxford. ISBN 978-0199247226.
* Newton, Michael (2000). A Handbook of the Scottish Gaelic World. Four Courts Press. ISBN 978-1851825417.
* Newton, Michael (2009). Warriors of the Word: The World of the Scottish Highlanders. Birlinn. ISBN 978-1841588261.
* O'Callaghan, Sean (2001). To Hell or Barbados: The Ethnic Cleansing of Ireland. Brandon. ISBN 978-0863222870.
* O'Conor Don, Charles (1753). Dissertations on the Ancient History of Ireland. J. Christie.
* Ó Cróinín, Dáibhí (2005). A New History of Ireland, Volume I: Prehistoric and Early Ireland. Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780199226658.
* O'Duffy, Séan (2005). Medieval Ireland: An Encyclopedia. Routledge. ISBN 978-1135948245.
* Ó Flaithbheartaigh, Ruaidhrí (1685). Ogygia: A Chronological Account of Irish Events. B. Tooke.
* O'Halloran, Sylvester (1778). A General History of Ireland. Hamilton.
* Ó hÓgáin, Dáithí (2001). The Sacred Isle: Belief and Religion in Pre-Christian Ireland. Boydell Press. ISBN 9780851157474.
* O'Leary, Philip (2004). The Prose Literature of the Gaelic Revival, 1881-1921. Pennsylvania State University Press. ISBN 978-0271025964.
* Ó Muraíle, Nollaig (2004). The Great Book of Irish Genealogies. De Burca Books. ISBN 978-0946130368.
* O'Sullivan Beare, Philip (1621). Catholic History of Ireland. Spain.
* Osbourn, Terry A. (2006). Teaching World Languages for Social Justice: A Sourcebook of Principles and Practices. Routledge. ISBN 978-1135609856.
* Patterson, Nerys T. (1991). Cattle Lords and Clansmen: The Social Structure of Early Ireland. Garland Press. ISBN 9780268008000.
* Rankin, David (2002). Celts and the Classical World. Routledge. ISBN 978-1134747214.
* Richards, Eric (1999). Patrick Sellar and the Highland Clearances: Homicide, Eviction and the Price of Progress. Edinburgh University Press. ISBN 9781902930138.
* Tanner, Marcus (2006). The Last of the Celts. Yale University Press. ISBN 9780300115352.
* Thornton, David E. (2003). Kings, Chronologies, and Genealogies: Studies in the Political History of Early Medieval Ireland and Wales. Occasional Publications UPR. ISBN 978-1900934091.
* Welch, Robert (1992). Irish Writers and Religion. Rowman & Littlefield. ISBN 978-0389209638.
* Watson, Moray (2010). The Edinburgh Companion to the Gaelic Language. Edinburgh University Press. ISBN 978-0748637096.
* Woolfe, Alex (2007). From Pictland to Alba, 789-1070. Edinburgh University Press. ISBN 978-0748612338.

## External links

[edit]

* Foras na Gaeilge – Irish agency promoting the language
* Bòrd na Gàidhlig – Scottish agency promoting the language
* Culture Vannin – Manx agency promoting the language
* The Columba Project – Pan-Gaelic cultural initiative
* Gaelic Society Collection at University College London (c. 700 items collected by the Gaelic Society of London)

* v
* t
* e

Gaels

General history|

* Gaelic Ireland
* Pre-Norman invasion Irish Celtic kinship groups
* High King of Ireland
* Irish kingdoms
* Dál Riata
* Alba
* Nine Years' War
* Statutes of Iona
* Flight of the Earls
* Plantation of Ulster
* 1641 Rebellion
* Act for the Settlement of Ireland 1652
* Jacobitism
* Jacobite rising of 1745
* Penal Laws
* Great Hunger
* Irish diaspora
* Highland Clearances
* Gaelic Revival
* Gaeltacht
* Gàidhealtachd

Gaelic culture|

* Ogham
* Brehon law
* Gaelic mythology
* Lebor Gabála Érenn
* Gaelic warfare
* Gaelic astrology
* Gaelic kinship
* Bardic poetry
* Gaelic literature (Early Irish, Modern Irish, Scottish Gaelic & Manx)
* Gaelic type
* Insular script
* Fáinne
* Gaelic folk music
* Sean-nós singing
* Oireachtas na Gaeilge
* Am Mòd
* Gaelic games
* Highland games
* Túath
* Insular Christianity
* Gaelic Christian mission

Language|

* Primitive Irish
* Old Irish
* Middle Irish
* Classical Gaelic
* Irish
* Manx
* Scottish Gaelic

Clans|

| Irish|

* Royal families
* Kings
* Medical families
* Nobility
* Genealogy

| List|

* Connachta (incl. Uí Néill, Clan Colla, Clan Donald, Uí Mháine, etc)
* Dalcassians (incl. Déisi)
* Eóganachta
* Érainn (incl. Dál Riata, Corcu Loígde, Dál Fiatach, etc)
* Laigin
* Ulaid (incl. Dál nAraidi, Conmaicne, and Cíarraige)
* Ulster

|

* Scottish
* List

Related
organisations|

* Údarás na Gaeltachta
* Foras na Gaeilge
* Bòrd na Gàidhlig
* Culture Vannin
* Conradh na Gaeilge
* An Comunn Gàidhealach
* Yn Çheshaght Ghailckagh
* Seachtain na Gaeilge
* Gael Linn
* ULTACH Trust
* Comunn na Gàidhlig
* Columba Project
* Clans of Ireland
* An Coimisinéir Teanga

Related subjects|

* Haplogroup R-M269 (human genetics)
* Celts
* Norse–Gaels (incl. Uí Ímair and Clan MacLeod)
* Kingdom of Munster
* Kingdom of the Isles
* Gaelicisation

* Category

* v
* t
* e

Celts and modern Celts

Celtic nations * Celtic studies * Celtic tribes * Celtic languages

Peoples

Ancient Celtic ethnic groups
(names)|

* Aedui
* Aigosages
* Allobroges
* Allotriges
* Ambarri
* Anartes
* Arecomici
* Armorica
* Astures
* Arverni
* Atuatuci
* Attacotti
* Atrebates
* Aulerci
* Aulerci Cenomani
* Cenomani
* Autrigones
* Bituriges
* Bituriges Vivisci
* Belgae
* Bellovaci
* Berones
* Boii
* Brigantii
* Britons
* Caledonians
* Caleti
* Cantabri
* Carni
* Cantii
* Carnutes
* Caristii
* Carpetani
* Catubrini
* Celegeri
* Cenomani
* Celtiberians
* Celtici
* Cotini
* Coriosolites
* Dumnonii
* Eburones
* Eburovices
* Eravisci
* Haedui
* Helvetii
* Gaels
* Gaesatae
* Gallaeci
* Gauls
* Galatians
* Helvetii
* Insubres
* Latobici
* Latobrigi
* Lemovices
* Lexovii
* Leuci
* Ligures
* Lingones
* Lusitanians
* Lepontii
* Menapii
* Morini
* Namnetes
* Nervii
* Noricum
* Orobii
* Osismii
* Parisi
* Parisii
* Petrocorii
* Picts
* Pictones
* Rauraci
* Redones
* Regni
* Remi
* Salluvii
* Santones
* Sequani
* Senones
* Scordisci
* Scoti
* Silures
* Sordones
* Tectosages
* Teurisci
* Tolistobogii
* Treveri
* Trinovantes
* Triboci
* Tricasses
* Trocmi
* Tulingi
* Turoni
* Ulidia
* Varciani
* Varisci
* Viromandui
* Veneti
* Veliocasses
* Vennones
* Vindelici
* Vocontii
* Volcae

Modern Celtic ethnic groups|

* Bretons
* Cornish
* Welsh
* Gaels
* Irish
* Manx
* Scots

Celtic diaspora|

* Cornish diaspora
* Irish diaspora
* Scottish diaspora
* Welsh diaspora

Related ethnic groups|

* Anglo-Celtic
* Breton Americans
* Cornish Americans
* English people
* French people
* Irish Americans
* Irish Canadians
* Scotch-Irish Americans
* Scottish Americans
* Scottish Canadians
* Scots-Irish people
* Spanish people

Studies

Places|

* Alesia
* Avaricum
* Gergovia
* Hallstatt
* Hochdorf
* La Tène
* Vix Grave
* Gaelic Ireland
* Hill of Tara
* Newgrange
* Rathcroghan
* Dálriata
* Alba
* Fortriu
* Cumbria
* Brigantia
* Iron Age Britain
* Roman Britain
* Sub-Roman Britain
* Stonehenge
* Dumnonia
* Hen Ogledd
* Gaul
* Roman Gaul
* Britonia
* Armorica
* Domnonée
* Brittany
* Gallaecia
* Numantia
* Gallia Aquitania
* Gallia Belgica
* Gallia Celtica
* Cisalpine Gaul
* Transalpine Gaul
* Balkans
* Transylvania
* Galatia

Ancient religion|

* Proto-Celtic religion
* Celtic polytheism
* Celtic deities
* Celtic Animism
* Celtic mythology
* Celtic Christianity
* Celtic Rites
* Celtic stone idolss*
* Druids
* Monasticism
* Romano-Celtic temple
* Practices

Mythology|

* Irish
* Scottish
* Welsh
* British
* Breton
* Cornish

Society|

* Bard
* Brehon
* Celtic calendar
* Celtic festivals
* Celtic women
* Celticisation
* Chief of the Name
* Derbfine
* Druid
* Clan chief
* Irish Clans
* Scottish clans (List)
* Gaelicisation
* Gaelic astrology
* Fáinne
* Fili
* Law
* Tanistry
* Seanchaí
* Sept
* Túath
* Vates
* Warfare (Gaelic)
* Coinage

Modern Celts

* Celtic Revival
* Celtic nations
* Pan-Celticism
* Celtic Congress
* Celtic League
* Celtic union
* Music
* Rock
* Neo-Christianity
* Neopaganism
* Celtic Wicca
* Neo-Druidism

| Nations|

| Celtic League definition|

* Brittany (Breizh)
* Cornwall (Kernow)
* Ireland (Éire)
* Isle of Man (Mannin)
* Scotland (Alba)
* Wales (Cymru)

|

Other claimants|

* Asturias
* Cantabria
* Cumbria
* Devon
* Galicia
* Norte Portugal
* Nova Scotia
* Province of León
* Y Wladfa
* England

Culture

| Literature|

* Arthurian Legend
* Bardic Poetry
* Breton literature
* Cornish literature
* Irish literature
* Manx literature
* Scottish literature
* Welsh-language literature
* Welsh literature in English
* Early Irish literature
* Irish annals
* Gaelic literature
* Scottish Gaelic literature

|

National cultures|

* Brittany
* Cornwall
* Ireland
* Isle of Man
* Scotland
* Wales

Art|

* Bell shrines
* Brooches
* Dragonesque
* Carnyx
* Celtic cross
* Knotwork
* High crosses
* Insular art
* Interlace
* Leaf-crowns
* Mazes
* Pictish stones
* Torcs
* Triple spiral

Clothing|

* Celtic Dress
* Highland dress
* Gaelic clothing
* Tartan
* Traditional Welsh costume
* Welsh hat

Regional cultures|

* Gaelic culture
* Highland culture

Music|

* Ancient Celtic music
* Breton Folk music
* Gaelic music
* Irish folk music
* Scottish folk music
* Welsh folk music
* Sean-nós singing
* Carnyx

| National music scenes|

* Brittany
* Cornwall
* Ireland
* Isle of Man
* Scotland
* Wales

|

Festivals|

* Calendar
* Samhain/Calan Gaeaf
* Imbolc/Gŵyl Fair
* Beltane/Calan Mai
* Lughnasadh/Calan Awst
* Festival Interceltique de Lorient
* Pan Celtic Festival
* Hebridean Celtic Festival
* Celtic Connections
* Celtic Media Festival
* Eisteddfod

Sport|

* Bando
* Bataireacht
* Camogie
* Cammag
* Cnapan
* Cornish hurling
* Cornish wrestling
* Curling
* Gaelic football (Ladies')
* Gaelic handball
* Gouren
* Rounders
* Highland games
* Hurling
* Road bowls
* Shinty
* Welsh handball

Politics

Nationalism|

* Breton nationalism
* history
* reunification
* Cornish nationalism
* status
* Irish nationalism
* Isle of Man
* Constitutional status of Orkney, Shetland and the Western Isles
* Scottish nationalism
* national identity
* Welsh nationalism
* national identity

Autonomy|

* Cornish devolution
* Scottish devolution
* Welsh devolution

Independence|

* Breton independence
* Scottish independence
* Welsh independence
* United Ireland and Irish republicanism

Pan-Celticism|

* Celtic League
* Celtic Congress
* Celtic Revival
* Celtic society
* Celtic unity
* Columba Project

Languages

Brittonic|

* Breton
* Cornish
* Welsh

Goidelic|

* Irish
* Manx
* Scottish Gaelic

Mixed|

* Shelta
* Bungi Creole
* Beurla Reagaird

Ancient Celtic languages|

| Extinct|

* Proto-Celtic
* Proto-Brittonic
* Proto-Goidelic
* Celtiberian
* Gaulish
* Galatian
* Gallaecian
* Lepontic
* Noric
* Cumbric
* Pictish
* Hispano-Celtic
* Cisalpine Gaulish

|

Scottish Gaelic dialects|

* Arran Gaelic
* Deeside Gaelic
* Galwegian Gaelic

Law and Warfare

Law|

* Early Irish law
* Cyfraith Hywel (Medieval Welsh law)
* Early Scots law

Warfare|

* Gaelic warfare
* Ceathairne
* Ceithearn
* Fianna
* Gaesatae
* Gallóglaigh
* Hobelar
* Redshanks
* Trimarcisia

Lists

* Tribes
* Deities
* Celtic words in English
* – in Spanish
* – in Galician
* Gaulish words in French
* Celtic place names in Galicia
* – in Italy
* – in Portugal

* Celts portal

* v
* t
* e

Gaeltacht

Gaeltachtaí|

| Ulster|

| Gaeltacht Thír Conaill (Donegal)|

* Na Rosa
* Gaoth Dobhair
* Cloch Cheann Fhaola
* Gaeltacht an Láir

|

Connacht|

| Gaeltacht na Gaillimhe (Galway)|

* Gaeltacht Chathair na Gaillimhe
* Cois Fharraige
* Conamara Theas
* Dúiche Sheoigheach
* Oileáin Árann
* Ceantar na nOileán

|

Gaeltacht Chontae Mhaigh Eo (Mayo)|

* Gaeltacht Iorrais agus Acaill

Munster|

| Gaeltacht Chontae Chiarraí (Kerry)|

* Gaeltacht Corca Dhuibhne
* Gaeltacht Uíbh Ráthach

|

Gaeltacht Chontae Chorcaí (Cork)|

* Múscraí
* Oileán Chléire

Gaeltacht na nDéise (Waterford)|

* Rinn Ó gCuanach
* An tSean Phobal

Leinster|

| Gaeltacht Chontae na Mí (Meath)|

* Ráth Chairn
* Baile Ghib

|

See also|

| Nua-Ghaeltachtaí|

* Irish language network
* Neo-Gaeltacht
* An Cheathrú Ghaeltachta (Antrim)
* Permanent North American Gaeltacht

|

Organisations|

* Department of Rural and Community Development and the Gaeltacht
* CONCOS
* Údarás na Gaeltachta
* Gaeltarra Éireann
* Coimisiún na Gaeltachta
* Saor Raidió Chonamara
* RTÉ Raidió na Gaeltachta
* TG4
* Acadamh na hOllscolaíochta Gaeilge
* Taibhdhearc na Gaillimhe
* Gluaiseacht Chearta Sibhialta na Gaeltachta
* Muintir na Gaeltachta

See also|

* An Coimisinéir Teanga
* Connemara
* Conradh na Gaeilge
* Bean an tí
* Gaelic revival
* Gaels
* Gaeltacht Act 2012
* Gaeltacht service town
* Gàidhealtachd
* Minister for Rural and Community Development and the Gaeltacht
* Minister of State at the Department of Rural and Community Development and the Gaeltacht
* Official Languages Act 2003
* Sean-nós singing

Additional articles related to Gaels

* v
* t
* e

Connachta

Kindreds
and septs|

| Connachta|

| Uí Briúin|

* O'Conor Don
* O'Conor Roe
* O'Conor Sligo
* Murtagh O'Conor
* MacGeraghty
* O'Finnerty
* O'Teige
* O'Flanagan
* MacDermot
* MacDonagh
* MacManus
* O'Beirne
* O'Flaherty
* O'Rourke
* O'Reilly
* O'Malley
* MacGovern
* MacKiernan
* O'Sheridan

|

Uí Fiachrach|

* MacClellan
* O'Heyne
* O'Cleary
* O'Shaughnessy
* O'Cahill
* O'Dowd
* MacFirbis
* O'Coyne
* O'Carney
* O'Towey
* O'Gaughan

Northern
Uí Néill|

| Cenél
Conaill|

* O'Donnell
* O'Doherty
* O'Boyle
* O'Gallagher
* Dunkeld

|

Cenél
nEógain|

* O'Neill
* MacLoughlin
* MacNeil
* MacSweeney
* Lamont
* MacEwen
* O'Cahan
* O'Donnelly
* O'Gormley
* O'Lunney
* O'Hagan
* O'Quinn
* O'Hamill
* MacCaul

Southern
Uí Néill|

| Clann Cholmáin and
Síl nÁedo Sláine|

* O'Melaghlin
* O'Molloy
* MacGeoghegan
* O'Higgin
* MacCary
* MacAuley

|

Clan Colla|

* MacCann
* MacCarroll
* MacMahon
* MacGuire
* MacManus
* McCaffrey
* MacDonald
* MacRory
* MacDonnell
* O'Mulrooney
* O'Monaghan
* O'Leighnin
* O'Heany
* O'Boylan
* O'Hanratty
* O'Hanlon
* O'Rogan
* O'Garvey

Uí Mháine|

* O'Kelly
* O'Donnellan
* O'Houlihan
* O'Madden
* O'Downey
* O'Cleary
* O'Concannon
* O'Duigenan
* O'Naughton
* O'Mullally
* MacEgan
* O'Kearney
* O'Mulconry
* Ó Cuindlis

Personalities|

* Óengus Tuirmech Temrach
* Énna Aignech
* Eochu Feidlech
* Eochu Airem
* Medb
* Findemna
* Clothru
* Lugaid Riab nDerg
* Crimthann Nia Náir
* Feradach Finnfechtnach
* Fíachu Finnolach
* Túathal Techtmar
* Fedlimid Rechtmar
* Conn of the Hundred Battles
* Art mac Cuinn
* Cormac mac Airt
* Gráinne
* Cairbre Lifechair
* Fíacha Sroiptine
* Muiredach Tirech
* Colla Uais
* Eochaid Mugmedon
* Niall of the Nine Hostages
* Columba of Iona
* Crínán of Dunkeld
* Ruaidrí Ua Conchobair
* Brian Ua Néill

Literature|

* Finn and Gráinne
* The Pursuit of Diarmuid and Gráinne
* An sluagh sidhe so i nEamhuin?

Places|

* Rathcroghan
* Hill of Tara
* Donegal Castle
* Mongavlin Castle
* Tullyhogue Fort
* Clonalis House

Battles|

* Creadran Cille
* Knockavoe
* Glentaisie
* Kinsale

Related
articles|

* Gaels
* Pre-Norman invasion Irish Celtic kinship groups
* Milesians
* Heremonians
* Fenian Cycle
* Ulster Cycle
* Dal Fiachrach Suighe
* List of High Kings of Ireland
* Connacht
* Airgíalla
* Fermanagh
* Ailech
* Tír Eoghain
* Clandeboye
* Tyrconnell
* East Breifne
* West Breifne
* Mide
* Uisnech
* Brega
* Connacht Irish
* Ulster Irish
* Gaelic nobility of Ireland
* Flight of the Earls
* O'Neill's Regiment

* Category

* v
* t
* e

Eóganachta

Kindreds
and septs|

| Eóganacht Chaisil|

* MacCarthy Mor dynasty
* MacCarthy Mór
* MacCarthy Duhallow
* MacCarthy Reagh
* MacCarthy Muskerry
* MacAuliffe
* O'Sullivan Mór
* O'Sullivan Beare
* MacGillycuddy
* O'Callaghan
* O'Dennehy
* O'Donoghue

|

Eóganacht Glendamnach|

* O'Keeffe

Eóganacht Locha Léin|

* O'Cahill
* O'Flynn
* O'Moriarity
* MacAngus
* O'Carroll
* O'Scannell

Eóganacht Raithlind|

* O'Mahony
* O'Donoghue
* O'Long
* O'Duggan
* O'Feehin
* O'Leary
* O'Donnell
* O'Connell
* O'Linchy (Lynch)
* O'Hea
* O'Cahalane
* O'Coughlan
* O'Cannifee
* O'Bogue
* O'Cronin
* O'Flynn
* O'Flahiffe
* O'Connelly
* O'Callaghan
* O'Mingane (Mongan)
* O'Neill

Eóganacht Áine|

* O'Irwin
* O'Kirby
* O'Kerwick
* O'Muldoon
* O'Kenealy
* O'Gunning

Related
peoples|

| Corcu Loígde|

* O'Driscoll
* O'Leary
* Coffey
* O'Flynn
* O'Connor
* O'Hennessey
* O'Cronin
* O'Hea
* Dennehy
* O'Dinneen
* Leahy
* Irwin
* O'Donovan
* O'Collins

|

Uí Fidgenti|

* Uí Chairpre (O'Donovan, O'Hea, O'Regan, MacCarthy Reagh)
* Uí Chonaill (O'Collins, O'Connell)
* Ua Laogaire

Uí Liatháin|

* O'Curran
* O'Lehane (Lyons)
* O'Gleeson
* Mac Tíre

Personalities|

* Dego Deirgtine
* Lugaid
* Muinemón
* Nia Segamain
* Mug Nuadat
* Ailill Aulom
* Éogan Mór
* Fiachu Muillethan
* Crimthann mac Fidaig
* Mongfind
* Corc mac Luigdech
* Aimend
* Óengus Bolg
* Óengus mac Nad Froích
* Coirpre Cromm mac Crimthainn
* Fíngen mac Áedo Duib
* Mór Muman
* Faílbe Flann mac Áedo Duib
* Cathal mac Finguine
* Óengus mac Fergusso
* Fedelmid mac Crimthainn
* Ólchobar mac Cináeda
* Cormac mac Cuilennáin
* Máel Muad mac Brain
* Cormac Mac Cárthaigh
* Finghin Mac Cárthaigh

Places|

* Knockainy
* Ardmore
* Rock of Cashel
* Garranes Ringfort
* Lough Leane
* Bat's Castle
* Kingdom of Desmond
* Carbery
* Blarney Castle
* Ross Castle
* Beara

Battles|

* Mag Mucrama
* Carn Feradaig
* Callann
* Dunboy

Related
articles|

* Gaels
* Pre-Norman invasion Irish Celtic kinship groups
* Milesians
* Eberians
* Deirgtine
* Cycles of the Kings
* Áine
* Corca Oíche
* Mug Ruith
* Clíodhna
* Leath Mogha
* Annals of Inisfallen
* Book of Munster
* Éoganacht Airthir Cliach
* Eóganacht Ninussa
* List of Kings of Munster
* List of Kings of the Picts
* List of monarchs of Desmond
* Kingdom of Desmond
* Ciannachta
* Dalcassians
* Cenél Cerdraige
* Sanas Cormaic
* Munster Irish
* Munster
* List of kings of Munster
* Gaelic nobility of Ireland

* Category

* v
* t
* e

Érainn

Kindreds
and septs|

| Dál Riata|

* MacAlpin
* MacGregor
* MacDuff
* Mackintosh
* MacLaren
* Macfie
* Macnab
* MacAulay
* MacAdam
* Mackinnon
* MacQuarrie
* Paterson

|

Múscraige|

* O'Donegan
* O'Furey
* O'Hea
* O'Mulvany
* O'Dowling
* O'Cullinane
* O'Flynn
* O'Quirke

Corcu Duibne|

* O'Falvey
* O'Shea
* O'Connell

Corcu Baiscind|

* O'Baskin
* MacDermot
* O'Donnell

Dál Fiatach|

* MacDonlevy
* MacNulty
* MacLea
* O'Haughey

Corcu Loígde|

* O'Coffey
* O'Downey
* O'Driscoll
* O'Fealy
* O'Flynn
* O'Hennessy
* O'Leahy
* O'Leary
* O'Twomey
* O'Longan
* O'Doheny
* O'Doughan
* O'Dunlea
* O'Hea
* O'Dinneen
* O'Feely
* O'Cronin
* O'Baire
* O'Henegan
* O'Kevane

Clann Conla|

* MacGilpatrick (Fitzpatrick)
* O'Delany
* O'Horahan
* O'Brody
* O'Kealy
* O'Phelan
* O'Brophy
* O'Coveney
* O'Gloherny
* O'Dunphy
* O'Carroll
* O'Brennan
* O'Queally
* MacBreen
* O'Broder
* O'Dea

Conaille Muirtheimne|

* O'Connolly

Personalities|

* Óengus Tuirmech Temrach
* Ailill Érann
* Deda mac Sin
* Íar mac Dedad
* Conganchnes mac Dedad
* Dáire mac Dedad (Dáire Doimthech)
* Cú Roí
* Eterscél Mór
* Conaire Mór
* Lugaid mac Con Roí
* Conaire Cóem
* Fergus Mór mac Eirc
* Gabrán mac Domangairt
* Loarn mac Eirc
* Comgall mac Domangairt
* Muiredach Muinderg
* Eochaid mac Muiredaig Muinderg
* Báetán mac Cairill
* Cináed mac Ailpín
* Niall mac Eochada

Literature|

* Togail Bruidne Dá Derga
* Fled Bricrenn
* Mesca Ulad
* Táin Bó Cúailnge

Places|

* Caherconree
* Hill of Tara
* Dundalk

Related
articles|

* Gaels
* Pre-Norman invasion Irish Celtic kinship groups
* Milesians
* Heremonians
* Iverni
* Dáirine
* Darini
* Ulster Cycle
* Síl Conairi
* List of kings of Dál Riata
* Origins of the Kingdom of Alba
* Siol Alpin
* Chattan Confederation
* Osraige
* Munster
* List of kings of Munster
* Munster Irish
* Scottish Gaelic
* Ulaid
* List of kings of Ulster
* Gaelic nobility of Ireland

* Category

* v
* t
* e

Dalcassians

Kindreds and septs|

| Déisi Tuisceart|

| Uí Bloid|

* Ahearn
* O'Boland
* Coombe
* O'Cosgrave
* Eustace
* MacGlynn
* O'Kearney
* O'Lonergan
* MacArthur
* MacConsidine
* MacGrath
* MacLysaght
* MacMahon
* O'Muldowney
* O'Brennan
* O'Brien
* O'Casey
* O'Crotty
* O'Hogan
* O'Hurley
* O'Kelleher
* O'Kennedy
* O'Meara
* O'Noonan
* O'Reagan
* Power
* O'Quirke
* O'Scanlan
* O'Twomey

|

Uí Caisin|

* MacClancy
* MacDurkin
* O'Flattery
* Flood
* Harley
* O'Hartigan
* O'Hickey
* Hogg
* O'Killeen
* MacNamara
* MacInerney
* O'Neilan
* O'Hay (Hayes)
* O'Grady
* Stoney
* Torrens
* O'Tubridy

Cineal Fearmaic|

* O'Quilty
* MacBrody
* O'Dea
* O'Heffernan
* O'Quinn
* Perkin

Delbhna|

* Faherty
* MacConroy
* Heney
* Flannagan
* Fenelon
* Mulholland
* Logue
* Scully

Déisi Muman|

* MacHugh
* O'Bric
* Ó Comáin
* O'Phelan

Personalities|

* Fedlimid Rechtmar
* Fiacha Suidhe
* Declán of Ardmore
* Lugaid Mend
* Conall of the Swift Steeds
* Íte of Killeedy
* Mainchín of Limerick
* Mo Lua of Killaloe
* Flannán mac Toirrdelbaig
* Cennétig mac Lorcáin
* Mathgamain mac Cennétig
* Brian Bóruma
* Cuiduligh mac Cennétig
* Echthighern mac Cennétig
* Tadc mac Briain
* Donnchad mac Briain
* Toirdelbach Ua Briain
* Muirchertach Ua Briain
* Domnall mac Taidc Uí Briain

Literature|

* The Expulsion of the Déisi
* Cogad Gáedel re Gallaib

Places|

* Ballinalacken Castle
* Ballycar Castle
* Ballyhannon Castle
* Bunratty Castle
* Castlebawn
* Craggaunowen Castle
* Doonagore Castle
* Dromoland Castle
* Knappogue Castle
* Leamaneh Castle
* O'Dea Castle

Battles|

* Belach Lechta
* Cathair Cuan
* Clontarf
* Dysert O'Dea
* Glenmama
* Knockdoe
* Lough Raska
* Móin Mhór
* Sulcoit
* Athenry

Related articles|

* Gaels
* Milesians
* Heremonians
* Cycles of the Kings
* Dal Fiachrach Suighe
* Kingdom of Dyfed
* Attacotti
* Aibell
* Munster
* Thomond
* Kingdom of Ormond
* Contention of the Bards
* Munster Irish

Related lists|

* High Kings of Ireland
* kings of Munster
* monarchs of Déisi Muman
* monarchs of Thomond

* Category

* v
* t
* e

Laigin

Kindreds
and septs|

| Dál Niad Cuirp|

| Uí Máil|

* O'Tighe
* O'Kelly

|

Uí Dúnlainge|

* Fitzdermot
* O'Toole
* O'Byrne
* O'Cosgrave

Uí Cheinnselaig|

* MacMurrough Kavanagh
* Kinsella
* Kehoe
* O'Finneran
* O'Murphy
* O'Garvey
* O'Hartley
* O'Ryan
* Morrow

Uí Failghe|

* O'Connor Faly
* O'Dunne
* O'Dempsey
* Kavanagh
* Branagh
* MacGilpatrick (Fitzpatrick)
* O'Dwyer
* O'Holohan
* O'Hennessy

Uí Bairrche|

* MacGorman
* Kearney
* Tracy
* Hughes
* Mooney
* Carney

Uí Enechglaiss|

* O'Feary

Uí Crimthainn Áin|

* O'Duff

Dál Cairpre Arad|

* O'Kealy

Dál Messin Corb|

* O'Farrell

Personalities|

* Úgaine Mór
* Lóegaire Lorc
* Labhraidh Loingseach
* Óengus Ollom
* Fergus Fortamail
* Crimthann Coscrach
* Nuadu Necht
* Cumhall
* Fionn mac Cumhaill
* Oisín
* Oscar
* Conchobar Abradruad
* Cathair Mór
* Énnae Cennsalach
* Crimthann mac Énnai
* Áed mac Colggen
* Augaire mac Ailella
* Máel Mórda mac Murchada
* Diarmait Mac Murchada
* Fiach McHugh O'Byrne
* Art Óg mac Murchadha Caomhánach

Places|

* Naas
* Mullaghmast
* Lyons Hill

Battles|

* Confey
* Glenmama
* Clontarf
* Móin Mhór
* Ros-Mhic-Thriúin
* Glenmalure

Related
articles|

* Gaels
* Pre-Norman invasion Irish Celtic kinship groups
* Milesians
* Heremonians
* Mythological Cycle
* Dindsenchas
* Book of Leinster
* List of Kings of Leinster
* Kingdom of Leinster
* Dál Cormaic
* Gaelic nobility of Ireland
* Follow Me up to Carlow

* v
* t
* e

Ulaid

Kindreds
and septs|

| Dál nAraidi|

| Uí Echach Cobo|

* MacGowan
* Magennis
* McCartan
* Lynch

|

Loígis|

* O'More
* O'Kelly
* O'Deevy
* O'Doran
* O'Lalor
* O'Dowling
* MacEvoy
* O'Bergin
* O'Mulcahy

Soghain|

* O'Manning
* MacWard
* O'Scurry
* O'Lennon
* MacCashin
* Gilly
* MacGing

Conmaicne|

| Conmhaícne Mara|

* O'Kealy
* MacConneely
* O'Devaney
* O'Cloherty
* MacFolan

|

Conmaicne
(South Leitrim)

* MacRannall
* MacDorcy
* O'Mulvey
* Ó Fearghail
* O'Beglin
* Borden
* O'Hallissy
* O'Murry
* O'Curneen
* O'Mulooly
* MacMullock
* O'Doonan
* O'Kearon
* MacCoogan
* MacGaynor
* O'Quinn
* MacShaffrey
* MacConnick
* O'Keegan
* MacLeavy
* MacMorrow
* MacShane
* O'Sullahan

Conmaicne
Cuile Toladh|

* O'Tolleran
* O'Colleran
* O'Moran
* Martin

Conmaicne Mide|

* MacRourke
* O'Breen
* O'Toler

Ciarraige|

* O'Kieran (Kearns)
* O'Conor Kerry
* O'Murtagh
* O'Neide

Corco Mruad|

* O'Conor Corcomroe
* O'Loughlin
* O'Flaherty
* O'Deely
* O'Drennan
* O'Melody
* MacCurtin
* O'Davoren
* Ó Troighthigh

Personalities|

* Cermna Finn
* Sobairce
* Ollom Fotla
* Fínnachta
* Slánoll
* Géde Ollgothach
* Fíachu Findoilches
* Berngal
* Ailill mac Slánuill
* Finn mac Blatha
* Sírlám
* Airgetmar
* Áed Rúad, Díthorba and Cimbáeth
* Macha
* Rudraige mac Sithrigi
* Congal Cláiringnech
* Bresal Bó-Díbad
* Fachtna Fáthach
* Conchobar mac Nessa
* Fergus mac Róich
* Fedelm Noíchrothach
* Deichtine
* Cúscraid
* Cormac Cond Longas
* Findchóem
* Amergin mac Eccit
* Conall Cernach
* Mal mac Rochride
* Tipraiti Tireach
* Fiacha Araidhe
* Cáelbad
* Fiachnae mac Báetáin
* Congal Cáech
* Fergus mac Áedáin
* Máel Bressail mac Ailillo
* Mac Creiche
* Finnian of Clonard

Literature|

* Scéla Conchobair
* Táin Bó Cúailnge
* Compert Con Culainn
* The Tale of Mac Da Thó's Pig
* Mesca Ulad
* Annals of Ulster

Places|

* Navan Fort
* Hill of Tara
* Rosnaree
* County Laois
* Caherballykinvarga

Territories|

* Bairrche
* Cineál Fhaghartaigh
* Conaille Muirtheimne
* Cruthin
* Cobha
* Dál Fiatach
* Dál mBuinne
* Dál nAraidi
* Dál nAraidi in Tuaiscirt
* Dál nAraidi Magh Line
* Dál Riata
* Duibhthrian
* Eilne
* Latharna
* Leath Cathail
* Na hArda
* Semne
* Uí Blathmaic
* Uí Dercco Céin

Related
articles|

* Pre-Norman invasion Irish Celtic kinship groups
* Clanna Rudraige
* Red Branch
* Cú Chulainn
* Uoluntii
* Cruthin
* Ptolemy's Geographia
* Ulster Cycle
* List of kings of Ulster
* Kings of Dál nAraidi
* Guinness family
* Gaels
* Milesians
* Irians
* Gaelic nobility of Ireland

* v
* t
* e

Ireland topics

* Republic of Ireland topics
* Northern Ireland topics

History

| Timeline|

* Prehistory
* Protohistory
* Early history
* Gaelic Ireland / Lordship of Ireland
* 800-1169
* 1169-1536
* Kingdom of Ireland
* 1536-1691
* 1691-1800
* United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland
* 1801-1923
* Irish Republic
* Southern Ireland (1921–1922)
* Northern Ireland (1921–present)
* United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland
* since 1922
* Irish Free State (1922-1937)
* Ireland (since 1922)

|

Events|

* Battles of Tara / Glenmama / Clontarf
* Norman invasion
* Bruce campaign
* Black Death
* Tudor conquest
* Desmond Rebellions
* Spanish Armada
* Tyrone's Rebellion
* Flight of the Earls
* Plantation of Ulster
* 1641 Rebellion / Confederate War
* Cromwellian conquest / Settlement of 1652
* Williamite War
* Penal Laws
* First Great Famine
* 1798 Rebellion
* Act of Union (1800)
* 1803 Rebellion
* Tithe War
* Second Great Famine
* Land War
* Fenian Rising
* Dublin lock-out
* Home Rule crisis
* Easter Rising
* War of Independence
* Anglo-Irish Treaty
* Civil War
* The Emergency
* IRA Northern Campaign
* IRA Border Campaign
* The Troubles
* Peace process
* Economy of the Republic of Ireland
* Celtic Tiger
* Post-2008 Irish economic downturn
* Post-2008 Irish banking crisis

Other topics|

* List of conflicts in Ireland
* List of Irish tribes
* List of Irish kingdoms
* List of High Kings
* Gaelic clothing and fashion
* List of World Heritage Sites in the Republic of Ireland

Geography

| Natural|

* Climate
* Climate change
* Coastline
* Extreme points
* Fauna
* Islands
* Loughs
* Mountains
* Rivers
* list
* List of national parks of the Republic of Ireland / in Northern Ireland

|

Human|

* Architecture
* Notable buildings
* Tallest buildings and structures
* Cities
* Counties
* Demographics of the Republic of Ireland / of Northern Ireland
* Ports
* Provinces
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* Tourist attractions
* Transport

Politics

| Ideologies|

* Nationalism
* Republicanism
* Ulster loyalism
* Unionism

|

Republic of Ireland|

* Constitution
* Economy
* Education
* Foreign relations
* Government
* local
* Law
* LGBT rights
* Oireachtas parliament
* Dáil Éireann (lower house)
* Seanad Éireann (upper house)
* President
* Taxation

Northern Ireland|

* Assembly
* D'Hondt method
* Economy
* Education
* Government
* local
* LGBT rights
* Peace process

Culture

| Cuisine|

| Food|

* List of dishes
* Barmbrack
* Bacon and cabbage
* Boxty
* Champ
* Coddle
* Colcannon
* Drisheen
* Irish fry
* Skirts and kidneys
* Soda bread
* Spice Bag
* Stew
* Three-in-One

|

Drinks|

* Coffee
* Cream
* Guinness
* Mist
* Poitín
* Tea
* Whiskey

Dance|

* Jig
* Sean-nós
* Set dancing
* Stepdance

Festivals|

* Imbolc
* Saint Patrick's Day
* Bealtaine
* The Twelfth
* Lúnasa
* Rose of Tralee
* Samhain / Halloween
* Wren Day

Languages|

* Hiberno-English
* Irish
* Shelta
* Ulster Scots

Literature|

* Annals
* Fiction
* Gaeilge
* Poetry
* Theatre
* Triads

Music|

* Ballads
* Céilí
* Folk music
* session
* Instruments
* Rock music
* Traditional singing

Mythology|

* Cycles
* Mythological
* Fenian
* Ulster
* Kings
* Aos Sí
* Echtrai
* Immrama
* Tuatha Dé Danann
* Firbolg
* Fomorians
* Legendary creatures

People|

* Irish people
* List of Irish people
* Irish diaspora
* Anglo-Irish
* Gaels
* Gaelic Ireland
* Hiberno-Normans
* Travellers
* Ulster Scots

* v
* t
* e

Immigration to the Republic of Ireland

Groups|

* Americans
* Brazilians
* Chinese
* Filipinos
* Lithuanians
* Nigerians
* South Asians
* Poles
* Romani
* Turks

Related topics|

* Demographics of the Republic of Ireland
* Department of Justice, Home Affairs and Migration
* Stamp 4

Sport|

* Association football in the Republic of Ireland
* Association football in Northern Ireland
* Camogie
* Gaelic football
* Gaelic handball
* Hurling
* Martial arts
* Road bowling
* Rounders
* Rugby union

Symbols|

* Brighid's Cross
* Cláirseach
* County coats of arms
* Flags
* Northern Ireland flags issue
* Irish Wolfhound
* National coat of arms
* Red Hand
* Shamrock

Other|

* Calendar
* Castles
* Cinema
* Heritage Sites
* Historic houses
* Homelessness
* Mass media (Republic)
* Monastic
* Names
* Place names / outside Ireland
* Prostitution (Republic) / in Northern Ireland
* Public holidays in the Republic of Ireland / in Northern Ireland
* Public houses
* Squatting

Ireland portal
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