Gallaecian language

Extinct Celtic language of Iberia

This article is about an extinct Celtic language that was spoken in the Iberian Peninsula. For the current Romance language, see Galician language. For the extinct Celtic language of Anatolia, see Galatian language.

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Gallaecian

Northwestern Hispano-Celtic
Native to| Iberian Peninsula
Ethnicity| Gallaeci
Era| Attested beginning of the first millennium CE

Language family

Indo-European

* Celtic
* Continental Celtic
* Hispano-Celtic
* Gallaecian

Language codes
ISO 639-3| None (`mis`)
Glottolog| None
The Nicer Clutosi stele inscription.

Gallaecian or Northwestern Hispano-Celtic is an extinct Celtic language of the Hispano-Celtic group.[1] It was spoken by the Gallaeci in the northwest of the Iberian Peninsula around the start of the 1st millennium. The region became the Roman province of Gallaecia, which is now divided between the Spanish regions of Galicia, the western parts of Asturias, León and Zamora, and the Norte Region of Portugal.[2][3][4]

## Overview

[edit]

As with the Illyrian, Ligurian and Thracian languages, the surviving corpus of Gallaecian is composed of isolated words and short sentences contained in local Latin inscriptions or glossed by classical authors, together with a number of names – anthroponyms, ethnonyms, theonyms, toponyms – contained in inscriptions, or surviving as the names of places, rivers or mountains. In addition, some isolated words of Celtic origin preserved in the present-day Romance languages of north-west Iberia, including Galician, Portuguese, Asturian and Leonese are likely to have been inherited from ancient Gallaecian.[5]

Classical authors Pomponius Mela and Pliny the Elder wrote about the existence of Celtic[6] and non-Celtic populations in Gallaecia and Lusitania, but several modern scholars have postulated Lusitanian and Gallaecian as a single archaic Celtic language.[7] Others point to major unresolved problems for this hypothesis, such as the mutually incompatible phonetic features, most notably the proposed preservation of Indo-European *p and the loss of *d in Lusitanian and the inconsistent outcome of the vocalic liquid consonants, which has led them to the conclusion that Lusitanian is a non-Celtic language and is not closely related to Gallaecian.[8][9][10][11] Some linguists also believe that ancient Gallaecian was related to the Goidelic languages.[12]

## Characteristics

[edit]

### Features shared with Celtiberian and the other Celtic languages (reconstructed forms are Proto-Celtic unless otherwise indicated)

[edit]

* Indo-European *-ps- and *-ks- became *-xs- and were then reduced to -s-: place name AVILIOBRIS from *Awil-yo-brix-s < Proto-Celtic *Awil-yo-brig-s 'Windy hill (fort)',[13][14] modern place name Osmo (Cenlle, Osamo 928 AD) from *Uχsamo- 'the highest one'.[15]
* Original PIE *p has disappeared, having become a *φ sound before being lost completely:[16][17]

Examples

* place names C(ASTELLO) OLCA from *φolkā- 'Overturned', C(ASTELLO) ERITAECO from *φerito- 'surrounded, enclosed'
* personal name ARCELTIUS, from *φari-kelt-y-os
* place name C(ASTELLO) ERCORIOBRI, from *φeri-kor-y-o-brig-s 'Overshooting hillfort'
* place name C(ASTELLO) LETIOBRI,[18] from *φle-tyo-brig-s 'wide hillfort', or *φlei-to-brig-s 'grey hillfort';[19]
* place name Iria Flavia, from *φīweryā- (nominative *φīwerī) 'fertile' (feminine form, cf. Sanskrit feminine pīvari- "fat");[20]
* place name ONTONIA, from *φont-on- 'path';[21]
* personal name LATRONIUS,[22] to *φlā-tro- 'place; trousers'
* personal name ROTAMUS, to *φro-tamo- 'foremost';[23]
* modern place names Bama (Touro, Vama 912) to *uφamā-[24] 'the lowest one, the bottom' (feminine form), Iñobre (Rianxo) to *φenyo-brix-s[25] 'Hill (fort) by the water', Bendrade (Oza dos Ríos) to *Vindo-φrātem 'White fortress', and Baiordo (Coristanco) to *Bagyo-φritu-, where the second element is proto-Celtic for 'ford'.[26] Galician-Portuguese appellative words leira 'flat patch of land' from *φlāryā,[27] lavego 'plough' from *φlāw-aiko-,[28] laxe/lage 'flagstone', from medieval lagena, from *φlagĭnā,[29] rega and rego 'furrow' from *φrikā.[30]

The frequent instances of preserved PIE /p/ are assigned by some authors, namely Carlos Búa[31] and Jürgen Untermann, to a single and archaic Celtic language spoken in Gallaecia, Asturia and Lusitania, while others (Francisco Villar, Blanca María Prósper, Patrizia de Bernado Stempel, Jordán Colera) consider that they belong to a Lusitanian or Lusitanian-like dialect or group of dialects spoken in northern Iberia along with (but different from) Western Hispano-Celtic:[32]

* in Galicia: divinity names and epithets PARALIOMEGO, PARAMAECO, POEMANAE, PROENETIAEGO, PROINETIE, PEMANEIECO, PAMUDENO; place names Lapatia, Paramo, Pantiñobre if from *palanti-nyo-brig-s (Búa); Galician-Portuguese appellative words lapa 'stone, rock' (cfr. Lat. lapis) and pala 'stone cavity', from *palla from *plh-sa (cfr. Germ. fels, O.Ir. All).
* in Asturias the ethnic name Paesici; personal names PENTIUS, PROGENEI; divinity name PECE PARAMECO; in León and Bragança place names PAEMEIOBRIGENSE, Campo Paramo, Petavonium.
* in other northwestern areas: place names Pallantia, Pintia, Segontia Paramica; ethnic name Pelendones.

* Indo-European sonorants between vowels, *n̥, and *m̥ have become an, am; *r̥, and *l̥ have become ri, li:[33] place name Brigantia from *brig-ant-yā < Proto-Celtic *br̥g-n̥t-y-ā < post-Proto-Indo-European (post-PIE) *bʰr̥gʰ-n̥t-y-ā 'The towering one, the high one'; modern place names in Portugal and Galicia Braga, Bragança, Berganzo, Berganciños, Bergaña;[34] ancient place names AOBRIGA, CALIABRIGA, CALAMBRIGA, CONIMBRIGA, CORUMBRIGA, MIROBRIGA, NEMETOBRIGA, COELIOBRIGA, TALABRIGA with second element *brigā < Proto-Celtic *br̥g-ā < post-PIE *bʰr̥gʰ-ā 'high place',[35] and AVILIOBRIS, MIOBRI, AGUBRI with second element *bris < *brix-s < Proto-Celtic *brig-s < *br̥g-s < PIE *bʰr̥gʰ-s 'hill (fort)';[36] cf. English cognate borough < Old English burg "fort" < Proto-Germanic *burg-s < PIE *bʰr̥gʰ-s.
* Reduction of diphthong *ei to ē: theonym DEVORI, from *dēwo-rīg-ē < Proto-Celtic *deiwo-rēg-ei 'To the king of the gods'.[37]
* Lenition of *m in the group *-mnV- to -unV-:[38][39] ARIOUNIS MINCOSEGAECIS, dative form from *ar-yo-uno- *menekko-seg-āk-yo- 'To the (deities of the) fields of the many crops' < Proto-Celtic *ar-yo-mno- ... .[40]
* Assimilation *p .. kʷ > *kʷ .. kʷ: tribe name Querquerni from *kʷerkʷ- < PIE *perkʷ- 'oak, tree'.[41] Although this name has also been interpreted as Lusitanian by B. M. Prósper,[42] she proposed recently for that language a *p .. kʷ > *kʷ .. kʷ > *p .. p assimilation.[43]
* Reduction of diphthong *ew to *ow, and eventually to ō:[44] personal names TOUTONUS / TOTONUS 'of the people' from *tout- 'nation, tribe' < PIE *teut-; personal names CLOUTIUS 'famous', but VESUCLOTI 'having good fame' < Proto-Celtic *Kleut-y-os, *Wesu-kleut(-y)-os;[45] CASTELLO LOUCIOCELO < PIE *leuk- 'bright'.[46] In Celtiberian the forms toutinikum/totinikum show the same process.[47]
* Superlatives in -is(s)amo:[48] place names BERISAMO < *Berg-isamo- 'The highest one',[49] SESMACA < *Seg-isamā-kā 'The strongest one, the most victorious one'.[50] The same etymology has been proposed for the modern place names Sésamo (Culleredo) and Sísamo (Carballo), from *Segisamo-;[51] modern place name Méixamo from Magisamo- 'the largest one'.[52]
* Syncope (loss) of unstressed vowels in the vicinity of liquid consonants: CASTELLO DURBEDE, if from *dūro-bedo-.[53]
* Reduction of Proto-Celtic *χt cluster to Hispano-Celtic *t:[54] personal names AMBATUS, from Celtic *ambi-aχtos, PENTIUS < *kwenχto- 'fifth'.

### Features not shared with Celtiberian

[edit]

* In contact with *e or *i, intervocalic consonant *-g- tends to disappear:[44] theonym DEVORI from *dēworīgē 'To the king of the gods'; adjective derived of a place name SESMACAE < *Seg-isamā-kā 'The strongest one, the most victorious one'; personal names MEIDUENUS < *Medu-genos 'Born of mead', CATUENUS < *Katu-genos 'Born of the fight';[55] inscription NIMIDI FIDUENEARUM HIC < *widu-gen-yā.[48] But Celtiberian place name SEGISAMA and personal name mezukenos show preservation of /g/.[56]
* *-lw- and *-rw- become -lβ-, -rβ- (as in Irish):[16] MARTI TARBUCELI < *tarwo-okel- 'To Mars of the Hill of the Bull', but Celtiberian TARVODURESCA.
* Late preservation of *(-)φl- which becomes (-)βl- and only later is reduced to a simple (-)l- sound:[57][58] place names BLETISAM(AM), BLETIS(AMA),[59] modern Ledesma (Boqueixón) < *φlet-isamā 'widest'; BLANIOBRENSI,[60] medieval Laniobre < *φlān-yo-brigs 'hillfort on the plain'.[61] But Celtiberian place name Letaisama.[62]
* *wl- is maintained:[63] VLANA < PIE *wl̥Hn-eh₂ 'wool', while Celtiberian has l-: launi < PIE *wl̥H-mn-ih₂ 'woolly' (?).
* Sometimes *wo- appears as wa-:[64] VACORIA < *(d)wo-kor-yo- 'who has two armies', VAGABROBENDAM < *uφo-gabro-bendā 'lower goat mountain' (see above).
* Dative plural ending -bo < PIE *bʰo, while Celtiberian had -bos:[58] LUGOUBU/LUCUBO 'To (the three gods) Lug'.

### Q-Celtic

[edit]

Under the P/Q Celtic hypothesis, Gallaecian appears to be a Q-Celtic language, as evidenced by the following occurrences in local inscriptions: ARQVI, ARCVIVS, ARQVIENOBO, ARQVIENI[S], ARQVIVS, all probably from IE Paleo-Hispanic *arkʷios 'archer, bowman', retaining proto-Celtic *kʷ.[65][66] It is also noteworthy the ethnonyms Equaesi ( < PIE *ek̂wos 'horse'), a people from southern Gallaecia,[67] and the Querquerni ( < *perkʷ- 'oak'). Nevertheless, some old toponyms and ethnonyms, and some modern toponyms, have been interpreted as showing kw / kʷ > p: Pantiñobre (Arzúa, composite of *kʷantin-yo- '(of the) valley' and *brix-s 'hill(fort)') and Pezobre (Santiso, from *kweityo-bris),[68] ethnonym COPORI "the Bakers" from *pokwero- 'to cook',[69] old place names Pintia, in Galicia and among the Vaccei, from PIE *penkwtó- > Celtic *kwenχto- 'fifth'.[54][70]

### Roman inscriptions

[edit]

* Some local Roman inscriptions incorporating autochthonous names, appellatives, and phrases
* Anthropomorphic stele with Latin inscription, and local anthroponyms (from Verín, Ourense, Galicia): LATRONIUS CELTIATI F(ilius) H(ic) S(itus) E(st)

* Stele with Latin inscription (from Mera town, Lugo, Galicia): APANA AMBOLLI F(ilia) CELTICA SVPERTAM(arica) [Castello] MIOBRI AN(norum) XXV H(ic) S(itus) E(st) APANVS FR(ater) F(aciendum) C(uravit).

* Votive inscription to Lug (from Sinogas town, Lugo, Galicia): LUCOUBU ARQUIEN(obu) SILONIUS SILO EX VOTO

* Votive inscription to the local deity Coso (from Meiras town, A Coruña, Galicia): COSOU DAVINIAGO Q(uintus) V() C() EX VOTO

* Inscriptions in Braga, Portugal: [Ce]LICUS FRONTO ARCOBRIGENSIS AMBIMOGIDUS FECIT; and TONGOE NABIAGOI CELICUS FECIT FRONT[o]

* Galician Latin inscription (from Lugo city, Galicia): VECIUS VEROBLII F(ilius) PRICE[ps ...] CIT(...) C(ASTELLO) CIRCINE AN(norum) LX [...]O VECI F(ilius) PRINCEPS CO[...]

## Revival

[edit]

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In the 19th century a group of Romantic and Nationalist writers and scholars, among them Eduardo Pondal and Manuel Murguía,[71] led a Celtic revival initially based on the historical testimonies of ancient Roman and Greek authors (Pomponius Mela, Pliny the Elder, Strabo and Ptolemy), who wrote about the Celtic peoples who inhabited Galicia; [72] there is currently a revival movement within Galicia (Spain) which often extends into Asturias, northern Portugal and sometimes Cantabria funded by the Celtic League in Galicia,[73] this movement is championed by people like Vincent F. Pintado, Founder of the Gallaecian Language Revival Movement, Member of the United Celtic Nations, Sponsor of the Gallaecian Celtic League, Author of the Old Celtic Dictionary.

## See also

[edit]

* List of Celtic place names in Galicia
* List of Celtic place names in Portugal
* Celtiberian language
* Continental Celtic languages
* List of Galician words of Celtic origin
* Portuguese vocabulary
* Galician Institute for Celtic Studies

## References

[edit]

1. ^ Cólera, Carlos Jordán (2007-03-16). "Celtiberian". E-Keltoi: Journal of Interdisciplinary Celtic Studies. 6 (1): 750. ISSN 1540-4889. "In the northwest of the Iberian Peninsula, and more specifically between the west and north Atlantic coasts and an imaginary line running north-south and linking Oviedo and Merida, there is a corpus of Latin inscriptions with particular characteristics of its own. This corpus contains some linguistic features that are clearly Celtic and others that in our opinion are not Celtic. The former we shall group, for the moment, under the label northwestern Hispano-Celtic. The latter are the same features found in well-documented contemporary inscriptions in the region occupied by the Lusitanians, and therefore belonging to the variety known as LUSITANIAN, or more broadly as GALLO-LUSITANIAN. As we have already said, we do not consider this variety to belong to the Celtic language family."
2. ^ Prósper, Blanca María (2002). Lenguas y religiones prerromanas del occidente de la península ibérica. Ediciones Universidad de Salamanca. pp. 422–427\. ISBN 84-7800-818-7.
3. ^ Prósper, B.M. (2005). Estudios sobre la fonética y la morfología de la lengua celtibérica in Vascos, celtas e indoeuropeos. Genes y lenguas (coauthored with Villar, Francisco). Ediciones Universidad de Salamanca, pp. 333–350. ISBN 84-7800-530-7.
4. ^ Cólera, Carlos Jordán (2007-03-16). "Celtiberian (Page_750)". E-Keltoi: Journal of Interdisciplinary Celtic Studies. 6 (1): 750. ISSN 1540-4889.
5. ^ Galician words such as crica ('vulva, ribbon'), from proto-Celtic *kīkwā ('furrow'), laxe ('stone slab') from proto-Celtic *φlagēnā ('broad spearhead'), leira ('patch, field') from proto-Celtic *φlāryo- ('floor'), and alboio ('shed, pen') from proto-Celtic *φare-bowyo- ('around-cows').
6. ^ Pomponius, Mela. Chorographia, III.7–9 (in Latin). pp. 7, 9. "Among them the Praestamarci, Supertamarci, Nerii, Artabri, and in general all people living by the seashore except for the Grovi of southern Galicia and northern Portugal: 'Totam Celtici colunt, sed a Durio ad flexum Grovi, fluuntque per eos Avo, Celadus, Nebis, Minius et cui oblivionis cognomen est Limia. Flexus ipse Lambriacam urbem amplexus recipit fluvios Laeron et Ullam. Partem quae prominet Praesamarchi habitant, perque eos Tamaris et Sars flumina non longe orta decurrunt, Tamaris secundum Ebora portum, Sars iuxta turrem Augusti titulo memorabilem. Cetera super Tamarici Nerique incolunt in eo tractu ultimi. Hactenus enim ad occidentem versa litora pertinent. Deinde ad septentriones toto latere terra convertitur a Celtico promunturio ad Pyrenaeum usque. Perpetua eius ora, nisi ubi modici recessus ac parva promunturia sunt, ad Cantabros paene recta est. In ea primum Artabri sunt etiamnum Celticae gentis, deinde Astyres."
7. ^ cf. Wodtko 2010: 355–362
8. ^ Krzysztof Tomasz Witczak, On the Indo-European origin of two Lusitanian theonyms ("Laebo" and "Reve"), 1999, p.67
9. ^ Prósper 2002: 422 and 430
10. ^ Prósper 2005: 336–338
11. ^ Prósper 2012: 53–55
12. ^ H. James Birx, ed. (December 8, 2005). "Ancient Celtic Europe". Encyclopedia of Anthropology. SAGE Publications. ISBN 978-1-5063-2003-8. 1506320031. Retrieved August 24, 2024. "Galego, the language of Spanish Galicia, is a Romance language closely related to Portuguese, the indigenous Celtic language having been lost, although it is believed to have been Goidelic."
13. ^ Curchin 2008: 117
14. ^ Prósper 2002: 357–358
15. ^ Prósper 2005: 282
16. ^ a b Prósper 2005: 336
17. ^ Prósper 2002: 422
18. ^ Curchin 2008: 123
19. ^ Prósper 2005: 269
20. ^ Delamarre 2012: 165
21. ^ Delamarre 2012: 2011
22. ^ Vallejo 2005: 326
23. ^ Koch 2011:34
24. ^ Cf. Koch 2011: 76
25. ^ Prósper 2002: 377
26. ^ Búa 2007: 38–39
27. ^ cf. DCECH s.v. lera
28. ^ cf. DCECH s.v. llaviegu
29. ^ cf. DCECH s.v. laja
30. ^ cf. DCECH s.v. regar
31. ^ Búa 2007
32. ^ Prósper, Blanca M. "Shifting the evidence: new interpretation of Celtic and non-Celtic personal names of Western Hispania": 1. Retrieved 13 March 2014. `{{cite journal}}`: Cite journal requires `|journal=` (help)
33. ^ Prósper 2005: 342.
34. ^ Moralejo 2010: 105
35. ^ Luján 2006: 727–729
36. ^ Prósper 2002: 357–382
37. ^ Prósper 2005: 338; Jordán Cólera 2007: 754.
38. ^ Prósper 2002: 425–426.
39. ^ Prósper 2005: 336.
40. ^ Prósper 2002: 205–215.
41. ^ Luján 2006: 724
42. ^ Prósper 2002: 397
43. ^ Prósper, B. M.; Francisco Villar (2009). "NUEVA INSCRIPCIÓN LUSITANA PROCEDENTE DE PORTALEGRE". EMERITA, Revista de Lingüística y Filología Clásica (EM). LXXVII (1): 1–32. Retrieved 11 June 2012.
44. ^ a b Prósper 2002: 423.
45. ^ Prósper 2002: 211
46. ^ González García, Francisco Javier (2007). Los pueblos de la Galicia céltica. Madrid: Ediciones Akal. p. 409\. ISBN 9788446036210.
47. ^ Jordán Cólera 2007: 755
48. ^ a b Wodtko 2010: 356
49. ^ Prósper 2005: 266, 278
50. ^ Prósper 2002: 423
51. ^ Prósper 2005: 282.
52. ^ Moralejo 2010: 107
53. ^ Prósper, Blanca M. "Shifting the evidence: new interpretation of Celtic and non-Celtic personal names of Western Hispania": 6–8. Retrieved 13 March 2014. `{{cite journal}}`: Cite journal requires `|journal=` (help)
54. ^ a b John T., Koch (2015). "Some Palaeohispanic Implications of the Gaulish Inscription of Rezé (Ratiatum)". Mélanges en l'honneur de Pierre-Yves Lambert: 333–46. Retrieved 16 July 2015.
55. ^ Prósper 2005: 266
56. ^ Jordán Cólera 2007: 763–764.
57. ^ Prósper 2002: 422, 427
58. ^ a b Prósper 2005: 345
59. ^ Prósper, Blanca María. "El topónimo hispano–celta Bletisama: Una aproximación desde la lingüística". In: I. Sastre y F. J. Sánchez Palencia (eds.). El bronce de Pino del Oro Valladolid. 2010. pp. 217–23.
60. ^ Sometimes it has been read ELANIOBRENSI
61. ^ Luján 2006: 727
62. ^ Jordán Cólera 2007: 757.
63. ^ Prósper 2002: 426
64. ^ Prósper 2005: 346
65. ^ Koch, John T (2011). Tartessian 2: The Inscription of Mesas do Castelinho ro and the Verbal Complex. Preliminaries to Historical Phonology. Oxbow Books, Oxford, UK. pp. 53–54, 144–145\. ISBN 978-1-907029-07-3. Archived from the original on 2011-07-23.
66. ^ Abad, Rubén Abad. (2008). "La divinidad celeste/solar en el panteón céltico peninsular". In: Espacio, Tiempo y Forma. Serie II, Historia Antigua, 21: 101.
67. ^ Cf. Vallejo 2005: 321, who wrongly assign them to the Astures.
68. ^ Prósper 2002: 422, 378–379
69. ^ Prósper, Blanca M. "Shifting the evidence: new interpretation of Celtic and non-Celtic personal names of Western Hispania": 10. Retrieved 13 March 2014. `{{cite journal}}`: Cite journal requires `|journal=` (help)
70. ^ de Bernardo Stempel, Patrizia (2009). "El nombre -¿céltico?- de la "Pintia vaccea"" (PDF). BSAA Arqueología: Boletín del Seminario de Estudios de Arqueología (75). Retrieved 14 March 2014.
71. ^ González García, F. J. (coord.) (2007). Los pueblos de la Galicia céltica. Madrid: Ediciones Akal. pp. 19–49\. ISBN 9788446022602.
72. ^ García Quintela, Marco V (2005). "Celtic Elements in Northwestern Spain in Pre-Roman times". E-Keltoi: Journal of Interdisciplinary Celtic Studies. 6: 74.
73. ^ "Gallaic Language Revival Movement - GLEUSSAXTA ATEBIVOCANA TENGUA GALLAICA". gallaicrevivalmovement.page.tl. Archived from the original on 2022-12-08. Retrieved 2022-11-28.

## Bibliography

[edit]

* Búa, Carlos (2007) O Thesaurus Paleocallaecus, in Kremer, Dieter, ed. (2007). Onomástica galega : con especial consideración da situación prerromana : actas do primeiro Coloquio de Trier 19 e 20 de maio de 2006. Santiago de Compostela: Universidade de Santiago de Compostela. ISBN 978-84-9750-794-3.
* Curchin, Leonard A. (2008) Estudios GallegosThe toponyms of the Roman Galicia: New Study. CUADERNOS DE ESTUDIOS GALLEGOS LV (121): 109-136.
* DCECH = Coromines, Joan (2012). Diccionario crítico etimológico castellano e hispánico. Madrid: Gredos. ISBN 978-84-249-3654-9.
* Delamarre, Xavier (2012). Noms de lieux celtiques de l'Europe ancienne (−500 / +500): dictionnaire. Arles: Errance. ISBN 978-2-87772-483-8.
* Jordán Cólera, Carlos (March 16, 2007). "Celtiberian" (PDF). E-Keltoi. 6. Archived from the original (PDF) on 24 June 2011. Retrieved 16 June 2010.
* Koch, John T. (2011). Tartessian 2 : The inscription of Mesas do Castelinho ro and the verbal complex preliminaries to historical phonology. Aberystwyth: University of Wales, Centre for Advanced Welsh and Celtic Studies. ISBN 978-1-907029-07-3.
* Luján Martínez, Eugenio R. (2006) The Language(s) of the Callaeci Archived 2014-04-09 at the Wayback Machine. e-Keltoi 6: 715-748.
* Moralejo, Juan José (2010). "TOPÓNIMOS CÉLTICOS EN GALICIA" (PDF). Paleohispánica. 10. Retrieved 14 March 2014.
* Prósper, Blanca María (2002). Lenguas y religiones prerromanas del occidente de la península ibérica. Ediciones Universidad de Salamanca. pp. 422–427\. ISBN 84-7800-818-7.
* Prósper, Blanca María and Francisco Villar (2005). Vascos, Celtas e Indoeuropeos: Genes y lenguas. Ediciones Universidad de Salamanca. ISBN 978-84-7800-530-7.
* Prósper, Blanca María (2012). "Indo-European Divinities that Protected Livestock and the Persistence of Cross-Linguistic Semantic Paradigms: Dea Oipaingia". The Journal of Indo-European Studies. 40 (1–2): 46–58. Retrieved 25 February 2013.1–2&rft.pages=46-58&rft.date=2012&rft.aulast=Prósper&rft.aufirst=Blanca+María&rft_id=https://www.academia.edu/1417828&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:Gallaecian+language" class="Z3988">
* Vallejo Ruiz, José María (2005). Antroponimia indígena de la Lusitania romana. Vitoria-Gasteiz: Univ. del País Vasco [u.a.] ISBN 8483737469.
* Wodtko, Dagmar S. (2010). "The Problem of Lusitanian". In Cunliffe, Barry; Koch, John T. (eds.). Celtic from the West. Oxford, UK: Oxbow books. ISBN 978-1-84217-475-3.

## External links

[edit]

Media related to Gallaecian language at Wikimedia Commons

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* Noric

Unknown|

* Ancient Belgian? (possibly hypothetical)
* Camunic? (possibly related to Rhaetic or pre-Indo-European)
* Ligurian? (possibly independent or pre-Indo-European)
* Lusitanian? (possibly Italic)
* Rhaetic? (possibly Tyrsenian)
* Tartessian? (possibly Paleo-Hispanic)

Mixed|

* Beurla Reagaird
* Shelta

Celtic-speaking areas|

* Lower Brittany (Brittany)
* Y Wladfa (Chubut Province, Argentina; Welsh)
* Gaeltacht (Ireland)
* Cape Breton Island (Nova Scotia; Scottish Gaelic)
* Gàidhealtachd (Scotland)
* Y Fro Gymraeg (Wales)

Immersive education|

* Diwan (Breton)
* Skol Veythrin Karenza (Cornish)
* Gaelscoil (Irish)
* Bunscoill Ghaelgagh (Manx)
* Scottish Gaelic-medium education
* Welsh-medium education

Italics indicate extinct or ancestor languages

* v
* t
* e

Celts and modern Celts

Celtic nations · Celtic studies · Celtic tribes · Celtic languages

Peoples

Ancient Celtic ethnic groups
(names)|

* Aedui
* Aigosages
* Allobroges
* Allotriges
* Ambarri
* Anartes
* Arecomici
* Armorica
* Astures
* Arverni
* Atuatuci
* Attacotti
* Atrebates
* Aulerci
* Aulerci Cenomani
* Cenomani
* Autrigones
* Bituriges
* Bituriges Vivisci
* Belgae
* Bellovaci
* Berones
* Boii
* Brigantii
* Britons
* Caledonians
* Caleti
* Cantabri
* Carni
* Cantii
* Carnutes
* Caristii
* Carpetani
* Catubrini
* Celegeri
* Cenomani
* Celtiberians
* Celtici
* Cotini
* Coriosolites
* Dumnonii
* Eburones
* Eburovices
* Eravisci
* Haedui
* Helvetii
* Gaels
* Gaesatae
* Gallaeci
* Gauls
* Galatians
* Helvetii
* Insubres
* Latobici
* Latobrigi
* Lemovices
* Lexovii
* Leuci
* Ligures
* Lingones
* Lusitanians
* Lepontii
* Menapii
* Morini
* Namnetes
* Nervii
* Noricum
* Orobii
* Osismii
* Parisi
* Parisii
* Petrocorii
* Picts
* Pictones
* Rauraci
* Redones
* Regni
* Remi
* Salluvii
* Santones
* Sequani
* Senones
* Scordisci
* Scoti
* Silures
* Sordones
* Tectosages
* Teurisci
* Tolistobogii
* Treveri
* Trinovantes
* Triboci
* Tricasses
* Trocmi
* Tulingi
* Turoni
* Ulidia
* Varciani
* Varisci
* Viromandui
* Veneti
* Veliocasses
* Vennones
* Vindelici
* Vocontii
* Volcae

Modern Celtic ethnic groups|

* Bretons
* Cornish
* Welsh
* Gaels
* Irish
* Manx
* Scots

Celtic diaspora|

* Cornish diaspora
* Irish diaspora
* Scottish diaspora
* Welsh diaspora

Related ethnic groups|

* Anglo-Celtic
* Breton Americans
* Cornish Americans
* English people
* French people
* Irish Americans
* Irish Canadians
* Scotch-Irish Americans
* Scottish Americans
* Scottish Canadians
* Scots-Irish people
* Spanish people

Studies

Places|

* Alesia
* Avaricum
* Gergovia
* Hallstatt
* Hochdorf
* La Tène
* Vix Grave
* Gaelic Ireland
* Hill of Tara
* Newgrange
* Rathcroghan
* Dálriata
* Alba
* Fortriu
* Cumbria
* Brigantia
* Iron Age Britain
* Roman Britain
* Sub-Roman Britain
* Stonehenge
* Dumnonia
* Hen Ogledd
* Gaul
* Roman Gaul
* Britonia
* Armorica
* Domnonée
* Brittany
* Gallaecia
* Numantia
* Gallia Aquitania
* Gallia Belgica
* Gallia Celtica
* Cisalpine Gaul
* Transalpine Gaul
* Balkans
* Transylvania
* Galatia

Ancient religion|

* Proto-Celtic religion
* Celtic polytheism
* Celtic deities
* Celtic Animism
* Celtic mythology
* Celtic Christianity
* Celtic Rites
* Celtic stone idolss*
* Druids
* Monasticism
* Romano-Celtic temple
* Practices

Mythology|

* Irish
* Scottish
* Welsh
* British
* Breton
* Cornish

Society|

* Bard
* Brehon
* Celtic calendar
* Celtic festivals
* Celtic women
* Celticisation
* Chief of the Name
* Derbfine
* Druid
* Clan chief
* Irish Clans
* Scottish clans (List)
* Gaelicisation
* Gaelic astrology
* Fáinne
* Fili
* Law
* Tanistry
* Seanchaí
* Sept
* Túath
* Vates
* Warfare (Gaelic)
* Coinage

Modern Celts

* Celtic Revival
* Celtic nations
* Pan-Celticism
* Celtic Congress
* Celtic League
* Celtic union
* Music
* Rock
* Neo-Christianity
* Neopaganism
* Celtic Wicca
* Neo-Druidism

| Nations|

| Celtic League definition|

* Brittany (Breizh)
* Cornwall (Kernow)
* Ireland (Éire)
* Isle of Man (Mannin)
* Scotland (Alba)
* Wales (Cymru)

|

Other claimants|

* Asturias
* Cantabria
* Cumbria
* Devon
* Galicia
* Norte Portugal
* Nova Scotia
* Province of León
* Y Wladfa
* England

Culture

| Literature|

* Arthurian Legend
* Bardic Poetry
* Breton literature
* Cornish literature
* Irish literature
* Manx literature
* Scottish literature
* Welsh-language literature
* Welsh literature in English
* Early Irish literature
* Irish annals
* Gaelic literature
* Scottish Gaelic literature

|

National cultures|

* Brittany
* Cornwall
* Ireland
* Isle of Man
* Scotland
* Wales

Art|

* Bell shrines
* Brooches
* Dragonesque
* Carnyx
* Celtic cross
* Knotwork
* High crosses
* Insular art
* Interlace
* Leaf-crowns
* Mazes
* Pictish stones
* Torcs
* Triple spiral

Clothing|

* Celtic Dress
* Highland dress
* Gaelic clothing
* Tartan
* Traditional Welsh costume
* Welsh hat

Regional cultures|

* Gaelic culture
* Highland culture

Music|

* Ancient Celtic music
* Breton Folk music
* Gaelic music
* Irish folk music
* Scottish folk music
* Welsh folk music
* Sean-nós singing
* Carnyx

| National music scenes|

* Brittany
* Cornwall
* Ireland
* Isle of Man
* Scotland
* Wales

|

Festivals|

* Calendar
* Samhain/Calan Gaeaf
* Imbolc/Gŵyl Fair
* Beltane/Calan Mai
* Lughnasadh/Calan Awst
* Festival Interceltique de Lorient
* Pan Celtic Festival
* Hebridean Celtic Festival
* Celtic Connections
* Celtic Media Festival
* Eisteddfod

Sport|

* Bando
* Bataireacht
* Camogie
* Cammag
* Cnapan
* Cornish hurling
* Cornish wrestling
* Curling
* Gaelic football (Ladies')
* Gaelic handball
* Gouren
* Rounders
* Highland games
* Hurling
* Road bowls
* Shinty
* Welsh handball

Politics

Nationalism|

* Breton nationalism
* history
* reunification
* Cornish nationalism
* status
* Irish nationalism
* Isle of Man
* Constitutional status of Orkney, Shetland and the Western Isles
* Scottish nationalism
* national identity
* Welsh nationalism
* national identity

Autonomy|

* Cornish devolution
* Scottish devolution
* Welsh devolution

Independence|

* Breton independence
* Scottish independence
* Welsh independence
* United Ireland and Irish republicanism

Pan-Celticism|

* Celtic League
* Celtic Congress
* Celtic Revival
* Celtic society
* Celtic unity
* Columba Project

Languages

Brittonic|

* Breton
* Cornish
* Welsh

Goidelic|

* Irish
* Manx
* Scottish Gaelic

Mixed|

* Shelta
* Bungi Creole
* Beurla Reagaird

Ancient Celtic languages|

| Extinct|

* Proto-Celtic
* Proto-Brittonic
* Proto-Goidelic
* Celtiberian
* Gaulish
* Galatian
* Gallaecian
* Lepontic
* Noric
* Cumbric
* Pictish
* Hispano-Celtic
* Cisalpine Gaulish

|

Scottish Gaelic dialects|

* Arran Gaelic
* Deeside Gaelic
* Galwegian Gaelic

Law and Warfare

Law|

* Early Irish law
* Cyfraith Hywel (Medieval Welsh law)
* Early Scots law

Warfare|

* Gaelic warfare
* Ceathairne
* Ceithearn
* Fianna
* Gaesatae
* Gallóglaigh
* Hobelar
* Redshanks
* Trimarcisia

Lists

* Tribes
* Deities
* Celtic words in English
* – in Spanish
* – in Galician
* Gaulish words in French
* Celtic place names in Galicia
* – in Italy
* – in Portugal

* Celts portal

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