Galileo (satellite navigation)

European global navigation satellite system

Galileo

Country/ies of origin| European Union
Operator(s)| EUSPA, ESA
Type| Civilian, commercial
Status| Initial services[1][2][3]
Coverage| Global
Accuracy| 20 cm (public since 24 January 2023)
Constellation size
Nominal satellites| 30 (24 active + 6 spares)[4]
Current usable satellites| 27 usable (02/2025)[2]
First launch| 28 December 2005
Last launch| 17 September 2024
Total launches| 15
Orbital characteristics
Regime(s)| 3 × MEO planes
Orbital height| 23222 km
Orbital period| 10⁄17 sd (about 14 hours 4 minutes 45 seconds)
Revisit period| 10 sidereal days
Other details
Cost| €10 billion[5] (initial constellation)
Website| gsc-europa.eu (European GNSS Service Centre)
Geodesy

Fundamentals

* Geodesy
* Geodynamics
* Geomatics
* History

Concepts

* Geographical distance
* Geoid
* Figure of the Earth (radius and circumference)
* Geodetic coordinates
* Geodetic datum
* Geodesic
* Horizontal position representation
* Latitude / Longitude
* Map projection
* Reference ellipsoid
* Satellite geodesy
* Spatial reference system
* Spatial relations
* Vertical positions

Technologies

* Global Nav. Sat. Systems (GNSSs)
* Global Pos. System (GPS)
* GLONASS (Russia)
* BeiDou (BDS) (China)
* Galileo (Europe)
* NAVIC (India)
* Quasi-Zenith Sat. Sys. (QZSS) (Japan)
* Discrete Global Grid and Geocoding

Standards (history)

|  NGVD 29|  Sea Level Datum 1929

|

OSGB36|  Ordnance Survey Great Britain 1936
SK-42|  Systema Koordinat 1942 goda
ED50|  European Datum 1950
SAD69|  South American Datum 1969
GRS 80|  Geodetic Reference System 1980
ISO 6709|  Geographic point coord. 1983
NAD 83|  North American Datum 1983
WGS 84|  World Geodetic System 1984
NAVD 88|  N. American Vertical Datum 1988
ETRS89|  European Terrestrial Ref. Sys. 1989
GCJ-02|  Chinese obfuscated datum 2002
Geo URI|  Internet link to a point 2010

* International Terrestrial Reference System
* Spatial Reference System Identifier (SRID)
* Universal Transverse Mercator (UTM)

* v
* t
* e

Galileo is a global navigation satellite system (GNSS) created by the European Union through the European Space Agency (ESA) and operated by the European Union Agency for the Space Programme (EUSPA).[6] It is headquartered in Prague in Czechia,[7] with two ground operations centres in Oberpfaffenhofen, Germany (mostly responsible for the control of the satellites), and in Fucino, Italy (mostly responsible for providing the navigation data).[8] The €10 billion project began offering limited services in 2016.[5][9][10] It is named after the Italian astronomer Galileo Galilei.

One of the aims of Galileo is to provide an independent high-precision positioning system so European political and military authorities do not have to rely on the United States GPS or the Russian GLONASS systems, which could be disabled or degraded by their operators at any time.[11] The use of basic (lower-precision) Galileo services is free and open to everyone. A higher-precision service is available for free since 24 January 2023, previously only available to government-authorized users.[12][13] Galileo is also to provide a new global search and rescue (SAR) function as part of the MEOSAR system.

The first Galileo test satellite GIOVE-A was launched 28 December 2005, while the first satellite to be part of the operational system was launched on 21 October 2011. Galileo started offering Early Operational Capability (EOC) on 15 December 2016,[1] providing initial services with a weak signal.[14] In October 2018, four more Galileo satellites were brought online, increasing the number of active satellites to 18.[15] In November 2018, the FCC approved use of Galileo in the US.[16] As of September 2024, there are 25 launched satellites that operate in the constellation.[17][18][19] It is expected that the next generation of satellites will begin to become operational after 2026 to replace the first generation, which can then be used for backup capabilities. Most satellites of the programme were built by OHB in Bremen, Germany, with the contribution of Surrey Satellite Technology (SSTL) in Guildford, United Kingdom.[20][21][22][23][24]

The Galileo system has a greater accuracy than GPS, having an accuracy of less than 1 m when using broadcast ephemeris (GPS: 3 m)[25] and a signal-in-space ranging error (SISRE) of 1.6 cm (GPS: 2.3 cm) when using real-time corrections for satellite orbits and clocks.[26][27]

## History

[edit]

The headquarters of the EUSPA, which operates the Galileo system, in Prague

### Main objectives

[edit]

In 1999, the different concepts of the three main contributors of the European Space Agency (ESA) (Germany, France and Italy)[28] for Galileo were compared and reduced to one by a joint team of engineers from all three countries. The first stage of the Galileo programme was agreed upon officially on 26 May 2003 by the European Union and the ESA. The system is intended primarily for civilian use, unlike the more military-focused systems of the United States (GPS), Russia (GLONASS) and China (BeiDou) in that Galileo doesn't limit accuracy for non-military applications.[29][30] The European system could be subject to shutdown for military purposes in extreme circumstances (such as an armed conflict).[31] Italy and Germany led the development of the first generation of the Galileo programme,[32] while France is playing a more prominent role in the development of the Galileo Second Generation (G2G).[33][34][35]

### Funding

[edit]

The European Commission had some difficulty funding the project's next stage, after several allegedly "per annum" sales projection graphs for the project were exposed in November 2001 as "cumulative" projections, which for each year projected included all previous years of sales. The attention that was brought to this multi-billion euro growing error in sales forecasts resulted in a general awareness in the commission and elsewhere that it was unlikely that the programme would yield the return on investment that had previously been suggested to investors and decision-makers.[36][better source needed] On 17 January 2002, a spokesman for the project stated that, as a result of US pressure and economic difficulties, "Galileo is almost dead".[37]

A few months later, however, the situation changed dramatically. European Union member states decided it was important to have a satellite-based positioning and timing infrastructure that the US could not easily turn off in times of political conflict.[38]

The European Union and the European Space Agency agreed in March 2002 to fund the project, pending a review in 2003 (which was completed on 26 May 2003). The starting cost for the period ending in 2005 is estimated at €1.1 billion. The required satellites (the planned number is 30) were to be launched between 2011 and 2014, with the system up and running and under civilian control from 2019. The final cost is estimated at €3 billion, including the infrastructure on Earth, constructed in 2006 and 2007. The plan was for private companies and investors to invest at least two-thirds of the cost of implementation, with the EU and ESA dividing the remaining cost. The base Open Service is to be available without charge to anyone with a Galileo-compatible receiver, with an encrypted higher-bandwidth improved-precision Commercial Service originally planned to be available at a cost, but in February 2018 the high accuracy service (HAS) (providing Precise Point Positioning data on the E6 frequency) was agreed to be made freely available, with the authentication service remaining commercial.[39] By early 2011 costs for the project had run 50% over initial estimates.[40]

### Tension with the United States

[edit]

A December 2001 letter from US Deputy Secretary of Defense Paul Wolfowitz to the Ministers of the EU states, pointing out possible compatibility issues

Galileo is intended to be an EU civilian GNSS that allows all users access to it. Initially GPS reserved the highest quality signal for military use, and the signal available for civilian use was intentionally degraded (Selective Availability). This changed with President Bill Clinton signing a policy directive in 1996 to turn off Selective Availability. Since May 2000 the same precision signal has been provided to both civilians and the military.[41]

Since Galileo was designed to provide the highest possible precision (greater than GPS) to anyone, the US was concerned that an enemy could use Galileo signals in military strikes against the US and its allies (some weapons like missiles use GNSSs for guidance). The frequency initially chosen for Galileo would have made it impossible for the US to block the Galileo signals without also interfering with its own GPS signals.[citation needed] The US did not want to lose their GNSS capability with GPS while denying enemies the use of GNSS. Some US officials became especially concerned when Chinese interest in Galileo was reported.[42]

An anonymous EU official claimed that the US officials implied that they might consider shooting down Galileo satellites in the event of a major conflict in which Galileo was used in attacks against American forces.[43][failed verification]The EU's stance is that Galileo is a neutral technology, available to all countries and everyone. At first, EU officials did not want to change their original plans for Galileo, but they have since reached the compromise that Galileo is to use different frequencies. This allows the blocking or jamming of either GNSS without affecting the other.[44]

#### GPS and Galileo

[edit]

Clickable image, highlighting medium altitude orbits around Earth,[a] from Low Earth to the lowest High Earth orbit (geostationary orbit and its graveyard orbit, at one ninth of the Moon's orbital distance),[b] with the Van Allen radiation belts and the Earth to scale

One of the reasons given for developing Galileo as an independent system was that position information from GPS can be made significantly inaccurate by the deliberate application of universal selective availability (SA) by the US military. GPS is widely used worldwide for civilian applications; Galileo's proponents argued that civil infrastructure, including aircraft navigation and landing, should not rely solely upon a system with this vulnerability.

On 2 May 2000, the selective availability was disabled by the President of the United States, Bill Clinton; in late 2001 the entity managing the GPS confirmed that it did not intend to enable selective availability ever again.[45] Though Selective Availability capability still exists, on 19 September 2007 the US Department of Defense announced that newer GPS satellites would not be capable of implementing Selective Availability;[46] the wave of Block IIF satellites launched in 2009, and all subsequent GPS satellites, are stated not to support selective availability. As old satellites are replaced in the GPS Block III programme, selective availability will cease to be an option.[47] The modernisation programme also contains standardised features that allow GPS III and Galileo systems to inter-operate, allowing receivers to be developed to utilise GPS and Galileo together to create an even more accurate GNSS.

### Cooperation with the United States

[edit]

In June 2004, in a signed agreement with the United States, the European Union agreed to switch to a binary offset carrier modulation 1.1, or BOC(1,1), allowing the coexistence of both GPS and Galileo, and the future combined use of both systems. The European Union also agreed to address the "mutual concerns related to the protection of allied and US national security capabilities".[31]

### First experimental satellites: GIOVE-A and GIOVE-B

[edit]

The first experimental satellite, GIOVE-A, was launched in December 2005 and was followed by a second test satellite, GIOVE-B, launched in April 2008. After successful completion of the In-Orbit Validation (IOV) phase, additional satellites were launched. On 30 November 2007, the 27 EU transport ministers involved reached an agreement that Galileo should be operational by 2013,[48] but later press releases suggest it was delayed to 2014.[49]

### Continued funding and governance issues

[edit]

In mid-2006, the public-private partnership fell apart, and the European Commission decided to nationalise the Galileo programme.[50]

In early 2007, the EU had yet to decide how to pay for the system and the project was said to be "in deep crisis" due to lack of more public funds.[51] German Transport Minister Wolfgang Tiefensee was particularly doubtful about the consortium's ability to end the infighting at a time when only one testbed satellite had been successfully launched.

Although a decision was yet to be reached, on 13 July 2007[52] EU countries discussed cutting €548 million (US$755 million, £370 million) from the union's competitiveness budget for the following year and shifting some of these funds to other parts of the financing pot, a move that could meet part of the cost of the union's Galileo satellite navigation system. European Union research and development projects could be scrapped to overcome a funding shortfall.

In November 2007, it was agreed to reallocate funds from the EU's agriculture and administration budgets[53] and to soften the tendering process in order to invite more EU companies.[54]

In April 2008, the EU transport ministers approved the Galileo Implementation Regulation. This allowed the €3.4 billion to be released from the EU's agriculture and administration budgets[55] to allow the issuing of contracts to start construction of the ground station and the satellites.

In June 2009, the European Court of Auditors published a report, pointing out governance issues, substantial delays and budget overruns that led to project stalling in 2007, leading to further delays and failures.[56]

In October 2009, the European Commission cut the number of satellites definitively planned from 28 to 22, with plans to order the remaining six at a later time. It also announced that the first OS, PRS and SoL signal would be available in 2013, and the CS and SOL some time later. The €3.4 billion budget for the 2006–2013 period was considered insufficient.[57] In 2010, the think-tank Open Europe estimated the total cost of Galileo from start to 20 years after completion at €22.2 billion, borne entirely by taxpayers. Under the original estimates made in 2000, this cost would have been €7.7 billion, with €2.6 billion borne by taxpayers and the rest by private investors.[58]

In November 2009, a ground station for Galileo was inaugurated near Kourou (French Guiana).[59] The launch of the first four in-orbit validation (IOV) satellites was planned for the second half of 2011, and the launch of full operational capability (FOC) satellites was planned to start in late 2012.

In March 2010, it was verified that the budget for Galileo would only be available to provide the 4 IOV and 14 FOC satellites by 2014, with no funds then committed to bring the constellation above this 60% capacity.[60] Paul Verhoef, the satellite navigation program manager at the European Commission, indicated that this limited funding would have serious consequences commenting at one point "To give you an idea, that would mean that for three weeks in the year you will not have satellite navigation" in reference to the proposed 18-vehicle constellation.

In July 2010, the European Commission estimated further delays and additional costs of the project to grow up to €1.5–1.7 billion, and moved the estimated date of completion to 2018. After completion the system will need to be subsidised by governments at €750 million per year.[61] An additional €1.9 billion was planned to be spent bringing the system up to the full complement of 30 satellites (27 operational + 3 active spares).[40][62]

In December 2010, EU ministers in Brussels voted Prague, in the Czech Republic, as the headquarters of the Galileo project.[63]

In January 2011, infrastructure costs up to 2020 were estimated at €5.3 billion. In that same month, Wikileaks revealed that Berry Smutny, the CEO of the German satellite company OHB-System, said that Galileo "is a stupid idea that primarily serves French interests".[64] The BBC learned in 2011 that €500 million (£440 million) would become available to make the extra purchase, taking Galileo within a few years from 18 operational satellites to 24.[65]

Galileo launch on a Soyuz rocket on 21 October 2011.

The first two Galileo In-Orbit Validation satellites were launched by Soyuz ST-B flown from Centre Spatial Guyanais on 21 October 2011,[66] and the remaining two on 12 October 2012.[67] As of 2017, the satellites are fully useful for precise positioning and geodesy with a limited usability in navigation.[68]

Twenty-two further satellites with Full Operational Capability (FOC) were on order as of 1 January 2018[update]. The first four pairs of satellites were launched on 22 August 2014, 27 March 2015, 11 September 2015 and 17 December 2015.[69]

## Clock failures

[edit]

In January 2017, news agencies reported that six of the passive hydrogen masers (PHM) and three of the rubidium atomic clocks (RAFS) had failed; four of the full operational satellites had each lost at least one clock, but no satellite had lost more than two. The operation was not affected as each satellite is launched with four clocks (2 PHM and 2 RAFS). [70][71][72] SpectraTime, the Swiss producer of both on-board clock types, declined to comment.[73] According to ESA, they concluded with their industrial partners for the rubidium atomic clocks that some implemented testing and operational measures were required. Additionally some refurbishment is required for the rubidium atomic clocks that still have to be launched. For the passive hydrogen masers operational measures are being studied to reduce the risk of failure.[70] China and India use the same SpectraTime-built atomic clocks in their satellite navigation systems. ESA contacted the Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) who initially reported not having experienced similar failures.[73][72] However, at the end of January 2017, Indian news outlets reported that all three clocks aboard the IRNSS-1A satellite (launched in July 2013 with a 10-year life expectancy) had failed and that a replacement satellite would be launched in the second half of 2017: these atomic clocks were said to be supplied under a four-million-euro deal.[74][75][76][77]

In July 2017, the European Commission reported that the main causes of the malfunctions have been identified and measures have been put in place to reduce the possibility of further malfunctions of the satellites already in space.[78][79] According to European sources, ESA took measures to correct both identified sets of problems by replacing a faulty component that can cause a short circuit in the rubidium clocks and improve the passive hydrogen maser clocks as well on satellites still to be launched.[80]

### Outages

[edit]

From 11 July till 18 July 2019, the whole constellation experienced an "unexplained" signal outage[81][82] with all active satellites showing "NOT USABLE" status on the Galileo status page.[83] The cause of the incident was an equipment malfunction in the Galileo ground infrastructure that affected the calculation of time and orbit predictions.[84]

On 14 December 2020, starting at 0:00 UTC, Galileo experienced a system-wide performance degradation lasting for 6 hours.[85] GNSS receivers ignoring a 'marginal' status flag in the Galileo data could have experienced a pseudorange error of up to almost 80 km. The problem was related to an abnormal behaviour of a ground segment atomic clock in the time determination function of the system. The system uses parallel functioning Precise Timing Facilities in the Fucino and Oberpfaffenhofen Galileo Control Centres, and an issue occurred in Fucino whilst maintenance was performed on the parallel system in Oberpfaffenhofen.[86]

## International involvement

[edit]

In September 2003, China joined the Galileo project. China was to invest €230 million (US$302 million, £155 million, CNY 2.34 billion) in the project over the following years.[87][needs update]

In July 2004, Israel signed an agreement with the EU to become a partner in the Galileo project.[88]

On 3 June 2005, the European Union and Ukraine signed an agreement for Ukraine to join the project, as noted in a press release.[89] As of November 2005, Morocco also joined the programme.

In September 2005, India signed an agreement with the EU to join the project.[90][91]

In mid-2006, the public–private partnership fell apart and the European Commission decided to nationalise Galileo as an EU programme.[50] In November 2006, China opted instead to upgrade BeiDou navigation system, its then-regional satellite navigation system.[92] The decision was due to security concerns and issues with Galileo financing.[93]

On 30 November 2007, the 27 member states of the European Union unanimously agreed to move forward with the project, with plans for bases in Germany and Italy. Spain did not approve during the initial vote, but approved it later that day. This greatly improved the viability of the Galileo project: "The EU's executive had previously said that if agreement was not reached by January 2008, the long-troubled project would essentially be dead".[94]

On 3 April 2009, Norway too joined the programme pledging €68.9 million toward development costs and allowing its companies to bid for the construction contracts. Norway, while not a member of the EU, is a member of ESA.[95]

On 18 December 2013, Switzerland signed a cooperation agreement to fully participate in the program, and retroactively contributed €80 million for the period 2008–2013. As a member of ESA, it already collaborated in the development of the Galileo satellites, contributing the hydrogen-maser clocks. Switzerland's financial commitment for the period 2014–2020 will be calculated in accordance with the standard formula applied for the Swiss participation in the EU research Framework Programme.[96]

In March 2018, the European Commission announced that the United Kingdom may be excluded from parts of the project (especially relating to the secured service (PRS) following its exit from the European Union (EU). As a result, Airbus was to relocate work on the Ground Control Segment (GCS) from its Portsmouth premises to an EU state.[5] British officials have been reported to be seeking legal advice on whether they can reclaim the €1.4 billion invested by the United Kingdom, of the €10 billion spent to date.[97] In a speech at the EU Institute for Security Studies conference, the EU Chief Negotiator in charge of the Brexit negotiations, Michel Barnier, stressed the EU position that the UK had decided to leave the EU and thus all EU programmes, including Galileo.[98] In August 2018, the UK stated that it would look into creating a competing satellite navigation system to Galileo post-Brexit.[99] In December 2018, British Prime Minister Theresa May announced that the UK would no longer seek to reclaim the investment, and Science Minister Sam Gyimah resigned over the matter.[100]

## System description

[edit]

### Space segment

[edit]

Main article: List of Galileo satellites

Constellation visibility from a location on Earth's surface

As of 2012,[101] the system was scheduled to have 15 satellites operational in 2015 and reach full operation in 2020[needs update] with the following specifications:

* 30 in-orbit spacecraft (24 in full service and 6 spares)
* Orbital altitude: 23,222 km (14,429 mi) (MEO)
* Orbital period: 14 hours and 5 minutes (every 17 revolutions, done in 10 sidereal days, a satellite passes over the same location)[102]
* 3 orbital planes, 56.0° inclination, ascending nodes separated by 120.0° longitude (8 operational satellites and 2 active spares per orbital plane)
* Satellite lifetime: >12 years
* Satellite mass: 675 kg (1,488 lb)
* Satellite body dimensions: 2.7 m × 1.2 m × 1.1 m (8 ft 10 in × 3 ft 11 in × 3 ft 7 in)
* Span of solar arrays: 18.7 m (61 ft)
* Power of solar arrays: 1.5 kW (end of life)
* Power of navigation antennas: 155–265 W[103]

### Ground segment

[edit]

Galileo Control Centre at the DLR Oberpfaffenhofen site Galileo In-Orbit Test (IOT) L-band (1,000 – 2,000 MHz) antenna at ESTRACK Redu Station

The system's orbit and signal accuracy is controlled by a ground segment consisting of:

* Two ground control centres, located in Oberpfaffenhofen and Fucino for Satellite and Mission Control
* Seven telemetry, tracking & control (TT&C) stations, located in Kiruna, 2x Kourou, Nouméa, Réunion, Redu and Papeete
* Ten mission data uplink stations (ULS), two per site, located in Svalbard, Kourou, Papeete, Sainte-Marie, Réunion and Nouméa
* Several worldwide distributed reference sensor stations (GSS), including one in the Kerguelen Islands and Saint Pierre and Miquelon
* A data dissemination network between all geographically distributed locations
* One service centre, located in Madrid, to help Galileo users.

### Signals

[edit]

The system transmits three signals: E1 (1575.42 MHz), E5 (1191.795 MHz) consisting of E5a (1176.45 MHz) and E5b (1207.14 MHz), and E6 (1278.75 MHz):[104]

Galileo FOC signals  Parameters  | E1-I | E1-Q | E5a | E5b | E6-I | E6-Q

|
|
|
|
|
|

Carrier frequency (MHz)  | 1,575.42 | 1,575.42 | 1,176.45 | 1,207.14 | 1,278.75 | 1,278.75
Modulation  | CBOC (6, 1, 1/11) | BOCcos (15, 2.5) | AltBOC (15, 10) | AltBOC (15, 10) | BPSK (5) | BOCcos (10, 5)

### Services

[edit]

The Galileo system will have four main services:

Open Service (OS)
This will be available without charge for use by anyone with appropriate mass-market equipment; simple timing, and positioning down to 1 m  - for a double frequency receiver, best case.[105]

High Accuracy Service (HAS; resulting from the re-scope of the former Galileo Commercial Service)
Accuracy to 20 cm free of charge.[106]

Public Regulated Service (PRS; encrypted)
Designed to be more robust, with anti-jamming mechanisms and reliable problem detection. Limited to authorized governmental bodies.[107]

Search and Rescue Service (SAR)
The Galileo SAR Service is a Medium Earth Orbiting Search and Rescue (MEOSAR) service and part of the International Cospas-Sarsat Programme.[108]

#### Quarterly Service Performance Reports

[edit]

The European GNSS Service Centre provides public quarterly performance reports regarding the Open Service and Search and Rescue Service since 2017. Generally, the reported performance parameters measurements surpass the target values.[109] The Galileo April, May, June 2021 Quarterly Open Service Performance Report by the European GNSS Service Centre reported the UTC Time Dissemination Service Accuracy was ≤ 4.3 nanoseconds, computed by accumulating samples over the previous 12 months and exceeding the ≤ 30 ns target value. The Signal In Space Error (SISE) was also well within the ≤ 2 m (6 ft 7 in) target value for Single and (more accurate) Dual Frequency receivers.[110][111] The Galileo navigation message includes the differences between Galileo System Time (GST), UTC and GPS Time (GPST) (to promote interoperability).[112][113] The Galileo April, May, June 2021 Quarterly Search and Rescue Service Performance Report by the European GNSS Service Centre reported the various performance parameters measurements surpassed their target values. [114]

### Concept

[edit]

Space Passive Hydrogen Maser used in Galileo satellites as a master clock for an onboard timing system Prototype Rb atomic clock for a Galileo satellite made in 2002

Each Galileo satellite has two master passive hydrogen maser atomic clocks and two secondary rubidium atomic clocks which are independent of one other.[115][116] As precise and stable space-qualified atomic clocks are critical components to any satellite-navigation system, the employed quadruple redundancy keeps Galileo functioning when onboard atomic clocks fail in space. The onboard passive hydrogen maser clocks are four times more precise than the onboard rubidium atomic clocks, with an estimated drift of just 1 second every 3 million years. A timing error of just 1 nanosecond would correspond to a positional error of 30 cm on Earth's surface. These clocks provide the accurate timing signals necessary for calculating signal travel time to the receiver.[117][118][72] The Galileo satellites are configured to run one hydrogen maser clock in primary mode and a rubidium clock as hot backup. Under normal conditions, the operating hydrogen maser clock produces the reference frequency from which the navigation signal is generated. Should the hydrogen maser encounter any problem, an instantaneous switchover to the rubidium clock would be performed. In case of a failure of the primary hydrogen maser the secondary hydrogen maser could be activated by the ground segment to take over within a period of days as part of the redundant system. A clock monitoring and control unit provides the interface between the four clocks and the navigation signal generator unit (NSU). It passes the signal from the active hydrogen master clock to the NSU and also ensures that the frequencies produced by the master clock and the active spare are in phase, so that the spare can take over instantly should the master clock fail. The NSU information is used to calculate the position of the receiver by trilaterating the difference in received signals from multiple satellites.

The onboard passive hydrogen maser and rubidium clocks are very stable over a few hours. If they were left to run indefinitely, though, their timekeeping would drift, so they need to be synchronized regularly with a network of even more stable ground-based reference clocks. These include active hydrogen maser clocks and clocks based on the caesium frequency standard, which show a far better medium and long-term stability than rubidium or passive hydrogen maser clocks. These clocks on the ground are gathered together within the parallel functioning Precise Timing Facilities in the Fucino and Oberpfaffenhofen Galileo Control Centres. The ground based clocks also generate a worldwide time reference called Galileo System Time (GST), the standard for the Galileo system and are routinely compared to the local realisations of UTC, the UTC(k) of the European frequency and time laboratories.[119]

For more information of the concept of global satellite navigation systems, see GNSS and GNSS positioning calculation.

## European GNSS Service Centre

[edit]

The European GNSS Service Centre is the point of contact for Galileo users' assistance.

The European GNSS Service Centre (GSC),[120] located in Madrid, is an integral part of Galileo and provides the single interface between the Galileo system and Galileo users. GSC publishes Galileo official documentation, promotes Galileo current and future services worldwide, supports standardisation and distributes Galileo almanacs, ephemeris and metadata.

The GSC User Helpdesk[121] is the point of contact for Galileo user's assistance. GSC answers queries and gathers incident notifications from users on Galileo. The helpdesk is continuously available for all worldwide Galileo users through the GSC web portal.

GSC provides updated Galileo constellation status and informs on planned and unplanned events through Notice Advisory to Galileo Users (NAGU).[122] GSC publishes Galileo reference documentation and general information on Galileo services and signals description and Galileo performance reports.

## Search and rescue

[edit]

Galileo provides a global search and rescue (SAR) function as part of the MEOSAR system. Like Russia's Glonass, the United States' Global Positioning System (GPS) satellites, and some Chinese BeiDou satellites, Galileo satellites are equipped with a transponder which relays 406 MHz distress frequency signals from emergency beacons by a Forward Link Service (FLS) to the Rescue coordination centre, which will then initiate a rescue operation.[123][124][125][126] After receipt of an emergency beacon signal, the Galileo SAR system provides a signal, the Return Link Message (RLM), to the emergency beacon, informing the person(s) in distress that the activated beacon has been detected and help is on the way. This return message feature is new in a satellite constellation and is considered a major upgrade compared to the existing Cospas-Sarsat system, which up to then did not provide feedback to the user.[127] Tests in February 2014 found that for Galileo's search and rescue function, operating as part of the existing International Cospas-Sarsat Programme, 77% of simulated distress locations can be pinpointed within 2 kilometres (1.2 mi), and 95% within 5 kilometres (3.1 mi).[128] The Galileo Return Link Service (RLS) went live in January 2020 for all RLS capable emergency beacons.[129][130][131][132]

## Constellation

[edit]

Main article: List of Galileo satellites

Summary of satellites, as of 29 January 2025  Block  | Launch
period  | Satellite launches  | In operation
and healthy

|
|
|

Full success | Failure | Launched | Planned
GIOVE | 2005 – 2008 | 2 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0
IOV  | 2011 – 2012 | 4 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 3
FOC  | 2014 – 2026 | 26 | 2[α] | 0 | 6 | 24
G2G  | From 2027 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 12 | 0
Total  | 32 | 2 | 0 | 18 | 27

1. ^ Partial failure

### Galileo satellite test beds: GIOVE

[edit]

Main article: GIOVE

GIOVE-A was successfully launched 28 December 2005.

In 2004, the Galileo System Test Bed Version 1 (GSTB-V1) project validated the on-ground algorithms for Orbit Determination and Time Synchronisation (OD&TS). This project, led by ESA and European Satellite Navigation Industries, has provided industry with fundamental knowledge to develop the mission segment of the Galileo positioning system.[133]

* GIOVE-A is the first GIOVE (Galileo In-Orbit Validation Element) test satellite. It was built by Surrey Satellite Technology Ltd (SSTL), and successfully launched on 28 December 2005 by the European Space Agency and the Galileo Joint Undertaking (GJU). Operation of GIOVE-A ensured that Galileo meets the frequency-filing allocation and reservation requirements for the International Telecommunication Union (ITU), a process that was required to be complete by June 2006.
* GIOVE-B, built by Astrium and Thales Alenia Space, has a more advanced payload than GIOVE-A. It was successfully launched on 27 April 2008 at 22:16 UTC aboard a Soyuz-FG/Fregat rocket provided by Starsem.

A third satellite, GIOVE-A2, was originally planned to be built by SSTL for launch in the second half of 2008.[134] Construction of GIOVE-A2 was terminated due to the successful launch and in-orbit operation of GIOVE-B.

The GIOVE Mission[135][136] segment operated by European Satellite Navigation Industries used the GIOVE-A/B satellites to provide experimental results based on real data to be used for risk mitigation for the IOV satellites that followed on from the testbeds. ESA organised the global network of ground stations to collect the measurements of GIOVE-A/B with the use of the GETR receivers for further systematic study. GETR receivers are supplied by Septentrio as well as the first Galileo navigation receivers to be used to test the functioning of the system at further stages of its deployment. Signal analysis of GIOVE-A/B data confirmed successful operation of all the Galileo signals with the tracking performance as expected.

### In-Orbit Validation (IOV) satellites

[edit]

These testbed satellites were followed by four IOV Galileo satellites that are much closer to the final Galileo satellite design. The search and rescue (SAR) feature is also installed.[137] The first two satellites were launched on 21 October 2011 from Centre Spatial Guyanais using a Soyuz launcher,[138] the other two on 12 October 2012.[139] This enables key validation tests, since earth-based receivers such as those in cars and phones need to "see" a minimum of four satellites in order to calculate their position in three dimensions.[139] Those 4 IOV Galileo satellites were constructed by Astrium GmbH and Thales Alenia Space. On 12 March 2013, a first fix was performed using those four IOV satellites.[140] Once this In-Orbit Validation (IOV) phase has been completed, the remaining satellites will be installed to reach the Full Operational Capability.

### Full Operational Capability (FOC) satellites

[edit]

Main article: List of Galileo satellites

Model of a Galileo satellite

#### FOC Batch 1

[edit]

On 7 January 2010, it was announced that the contract to build the first 14 FOC satellites was awarded to OHB System and for the navigation payload to Surrey Satellite Technology Limited (SSTL). The first batch of Galileo First Generation satellites known as "Batch-1" consists of the Galileo-FOC FM1 to Galileo-FOC FM14 satellites. Fourteen satellites were built at a cost of €566 million (£510 million; US$811 million).[141][142] Arianespace will launch the satellites for a cost of €397 million (£358 million; US$569 million).[needs update] The European Commission also announced that the €85 million contract for system support covering industrial services required by ESA for integration and validation of the Galileo system had been awarded to Thales Alenia Space. Thales Alenia Space subcontract performances to Astrium GmbH and security to Thales Communications.

#### FOC Batch 2

[edit]

In February 2012, an additional order of 8 FOC satellites was awarded to OHB Systems for €250 million (US$327 million), after outbidding EADS Astrium tender offer. The second batch of Galileo First Generation satellites known as "Batch-2" consists of the Galileo-FOC FM15 to Galileo-FOC FM22 satellites. Thus bringing the total to 22 FOC satellites.[143] The satellites were built by OHB, with the contribution of Surrey Satellite Technology (SSTL).[144]

#### FOC Batch 3

[edit]

In June and October 2017, two additional orders for 8 and 4 FOC satellites were awarded to OHB Systems for €324 million and €157.75 million. This third and final batch of Galileo First Generation satellites known as "Batch-3" consists of the Galileo-FOC FM23 to Galileo-FOC FM34 satellites. The satellites are being built by OHB in Bremen, Germany, with the contribution of Surrey Satellite Technology (SSTL) in Guildford, United Kingdom.[20][21][22][145][24] When completed Batch-3 brings the total to 34 FOC satellites.

#### FOC launches

[edit]

On 7 May 2014, the first two FOC satellites landed in Guyana for their joint launch planned in summer.[146] Originally planned for launch during 2013, problems tooling and establishing the production line for assembly led to a delay of a year in serial production of Galileo satellites. These two satellites (Galileo satellites GSAT-201 and GSAT-202) were launched on 22 August 2014.[147] The names of these satellites are Doresa and Milena named after European children who had previously won a drawing contest.[148] On 23 August 2014, launch service provider Arianespace announced that the flight VS09 experienced an anomaly and the satellites were injected into an incorrect orbit.[149] They ended up in elliptical orbits and thus could not be used for navigation. However, it was later possible to use them to perform a physics experiment, so they were not a complete loss.[150]

On 15 December 2016, Galileo started offering Initial Operational Capability (IOC). The services currently offered are Open Service, Public Regulated Service and Search and Rescue Service.[1]

### Second generation (G2G) satellites

[edit]

During 2014, ESA and its industry partners began studies on Galileo Second Generation (G2G) satellites, which were to be presented to the EC for the late 2020s launch period.[151] One idea was to employ electric propulsion, which would eliminate the need for an upper stage during launch and allow satellites from a single batch to be inserted into more than one orbital plane.[152]

On 20 January 2021, the European Commission announced that it had awarded a €1.47 billion contract to Thales Alenia Space (TAS) and Airbus Defence and Space for six spacecraft by each manufacturer.[34] The signing of the contracts to Thales Alenia Space and Airbus Defence and Space, scheduled on 29 January 2021, was suspended by the European Court of Justice following a protest filed by OHB SE, the losing bidder. The OHB protest at the ECJ's General Court is based on “allegations of theft of trade secrets”, and seeks both a suspension of the contract signatures and the cancellation of the contract award. In May 2021 ESA reported it signed the contracts to design and build the first batch of Galileo Second Generation (G2G) satellites with Thales Alenia Space and Airbus Defence and Space.[153][154]

The twelve G2G satellites will feature a fully digital navigational payload, electric propulsion, enhanced navigation signals and capabilities, inter-satellite links and reconfigurability in space. The number of atomic clocks will increase from four to six. The satellites' increase in payloads will result in a mass of approximately 2300 kg. The design life is extended from twelve to fifteen years.[155][35]

## Applications and impact

[edit]

### Science projects using Galileo

[edit]

In July 2006, an international consortium of universities and research institutions embarked on a study of potential scientific applications of the Galileo constellation. This project, named GEO6,[156] is a broad study oriented to the general scientific community, aiming to define and implement new applications of Galileo.

Among the various GNSS users identified by the Galileo Joint Undertaking,[157] the GEO6,[156] project addresses the Scientific User Community (UC). The GEO6[156] project aims at fostering possible novel applications within the scientific UC of GNSS signals, and particularly of Galileo.

The AGILE[158] project is an EU-funded project devoted to the study of the technical and commercial aspects of location-based services (LBS). It includes technical analysis of the benefits brought by Galileo (and EGNOS) and studies the hybridisation of Galileo with other positioning technologies (network-based, WLAN, etc.). Within these projects, some pilot prototypes were implemented and demonstrated.

On the basis of the potential number of users, potential revenues for Galileo Operating Company or Concessionaire (GOC), international relevance, and level of innovation, a set of Priority Applications (PA) will be selected by the consortium and developed within the time-frame of the same project.

These applications will help to increase and optimise the use of the EGNOS services and the opportunities offered by the Galileo Signal Test-Bed (GSTB-V2) and the Galileo (IOV) phase.

All Galileo satellites are equipped with laser retroreflector arrays which allow them to be tracked by the stations of the International Laser Ranging Service.[159] Satellite laser ranging to Galileo satellites are used for the validation of satellite orbits,[160] determination of Earth rotation parameters[161] and for the combined solutions incorporating laser and microwave observations.

### Receivers

[edit]

Samsung Galaxy S8+ smartphones receiving Galileo and other GNSS signals

All major GNSS receiver chips support Galileo and hundreds of end-user devices are compatible with Galileo.[10] The first, dual-frequency-GNSS-capable Android devices, which track more than one radio signal from each satellite, E1 and E5a frequencies for Galileo, were the Huawei Mate 20 line, Xiaomi Mi 8, Xiaomi Mi 9 and Xiaomi Mi MIX 3.[162][163][164] As of July 2019[update], there were more than 140 Galileo-enabled smartphones on the market of which 9 were dual-frequency enabled.[165][non-primary source needed] An extensive list of enabled devices, for various uses, on land, sea and in air is frequently updated at the EU website.[166] On 24 December 2018, the European Commission passed a mandate for all new smartphones to implement Galileo for E112 support.[167]

Effective from 1st April 2018, all new vehicles sold in Europe must support eCall, an automatic emergency response system that dials 112 and transmits Galileo location data in the event of an accident.[168]

Until late 2018, Galileo was not authorized for use in the United States and, as a consequence, only variably worked on devices that could receive Galileo signals within United States territory.[169] The Federal Communications Commission's (FCC) position on the matter was that non-GPS radio navigation satellite systems (RNSS) receivers must be granted a licence to receive said signals.[170] A waiver of this requirement for Galileo was requested by the EU and submitted in 2015, and on 6 January 2017, public comment on the matter was requested.[171] On 15 November 2018, the FCC granted the requested waiver, explicitly allowing non-federal consumer devices to access Galileo E1 and E5 frequencies.[172][173] However, most devices, including smartphones, still require operating system updates or similar updates to allow the use of Galileo signals within the United States (most smartphones since the Apple iPhone 6S and Samsung Galaxy S7 have the hardware capability, and simply require a software modification).[174]

### Coins

[edit]

Austrian €25 European Satellite Navigation commemorative coin, back

The European Satellite Navigation project was selected as the main motif of a very high-value collectors' coin: the Austrian European Satellite Navigation commemorative coin, minted on 1 March 2006. The coin has a silver ring and gold-brown niobium "pill". In the reverse, the niobium portion depicts navigation satellites orbiting the Earth. The ring shows different modes of transport, for which satellite navigation was developed: an aircraft, a car, a lorry, a train and a container ship.

## See also

[edit]

### Competing systems

[edit]

Main article: Satellite navigation

* BeiDou (BDS) – global system deployed and operated by China.
* GLONASS – global system deployed and operated by Russia.
* GPS – global system deployed and operated by the United States.
* Michibiki (QZSS) – regional navigation system deployed and operated by Japan, receivable in the Asia-Oceania regions, with a focus on Japan.
* NavIC – regional system deployed and operated by India, receivable in the South Asia and Western Asia regions.

### Other

[edit]

* List of Galileo satellites
* Commercialization of space
* European Geostationary Navigation Overlay Service
* Multiplexed binary offset carrier modulation – the modulation type chosen for Galileo Open Service signals and modernized GPS signals
* International Terrestrial Reference System and Frame – the coordinate system used by Galileo

## Notes

[edit]

1. ^ Orbital periods and speeds are calculated using the relations 4π2R3 = T2GM and V2R = GM, where R is the radius of orbit in metres; T is the orbital period in seconds; V is the orbital speed in m/s; G is the gravitational constant, approximately 6.673×10−11 Nm2/kg2; M is the mass of Earth, approximately 5.98×1024 kg (1.318×1025 lb).
2. ^ Approximately 8.6 times when the Moon is nearest (that is, ⁠363,104 km/42,164 km⁠), to 9.6 times when the Moon is farthest (that is, ⁠405,696 km/42,164 km⁠)

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130. ^ "Galileo Search and Rescue Service – Navipedia". gssc.esa.int.
131. ^ "Galileo now replying to SOS messages worldwide". 23 January 2020. Retrieved 30 November 2021.
132. ^ "First Galileo personal emergency beacon coming to 19 European countries". GPS World. 26 October 2020. Retrieved 2 December 2021.
133. ^ "Galileo System Test Bed Version 1 experimentation is now complete". ESA News release. 22 December 2004. Retrieved 7 January 2005.
134. ^ "GIOVE-A2 to secure the Galileo programme". ESA News release. Retrieved 5 March 2007.
135. ^ "GIOVE mission core infrastructure". ESA press release. 12 January 2006. Retrieved 26 February 2007.
136. ^ "One year of Galileo signals; new website opens". ESA press release. Retrieved 12 January 2007.
137. ^ "Galileo IOV Satellites". Navipedia. 3 November 2014. Retrieved 1 May 2015.
138. ^ "Europe launches two navigation satellites". Bangkok Post. 23 August 2014. Retrieved 14 July 2021. 29 October 2011.
139. ^ a b "Galileo: Europe's version of GPS reaches key phase". BBC. 12 October 2012. Retrieved 12 October 2012.
140. ^ "Galileo fixes Europe's position in history". European Space Agency (esa.int). 12 March 2013.
141. ^ Amos, Jonathan (7 January 2010). "EU awards Galileo satellite-navigation contracts". BBC News.
142. ^ "Press Release: SSTL wins key role in Galileo Programme | SSTL". Archived from the original on 9 November 2021. Retrieved 12 December 2021.
143. ^ Dunmore, Charlie (1 February 2012). "OHB beats EADS to Galileo satellite contract". Reuters. Archived from the original on 24 September 2015. Retrieved 1 July 2017.
144. ^ "SSTL Signs €80, Contract With OHB For Second Batch | SSTL".
145. ^ "Lift off for 4 Galileo satellites as SSTL celebrates navigation payload order | SSTL".
146. ^ "Next Galileo satellites arrive at Europe's Spaceport". European Space Agency (esa.int). 7 May 2014.
147. ^ Amos, Jonathan (22 August 2014). "Europe expands Galileo network". BBC News.
148. ^ Rhian, Jason (22 August 2014). "Doresa and Milena Galileo spacecraft rise into morning sky via Soyuz ST-B". Spaceflight Insider. Archived from the original on 27 December 2016. Retrieved 17 January 2016.
149. ^ "Galileo satellites experience orbital injection anomaly on Soyuz launch: Initial report" (Press release). 23 August 2014. Archived from the original on 27 August 2014. Retrieved 27 August 2014.
150. ^ Gannon, Megan. "Wayward Satellites Test Einstein's Theory of General Relativity". Scientific American. Springer Nature America, Inc. Retrieved 9 February 2019.
151. ^ "Electric thrusters may steer Galileo in future". European Space Agency (esa.int). 4 April 2014.
152. ^ ESA. Galileo Launch: Completing the Constellation. Retrieved 22 January 2019 - via galileognss.eu.
153. ^ "ESA signs contract for new generation of Galileo". ESA. 28 May 2021. Retrieved 5 December 2021.
154. ^ "ESA signs contract for new generation of Galileo". Airbus. 16 June 2021. Retrieved 12 December 2021.
155. ^ "Galileo". Airbus. 16 June 2021. Retrieved 12 December 2021.
156. ^ a b c "gnss-geo6.org". Archived from the original on 13 February 2008. Retrieved 5 October 2006.
157. ^ "Galileoju.com". Galileoju.com.[verification needed]
158. ^ "Galileo in LBS". Archived from the original on 6 June 2008.
159. ^ Bury, Grzegorz; Sośnica, Krzysztof; Zajdel, Radosław (2019). "Multi-GNSS orbit determination using satellite laser ranging". Journal of Geodesy. 93 (12): 2447–2463\. Bibcode:2019JGeod..93.2447B. doi:10.1007/s00190-018-1143-1.
160. ^ Sośnica, Krzysztof; Prange, Lars; Kaźmierski, Kamil; Bury, Grzegorz; Hadaś, Tomasz (2018). "Validation of Galileo orbits using SLR with a focus on satellites launched into incorrect orbital planes". Journal of Geodesy. 92 (2): 131–148\. Bibcode:2018JGeod..92..131S. doi:10.1007/s00190-017-1050-x.
161. ^ Sośnica, Krzysztof; Bury, Grzegorz; Zajdel, Radosław (2018). "Contribution of Multi-GNSS Constellation to SLR-Derived Terrestrial Reference Frame". Geophysical Research Letters. 45 (5): 2339–2348\. Bibcode:2018GeoRL..45.2339S. doi:10.1002/2017GL076850. S2CID 134160047.
162. ^ Barbeau, Sean (4 April 2018). "Dual-frequency GNSS on Android devices". Medium.com. Retrieved 23 January 2019.
163. ^ "Test your Android device's satellite navigation performance". www.gsa.europa.eu. 21 August 2018. Retrieved 6 July 2019.
164. ^ Price, Jack (10 March 2019). "Dual-Frequency GNSS – An important location feature your phone is probably missing". xda-developers.com. Retrieved 1 May 2019.
165. ^ "Galileo-enabled devices". European GNSS Service Centre. Archived from the original on 11 July 2019. Retrieved 2 January 2019.
166. ^ "Accuracy matters|GALILEO ENABLED DEVICES". usegalileo.eu. Retrieved 15 July 2021.
167. ^ "EU makes Galileo satellite location compulsory for all smartphones". Geospatial World. 24 December 2018. Retrieved 15 July 2019.
168. ^ Vincent, James (29 April 2015). "European cars will automatically call emergency services after a crash". The Verge. Retrieved 15 July 2019.
169. ^ Barbeau, Sean (25 October 2018). "Where is the world is Galileo?". Sean Barbeau. Retrieved 28 October 2018.
170. ^ "Official: Foreign GNSS Signals Need FCC Authorization for Use in United States – Inside GNSS". Inside GNSS. 16 December 2014. Retrieved 11 July 2018.
171. ^ This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain: "FCC Public Notice, docket 17-16" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 19 January 2017.
172. ^ "FCC paves the way for improved GPS accuracy". The Verge. Retrieved 16 November 2018.
173. ^ This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain: Grace, Neil (15 November 2018). "FCC APPROVES USE OF GALILEO GLOBAL NAVIGATION SATELLITE SYSTEM IN THE UNITED STATES" (PDF). fcc.gov. Archived (PDF) from the original on 15 November 2018.
174. ^ Coldewey, Devin (15 November 2018). "FCC approval of Europe's Galileo satellite signals may give your phone's GPS a boost". techcrunch.com. Retrieved 8 February 2023.

## Bibliography

[edit]

* The Galileo Project – Galileo Design consolidation, European Commission, 2003
* Guenter W. Hein, Jeremie Godet, et al.: Status of Galileo Frequency and Signal Design, Proc. ION GPS 2002.
* Dee Ann Divis: Military role for Galileo emerges. GPS World, May 2002, Vol. 13, No. 5, p. 10.
* Dr Richard North: Galileo – The Military and Political Dimensions. 2004.
* Jaizki Mendizabal; Roc Berenguer; Juan Melendez (2009). GPS and Galileo. McGraw Hill. ISBN 978-0-07-159869-9.

## Further reading

[edit]

* Psiaki, M. L., "Block Acquisition of weak GPS signals in a software receiver", Proceedings of ION GPS 2001, the 14th International Technical Meeting of the Satellite Division of the Institute of Navigation, Salt Lake City, Utah, 11–14 September 2001, pp. 2838–2850.
* Bandemer, B., Denks, H., Hornbostel, A., Konovaltsev, A., "Performance of acquisition methods for Galileo SW receivers", European Journal of Navigation, Vol.4, No. 3, pp. 17–19, July 2006
* Van Der Jagt, Culver W. Galileo : The Declaration of European Independence : a dissertation (2002). CALL #JZ1254 .V36 2002, Description xxv, 850 p. : ill. ; 30 cm + 1 CD-ROM

## External links

[edit]

Wikimedia Commons has media related to Galileo (satellite navigation).

* European GNSS Service Centre (GSC)
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Earth observation|

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Planetary science|

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Solar physics|

* ISEE-2 (1977–1987)
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ISS contributions|

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Telecommunications|

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Technology
demonstrators

* ARD (1998)
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Cancelled
and proposed|

* AIDA
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Failed|

* Cluster
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Future missions in italics

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European Union articles

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| Timeline|

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|

Predecessors|

| Defence policy|

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|

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|

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Central bank|

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Supreme audit institution|

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Other
international-law
EU bodies|

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Independent
offices|

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Agencies|

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bodies|

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Military
bodies|

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Politics|

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|

Policies|

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relations|

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Lists|

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* Category
* Portal

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Trans-European Transport Network (TEN-T)

Corridors|

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* Mediterranean Corridor (CORR 3)
* Orient/East–Med Corridor (CORR 4)
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* Rhine–Alpine Corridor (CORR 6)
* Atlantic Corridor (CORR 7)
* North Sea–Mediterranean Corridor (CORR 8)
* Rhine–Danube Corridor (CORR 9)

Infrastructures|

* Railways (high-speed
* Conventional)
* Roads
* Inland waterways
* 'Motorways of the Sea'
* Seaports
* Airports
* Combined transport

* Trans-European Networks
* Executive Agency (TEN-T EA)

* v
* t
* e

Politics of outer space

* Spacefaring nations
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* Space Debris Working Group
* Space Debris Committee
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* Post-detection policy
* Asteroid impact
* Prediction
* Avoidance
* Spaceguard
* The Spaceguard Foundation

Space races|

* Cold War Space Race
* Sputnik crisis
* Timeline
* Billionaire space race
* Mars race
* Records
* Space propaganda
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Chinese
space program|

* Two Bombs, One Satellite doctrine (1966–1976)
* Shuguang program (1966–1972)
* Chinese ASAT program (1964–)
* 2007 test
* Project 921 (1992–)
* Shenzhou program
* Tiangong program
* Space station
* Chinese Lunar Exploration Program (2003–)
* Mars and beyond
* Planetary Exploration of China (2016–)
* MARS-500 study

ESA Science Programme|

* European Launcher Development Organisation (1960–1975)
* Europa launcher programme (1962–1973)
* European Space Research Organisation (1964–1975)
* European Space Agency (1975–)
* EU/ESA Space Council
* European Cooperation for Space Standardization
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* Concurrent Design Facility
* European Astronaut Centre
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* Living Planet Programme
* European Centre for Space Applications and Telecommunications
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* Space Telescope European Coordinating Facility (1983–2010)
* European Space Astronomy Centre (2005–)
* European Space Security and Education Centre
* European Space Operations Centre
* ESTRACK network
* Guiana Space Centre
* Ariane launcher programme (1973–)
* Vega launcher programme (1998–)
* European Space Policy Institute
* Space Situational Awareness Programme
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* Intermediate eXperimental Vehicle
* PRIDE
* Space Rider
* ESA Television
* Mars and beyond
* Mars Exploration Joint Initiative
* MARS-500 study
* Aurora programme
* ExoMars

| Horizon 2000 (1985–1995)|

* SOHO
* Cassini–Huygens
* Huygens
* Cluster
* Cluster II
* XMM-Newton
* Rosetta
* INTEGRAL
* Herschel
* Planck

|

Horizon 2000 Plus (1995–2015)|

* ISS programme
* Politics
* Gaia
* LISA Pathfinder
* BepiColombo

Cosmic Vision (2015–2025)|

* Solar Orbiter
* Euclid
* ARIEL
* EnVision
* CHEOPS
* JUICE
* ATHENA
* LISA
* Comet Interceptor
* SMILE

EU Space Programme|

* Western European Union Satellite Centre (1992–2002)
* EU Satellite Centre (2002–)
* EU/ESA Space Council
* EU Commission DG Defence Industry and Space
* European GNSS Supervisory Authority (2004–2010)
* European GNSS Agency (2010–2021)
* EU Agency for the Space Programme (2021–)
* Galileo programme
* Copernicus programme
* EGNOS programme
* EUSST programme
* Body of European Regulators for Electronic Communications
* European Union Aviation Safety Agency
* European Network of Civil Aviation Safety Investigation Authorities
* European Defence Agency
* Europe by Satellite

Other European
initiatives and bodies|

* AeroSpace and Defence Industries Association of Europe
* Eurospace
* Eurocontrol
* Council of Europe
* Council of European Aerospace Societies
* European Broadcasting Union
* European Civil Aviation Conference
* European Committee for Standardization/European Committee for Electrotechnical Standardization
* European Conference of Postal and Telecommunications Administrations
* European Telecommunications Standards Institute
* European Organisation for Civil Aviation Equipment
* European Organisation for the Exploitation of Meteorological Satellites
* European Patent Organisation
* European Patent Office
* European Telecommunications Satellite Organization
* European Southern Observatory
* Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe

Indian space policy|

* Department of Space
* Indian Human Spaceflight Programme
* Space Activities Bill
* Indian ASAT programme
* Mission Shakti

British
space programme|

* Creation of the British National Committee for Space Research (1958)
* Start of the Ariel programme (1962)
* Black Arrow launcher (1964–1971)
* Creation of the British National Space Centre (1985)
* Outer Space Act 1986
* Project Juno (1991)
* Space Innovation and Growth Team (2009–2010)
* Creation of the UK Space Agency (2010)
* Strategic Defence and Security Review 2015
* Space Industry Act 2018
* UK Global Navigation Satellite System (2018–2020)
* 2021 Integrated Review
* Defence in a Competitive Age

US space policy|

| Truman
space policy|

* Operation Paperclip
* list of scientists
* Aerobee rocket program
* RAND
* Establishment of Cape Canaveral

|

Eisenhower
space policy|

* WS-117L
* Project Vanguard
* Sputnik crisis
* Introduction to Outer Space
* 1958 NASA Act
* Space Act Agreement
* Cancellation of Man in Space Soonest
* Launch of Project Mercury
* Missile gap
* Launch of X-15 program

Kennedy
space policy|

* Launch of the Mariner program
* Launch of the Gemini project
* Launch of the Apollo program
* "We choose to go to the Moon"

Johnson
space policy|

* 1967 Outer Space Treaty

Nixon
space policy|

* Moon landing
* Extra-Terrestrial Exposure Law
* Launch of the Space Shuttle Program
* Skylab

Ford
space policy|

* Apollo–Soyuz
* Launch of the Viking program

Carter
space policy|

Reagan
space policy|

* Citizens' Advisory Council
* Strategy of Technology doctrine
* Strategic Defense Initiative
* Space Station Freedom proposal
* 1984 Space Act
* 1985 anti-satellite missile test
* Space Shuttle Challenger disaster
* Rogers Report
* Ride Report

George H. W. Bush
space policy|

* Space Exploration Initiative
* 1990 Augustine Committee
* Hubble Space Telescope
* National Space Council

Clinton
space policy|

* Faster, better, cheaper
* Gore–Chernomyrdin Commission
* ISS
* Shuttle–Mir program
* ISS programme
* Politics
* Launch of the Mars Exploration Program
* 1998 Space Act
* Decadal Planning Team
* Launch of the X-37 program

George W. Bush
space policy|

* Aerospace Industry Commission
* 2002 National missile defense directive
* Space Shuttle Columbia disaster
* Vision for Space Exploration
* Aldridge Commission
* ESAS
* 2005 NASA Act
* Launch of the Constellation program
* Operation Burnt Frost

Obama
space policy|

* 2009 Augustine Committee
* Kennedy Space Center speech
* Cancellation of the Constellation program
* Launch of the Space Launch System program
* Redesign of the Orion program
* Flexible path
* Mars Exploration Joint Initiative
* 2010 NASA Act
* Title 51
* Space Shuttle retirement
* Development of the Commercial Crew Program
* 2014 NASA Act
* 2015 Space Act

Trump
space policy|

* Re-establishment of the National Space Council
* Creation of the Space Force
* Launch of the Artemis program
* Launch of the Lunar Gateway project
* Executive Order 13959

* China exclusion policy of NASA
* International Traffic in Arms Regulations
* Full-spectrum dominance doctrine
* Budget of NASA
* House Committee on Space
* NESDIS
* Office of Space Commerce
* FCC
* FAA/AST
* NRO
* IEEE
* Aerospace and Electronic Systems Society
* Antennas & Propagation Society
* Broadcast Technology Society
* Geoscience and Remote Sensing Society
* Vehicular Technology Society

USSR and Russia|

| Soviet
space
program|

| Stalin|

* Operation Osoaviakhim (1946)
* list of scientists

|

Khrushchev|

* Sputnik program
* Sputnik crisis (1957)
* Vostok program (1960–1963)
* Fractional Orbital Bombardment System (1960–1982)
* Soviet crewed lunar programs (1961–1976)
* Voskhod program (1964–1966)

Brezhnev|

* Soyuz program (1967–)
* Interkosmos (1967–1991)
* Salyut program (1971–1986)
* Almaz (1973–1977)
* Buran program (1974–1993)
* Apollo–Soyuz (1975)

Gorbachev|

* Mir (1986–2001)

Roscosmos|

| Yeltsin|

* Gore–Chernomyrdin Commission
* ISS (1993–)
* Shuttle–Mir program
* ISS programme
* Politics

|

Medvedev|

* Medvedev modernisation programme
* 2010 Military doctrine

Putin|

* United Rocket and Space Corporation (2013–2015)
* 2014 Military doctrine
* 2015 Creation of Roscosmos
* Mars
* MARS-500 study
* ExoMars

Other policies|

* Australian space program
* Brazilian space program
* Emirati space program
* Japanese space program
* Kazakh space program
* Kenyan space program
* Lebanese space program
* North Korean space program
* Pakistani space program
* Space programme 2040
* Philippine space program
* South Korean space program
* Ugandan space initiatives
* International Space Station programme
* Politics of the International Space Station

United Nations|

* International Civil Aviation Organization
* ITU-R
* Office for Outer Space Affairs
* UN-SPIDER
* Space Generation Advisory Council
* Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space
* General Assembly Fourth Committee

Other intergovernmental
or inter-agency bodies|

* African Space Agency
* Consultative Committee for Space Data Systems
* Committee on Earth Observation Satellites
* Committee on Space Research
* International Planetary Data Alliance
* International Cospas-Sarsat Programme
* Group on Earth Observations
* Global Standards Collaboration
* Inter-Agency Space Debris Coordination Committee
* International Charter 'Space and Major Disasters'
* International Mobile Satellite Organization
* International Space Exploration Coordination Group
* International Space Station Multilateral Coordination Board
* International Telecommunications Satellite Organization
* Intersputnik
* Orbital Debris Co-ordination Working Group
* Regional African Satellite Communication Organization
* Arab Satellite Communications Organization
* Asia-Pacific Space Cooperation Organization

Space law|

* Partial Test Ban Treaty (1963)
* Outer Space Treaty (1967)
* Rescue Agreement (1968)
* Space Liability Convention (1972)
* US-USSR Cooperation Agreement (1972)
* Satellite Convention (1974)
* Registration Convention (1975)
* Bogota Declaration (1976)
* Moon Treaty (1979)
* Prevention of an Arms Race in Outer Space (1981)
* International Cospas-Sarsat Programme Agreement (1988)
* International Space Station Intergovernmental Agreement (1998)
* International Docking System Standard
* International Charter 'Space and Major Disasters' (1999)
* Cape Town Treaty, Space Assets protocol (2012)
* Artemis Accords (2020)
* Space jurisdiction
* Common heritage of mankind
* Extraterrestrial real estate
* Astronomical naming conventions
* ITU Radio Regulations
* CCSDS standards
* ODCWG standards
* CEOS standards
* COSPAR standards
* International Designator
* IPDA standards
* GSC standards
* GEO standards
* ISECG standards
* Various conventions, treaties, agreements, memorandums, charters or declarations establishing and governing intergovernmental organisations or inter-agency bodies dealing with space affairs

Commercial use|

* Space industry
* India
* Russia
* United Kingdom
* United States
* Private spaceflight
* Launch market competition
* Space tourism
* Space advertising
* Space technology
* Space-based economy
* Space trade
* Space manufacturing
* Lunar resources
* Project Harvest Moon
* Asteroid mining

Militarisation|

| Space forces,
units and formations|

* Space forces
* Australia
* Brazil
* Canada
* China
* Colombia
* France
* Germany
* Iran
* AJA
* IRGC
* Israel
* Japan
* Netherlands
* New Zealand
* North Korea
* Pakistan
* Russia
* South Korea
* Spain
* Thailand
* Turkey
* United Kingdom
* United States
* History
* Structure
* Vietnam
* Ranks and insignia
* Space commands
* France
* India
* Italy
* NATO
* NORAD
* United Kingdom
* United States

|

Space warfare|

* Space domain awareness
* Space weapon
* Anti-satellite weapon
* China
* India
* Russia
* United States
* Kinetic bombardment
* Kill vehicle
* Missile defense
* Military satellite
* Reconnaissance satellite
* Spaceplane
* Satellite jamming

Space advocacy|

* Air & Space Forces Association
* Alliance for Space Development
* National Space Society
* Space Frontier Foundation
* Mars Society
* Moon Society
* Students for the Exploration and Development of Space
* Arthur C. Clarke Institute for Modern Technologies
* British Interplanetary Society
* Coalition for Deep Space Exploration
* International Academy of Astronautics
* International Astronautical Federation
* International Astronomical Union
* Lunar Explorers Society
* Space Exploration Alliance
* Space Fellowship
* Space Force Association
* Space Foundation
* The Planetary Society

* v
* t
* e

Public-sector space agencies

Africa|

| Pan-African
and pan-Arab|

* RASCOM
* Arabsat

|

National|

* ASAL
* EgSA
* NARSS
* ESSTI
* GSSTC
* KSA
* NASRDA
* SANSA

Americas|

| North America|

* CSA
* NASA
* NESDIS
* OSC
* FAA/AST
* FCC
* USSF
* USSPACECOM
* NRO

|

Latin America
and the Caribbean|

* ALCE
* AEM
* CONAE
* ABE
* AEB
* DCTA
* INPE
* ITA
* CCE
* ABAE
* IVIC

Asia|

| Pan-Asian|

* APSCO

|

Central Asia|

* KazCosmos1
* Roscosmos1
* SRI
* VK
* TNSA1

East Asia|

* CNSA
* SASTIND
* CASC
* CALT
* CAST
* CCF
* CGWIC
* PLAASF
* CASIC
* JAXA
* ISAS
* JSS
* NICT
* NATA
* KASA
* KARI
* KASI
* SaTReC
* TASA

South Asia|

* SPARRSO
* ISRO2
* Antrix Corp
* DoS
* NRSC
* DSA
* SUPARCO

Southeast Asia|

* BRIN
* ORPA
* INASA
* MYSA
* PhilSA
* SSTL
* GISTDA
* VNSC

West Asia|

* ArmCosmos1
* MAKA1
* NSSA
* NEHSA
* ISA
* ISRC
* ISA
* NCSR
* SSA
* KACST-SRI
* SSA2
* GORS
* TUA
* TÜBİTAK UZAY
* UAESA (MBRSC)

Europe|

| Pan-European|

* CEN/CENELEC
* CEPT
* ETSI
* Eurocontrol
* ECAC
* ESA
* ECSS
* ESTEC
* EAC
* ESRIN
* ECSAT
* ESAC
* ESOC
* ESTRACK
* Guiana Space Centre
* EUMETSAT
* EUTELSAT IGO
* ESO

|

EU and EEA|

* DG DEFIS
* EUSPA
* EU SatCen
* EASA
* BEREC
* ALR2
* BELSPO
* BIRA-IASB
* SRTI2
* CSO2
* DTU Space
* ESO1
* CNES2
* AAE
* CdE
* DLR2
* HSA
* HSO2
* ASI
* LSA
* LSO1
* SRON
* NSO
* NOSA
* POLSA2
* CBK PAN
* UKE
* KRRiT
* ORO
* ULC
* PTSPACE
* ROSA2
* INTA
* AEC
* EAE
* AEE
* SNSA

Other|

* ArmCosmos1
* MAKA1
* BSA1
* KazCosmos1
* Roscosmos1
* SRI
* VVKO
* SSO
* TUA
* TÜBİTAK UZAY
* SSAU1
* UKSA2

Oceania|

* ASA
* CSIRO
* NZSA

World|

* CCSDS
* CEOS
* COSPAR
* IPDA
* Cospas-Sarsat
* GEO
* GSC
* IADC
* ICSMD
* IMSO
* ISECG
* ISS MCB
* ITSO
* Intersputnik
* ODCWG
* ITU-R
* UNCOPUOS
* UNOOSA
* UNOSAT

Former|

* BNSC
* KCST
* LAPAN
* NAL
* NASDA
* SSP
* MOM
* Interkosmos

* See also: Timeline of first orbital launches by country
* 1 Preceded by the Soviet space program
* 2 Preceded by Interkosmos participation

Authority control databases

National|

* Germany
* United States
* Czech Republic
* Israel

Other|

* Yale LUX

*[Nominal]: Intended number at full capacity
*[Current usable]: All healthy: Operational + Spare
*[v]: View this template
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*[e]: Edit this template