Gandhara

Ancient Indo-Aryan civilisation of Sapta Sindhu

For the historical kingdom proper, see Gandhāra (kingdom). For the kingdom in Epics, see Gandhara Kingdom. For other uses, see Gandhara (disambiguation).

Gandhāra

Gandhara

Gandhara

Location of Gandhara in South Asia (Afghanistan and Pakistan)

Peshawar

Taxila

Charsadda

Mardan

GANDHARA

Kabul
river

Indus
river

Indus
river

Approximate geographical region of Gandhara centered on the Peshawar Basin, in present-day northwest Pakistan
Capital| Puṣkalavati
Puruṣapura
Takshashila
Udabhandapura
Government|
Raja|

• c. 6th/5th cent. BCE

| Pushkarasarin

• c. 330 BCE

| Taxiles

• c. 321 BCE

| Chandragupta Maurya

• c. 46 CE

| Sases

• c. 127 CE

| Kanishka

• c. 514 CE

| Mihirakula

• 964 – 1001

| Jayapala
Historical era| Antiquity
Today part of| Pakistan
Afghanistan

Gandhara (IAST: Gandhāra) was an ancient Indo-Aryan[1] civilisation in present-day northwest Pakistan and northeast Afghanistan.[2][3][4] The core of the region of Gandhara was the Peshawar (Pushkalawati) and Swat valleys extending as far east as the Pothohar Plateau in Punjab, though the cultural influence of Greater Gandhara extended westwards into the Kabul valley in Afghanistan, and northwards up to the Karakoram range.[5][6] The region was a central location for the spread of Buddhism to Central Asia and East Asia with many Chinese Buddhist pilgrims visiting the region.[7]

Between the third century BCE and third century CE, Gāndhārī, a Middle Indo-Aryan language written in the Kharosthi script and linked with the modern Dardic language family,[8][9][10] acted as the lingua franca of the region and through Buddhism, the language spread as far as China based on Gandhāran Buddhist texts.[11] Famed for its unique Gandharan style of art, the region attained its height from the 1st century to the 5th century CE under the Kushan Empire which had their capital at Puruṣapura, ushering the period known as Pax Kushana.[12]

The history of Gandhara originates with the archaeological Gandhara grave culture, characterised by a distinctive burial practice, and Gandhara's mentions in the Vedic period literature. According to post-Vedic legends of the Mahabharata, Gandhara played a role in the Kurukshetra War. By the 6th century BCE Gandhara gained recognition as one of the sixteen Mahajanapadas within South Asia. King Pukkusāti governed the region either before or after its conquest in the late 6th century BCE by the Achaemenid Empire of Persia.[13][14] During its invasion by Alexander the Great in 327–326 BCE, the region was split into two factions with Taxiles, the king of Taxila, allying with Alexander,[15] while the Western Gandharan tribes, exemplified by the Aśvaka around the Swat valley, resisted.[16]

Following the disintegration of Alexander's Macedonian Empire, Gandhara became part of the Maurya Empire. The founder of the dynasty, Chandragupta Maurya, according to legends about his youth had received an education in Taxila under Chanakya and later assumed control with his support.[17][18] Subsequently, Gandhara was successively annexed by the Indo-Greeks, Indo-Scythians, and Indo-Parthians though a regional Gandharan kingdom, known as the Apracharajas, retained governance during this period until the ascent of the Kushan Empire. The zenith of Gandhara's cultural and political influence transpired during Kushan rule, before succumbing to devastation during the Hunnic Invasions.[19] However, the region experienced a resurgence under the Turk Shahis and Hindu Shahis.

## Etymology

[edit]

Gandhara was known in Sanskrit as Gandhāraḥ (गन्धारः) and in Avestan as 'Vaēkərəta. In Old Persian, Gandhara was known as Gadāra (𐎥𐎭𐎠𐎼, also transliterated as Gandāra since the nasal "n" before consonants were omitted in Old Persian).[20] In Chinese, Gandhara is known as Jiāntuóluó (traditional Chinese: 犍陀羅; simplified Chinese: 犍陀罗, also written 健馱邏; 健驮逻), with the Middle Chinese pronunciation reconstructed as kɨɐndala. One state of the region named Jìbīn (罽賓; 罽宾, also romanised as Kipin) is recorded in the Book of Han.

One proposed origin of the name is from the Sanskrit word gandhaḥ (गन्धः), meaning "perfume" and "referring to the spices and aromatic herbs which they (the inhabitants) traded and with which they anointed themselves".[21][22] The Gandhari people are a tribe mentioned in the Rigveda, the Atharvaveda, and later Vedic texts.[23] This origin is also supported by the word Gandhara meaning “fragrance bringer” in the Pashayi language. A Persian form of the name, Gandara, mentioned in the Behistun inscription of Emperor Darius I,[24][25] was translated as Paruparaesanna (Para-upari-sena, meaning "beyond the Hindu Kush") in Babylonian and Elamite in the same inscription.[26] In Greek, Gandhara was known as Paropamisadae.[27]

## Geography

[edit]

The geographical location of Gandhara has undergone much alteration throughout history, with the general understanding being the region situating between Pothohar in contemporary Punjab, the Swat valley, and the Khyber Pass also extending along the Kabul River.[28] The prominent urban centres within this geographical scope were Taxila and Pushkalavati.[29] According to a specific Jataka, Gandhara's territorial extent at a certain period encompassed the region of Kashmir.[30] The Eastern border of Gandhara has been proposed to be the Jhelum River based on arachaeological Gandharan art discoveries however further evidence is needed to support this,[31][32] though during the rule of Alexander the Great the kingdom of Taxila stretched to the Hydaspes (Jhelum river).[33]

The term Greater Gandhara describes the cultural and linguistic extent of Gandhara and its language, Gandhari.[34] In later historical contexts, Greater Gandhara encompassed the territories of Jibin and Oddiyana which had splintered from Gandhara proper and also extended into parts of Bactria and the Tarim Basin. Oddiyana was situated in the vicinity of the Swat valley, while Jibin corresponded to the region of Kapisa, south of the Hindu Kush. However during the 5th and 6th centuries CE, Jibin was often considered synonymous with Gandhara.[35]

The Udichya region was another region mentioned in ancient texts and is noted by Pāṇini as comprising both the regions of Vahika and Gandhara.[36]

## History

[edit]

### Gandhāra grave culture

[edit]

Main articles: Gandhara grave culture and Indo-Aryan migration

Cremation urn, Gandhara grave culture, Swat Valley, c. 1200 BCE

Gandhara's first recorded culture was the Grave Culture that emerged c. 1200 BCE and lasted until 800 BCE,[37] and named for their distinct funerary practices. It was found along the Middle Swat River course, even though earlier research considered it to be expanded to the Valleys of Dir, Kunar, Chitral, and Peshawar.[38] It has been regarded as a token of the Indo-Aryan migrations but has also been explained by local cultural continuity. Backwards projections, based on ancient DNA analyses, suggest ancestors of Swat culture people mixed with a population coming from Inner Asia Mountain Corridor, which carried Steppe ancestry, sometime between 1900 and 1500 BCE.[39]

### Vedic Gandhāra

[edit]

Main articles: Gandhāra (kingdom) and Gandhara Kingdom

Kingdoms and cities of ancient Buddhism, with Gandhara located in the northwest of this region, during the time of the Buddha (c. 500 BCE)

According to Rigvedic tradition, Yayati was the progenitor of the prominent Udichya (Gandhara and Vahika tribes) and had numerous sons, including Anu, Puru, and Druhyu. The lineage of Anu gave rise to the Madra, Kekaya, Sivi and Uśīnara kingdoms, while the Druhyu tribe has been associated with the Gandhara kingdom.[40]

The first mention of the Gandhārīs is attested once in the Ṛigveda as a tribe that has sheep with good wool. In the Atharvaveda, the Gandhārīs are mentioned alongside the Mūjavants, the Āṅgeyas and the Māgadhīs in a hymn asking fever to leave the body of the sick man and instead go those aforementioned tribes. The tribes listed were the furthermost border tribes known to those in Madhyadeśa, the Āṅgeyas and Māgadhīs in the east, and the Mūjavants and Gandhārīs in the north.[41][42] The Gandhara tribe, after which it is named, is attested in the Rigveda (c. 1500 – c. 1200 BCE),[43][44] while the region is mentioned in the Zoroastrian Avesta as Vaēkərəta, the seventh most beautiful place on earth created by Ahura Mazda.

The Gāndhārī king Nagnajit and his son Svarajit are mentioned in the Brāhmaṇas, according to which they received Brahmanic consecration, but their family's attitude towards ritual is mentioned negatively,[45] with the royal family of Gandhāra during this period following non-Brahmanical religious traditions. According to the Jain Uttarādhyayana-sūtra, Nagnajit, or Naggaji, was a prominent king who had adopted Jainism and was comparable to Dvimukha of Pāñcāla, Nimi of Videha, Karakaṇḍu of Kaliṅga, and Bhīma of Vidarbha; Buddhist sources instead claim that he had achieved paccekabuddhayāna.[46][47][48]

By the later Vedic period, the situation had changed, and the Gāndhārī capital of Takṣaśila had become an important centre of knowledge where the men of Madhya-desa went to learn the three Vedas and the eighteen branches of knowledge, with the Kauśītaki Brāhmaṇa recording that brāhmaṇas went north to study. According to the Śatapatha Brāhmaṇa and the Uddālaka Jātaka, the famous Vedic philosopher Uddālaka Āruṇi was among the famous students of Takṣaśila, and the Setaketu Jātaka claims that his son Śvetaketu also studied there. In the Chāndogya Upaniṣad, Uddālaka Āruṇi himself favourably referred to Gāndhārī education to the Vaideha king Janaka.[45] During the 6th century BCE, Gandhāra was an important imperial power in north-west Iron Age South Asia, with the valley of Kaśmīra being part of the kingdom.[46] Due to this important position, Buddhist texts listed the Gandhāra kingdom as one of the sixteen Mahājanapadas ("great realms") of Iron Age South Asia. It was the home of Gandhari, the princess and her brother Shakuni the king of Gandhara Kingdom.[49][50]

### Pukkusāti and Achaemenid Gandhāra

[edit]

Main article: Gandāra

See also: Achaemenid invasion of the Indus Valley

Xerxes I tomb, Gandāra soldier, c. 470 BCE

During the 6th or 5th century BCE, Gandhara was governed under the reign of King Pukkusāti. There are no historical facts known for certain about Pukkusāti, and all theories about his reign are speculative relying on later Buddhist sources.[51][52] It is debated whether he ruled before or after the Achaemenid conquest of the Indus Valley, and is unknown what kind of relationship he historically had with the Persian Achaemenid rulers.[14] According to Buddhist accounts written centuries later,[52] he had forged diplomatic ties with Magadha and achieved victories over neighbouring kingdoms such as that of the realm of Avanti.[53] Pukkusāti's kingdom was described as being 100 Yojanas in width, approximately 500 to 800 miles wide, with his capital at Taxila in modern day Punjab as stated in early Jatakas.[54]

It is noted by R. C. Majumdar that Pukkusāti would have been contemporary to the Achamenid king Cyrus the Great[55] and according to the scholar Buddha Prakash, Pukkusāti might have acted as a bulwark against the expansion of the Persian Achaemenid Empire into Gandhara. This hypothesis posits that the army which Nearchus claimed Cyrus had lost in Gedrosia had been defeated by Pukkusāti's Gāndhārī kingdom.[47] Therefore, following Prakash's position, the Achaemenids would have been able to conquer Gandhāra only after a period of decline after the reign of Pukkusāti, combined with the growth of Achaemenid power under the kings Cambyses II and Darius I.[47] However, the presence of Gandhāra among the list of Achaemenid provinces in Darius's Behistun Inscription confirms that his empire had inherited this region from Cyrus.[13] Assuming that Pukkusāti lived during the 6th century BCE, is unknown whether he remained in power after the Achaemenid conquest as a Persian vassal or if he was replaced by a Persian satrap, although Buddhist sources claim that he renounced his throne and became a monk after becoming a disciple of the Buddha.[56] The annexation under Cyrus was limited to the Western sphere of Gandhāra as only during the reign of Darius the Great did the region between the Indus River and the Jhelum River become annexed.[47]

However, with alternative chronologies which date the Buddha's lifetime (and his contemporary kings) as much as a century later, it is alternatively possible that Pukkusāti in fact lived as much as a century after the Achaemenid conquest. Among scholars who favour the latter chronology, it remains an open question for debate, what kind of relationship Pukkusāti historically had with the Persian Achaemenid rulers. Possible theories are: he "may belong to a period when the Achaemenids had already lost their hold over Indian provinces," or he may have been holding power in eastern parts of Gandhara such as Taxila (speculatively considered by some scholars to be outside the Achaemenid dominions), or may have been serving as a vassal of the Achaemenids but with autonomy to conduct warfare and diplomacy with independent Indian states, similar to the "active and often independent role the western satraps had in Greek politics". Thus it is considered that he may have been an important intermediary for cultural influence between Ancient Persia and India.[57]

Megasthenes Indica, states that the Achaemenids never conquered India and had only approached its borders after battling with the Massagetae, it further states that the Persians summoned mercenaries specifically from the Oxydrakai tribe, who were previously known to have resisted the incursions of Alexander the Great, but they never entered their armies into the region of Gandhara.[58]

Athens coin (c. 500/490–485 BCE) discovered in Pushkalavati. This coin is the earliest known example of its type to be found so far east.[59] Such coins were circulating in the area as currency, at least as far as the Indus, during the reign of the Achaemenids.[60][61][62][63]

During the reign of Xerxes I, Gandharan troops were noted by Herodotus to have taken part in the Second Persian invasion of Greece and were described as clothed similar to that of the Bactrians.[64] Herodotus states that during the battle they were led by the Achamenid general Artyphius.[65]

Under Persian rule, a system of centralised administration, with a bureaucratic system, was introduced into the Indus Valley for the first time. Provinces or "satrapy" were established with provincial capitals. The Gandhara satrapy, established 518 BCE with its capital at Pushkalavati (Charsadda).[66] It was also during the Achaemenid Empire rule of Gandhara that the Kharosthi script, the script of Gandhari prakrit, was born through the Aramaic alphabet.[67]

### Hellenistic era Gandhāra

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Main article: Paropamisadae

See also: Indian campaign of Alexander the Great, Hellenistic period, and Macedonian Empire

According to Arrian's Indica, the area corresponding to Gandhara situated between the Kabul River and the Indus River was inhabited by two tribes noted as the Assakenoi and Astakanoi whom he describes as 'Indian' and occupying the two great cities of Massaga located around the Swat valley and Pushkalavati in modern day Peshawar.[68]

The sovereign of Taxila, Omphis, formed an alliance with Alexander, motivated by a longstanding animosity towards Porus, who governed the region encompassed by the Chenab and Jhelum River.[69] Omphis, in a gesture of goodwill, presented Alexander the great with significant gifts, esteemed among the Indian populace, and subsequently accompanied him on the expedition crossing the Indus.[70]

In 327 BCE, Alexander the Great's military campaign progressed to Arigaum, situated in present-day Nawagai, marking the initial encounter with the Aspasians. Arrian documented their implementation of a scorched earth strategy, evidenced by the city ablaze upon Alexander's arrival, with its inhabitants already fleeing.[71] The Aspasians fiercely contested Alexander's forces, resulting in their eventual defeat. Subsequently, Alexander traversed the River Guraeus in the contemporary Dir District, engaging with the Asvakas, as chronicled in Sanskrit literature.[72] The primary stronghold among the Asvakas, Massaga, characterised as strongly fortified by Quintus Curtius Rufus, became a focal point.[73] Despite an initial standoff which led to Alexander being struck in the leg by an Asvaka arrow,[74] peace terms were negotiated between the Queen of Massaga and Alexander. However, when the defenders had vacated the fort, a fierce battle ensued when Alexander broke the treaty. According to Diodorus Siculus, the Asvakas, including women fighting alongside their husbands, valiantly resisted Alexander's army but were ultimately defeated.[75]

### Mauryan Gandhāra

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Major Rock Edict of Ashoka in Mansehra

During the Mauryan era, Gandhara held a pivotal position as a core territory within the empire, with Taxila serving as the provincial capital of the North West.[76] Chanakya, a prominent figure in the establishment of the Mauryan Empire, played a key role by adopting Chandragupta Maurya, the initial Mauryan emperor. Under Chanakya's tutelage, Chandragupta received a comprehensive education at Taxila, encompassing various arts of the time, including military training, for a duration spanning 7–8 years.[77]

Plutarch's accounts suggest that Alexander the Great encountered a young Chandragupta Maurya in the Punjab region, possibly during his time at the university.[78] Subsequent to Alexander's death, Chanakya and Chandragupta allied with Trigarta king Parvataka to conquer the Nanda Empire.[79] This alliance resulted in the formation of a composite army, comprising Gandharans and Kambojas, as documented in the Mudrarakshasa.[80]

Bindusaras reign witnessed a rebellion among the locals of Taxila to which according to the Ashokavadana, he dispatched Ashoka to quell the uprising. Upon entering the city, the populace conveyed that their rebellion was not against Ashoka or Bindusara but rather against oppressive ministers.[81] In Ashoka's subsequent tenure as emperor, he appointed his son as the new governor of Taxila.[82] During this time, Ashoka erected numerous rock edicts in the region in the Kharosthi script and commissioned the construction of a monumental stupa in Pushkalavati, Western Gandhara, the location of which remains undiscovered to date.[83]

According to the Taranatha, following the death of Ashoka, the northwestern region seceded from the Maurya Empire, and Virasena emerged as its king.[84] Noteworthy for his diplomatic endeavours, Virasena's successor, Subhagasena, maintained relations with the Seleucid Greeks. This engagement is corroborated by Polybius, who records an instance where Antiochus III the Great descended into India to renew his ties with King Subhagasena in 206 BCE, subsequently receiving a substantial gift of 150 elephants from the monarch.[85][86]

### Indo-Greek Kingdom

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The founder of the Indo-Greek Kingdom Demetrius I (205–171 BCE), wearing the scalp of an elephant, symbol of his conquest of the Indus valley

The Indo-Greek king Menander I (reigned 155–130 BCE) drove the Greco-Bactrians out of Gandhara and beyond the Hindu Kush, becoming king shortly after his victory.

His empire survived him in a fragmented manner until the last independent Greek king, Strato II, disappeared around 10 CE. Around 125 BCE, the Greco-Bactrian king Heliocles, son of Eucratides, fled from the Yuezhi invasion of Bactria and relocated to Gandhara, pushing the Indo-Greeks east of the Jhelum River. The last known Indo-Greek ruler was Theodamas, from the Bajaur area of Gandhara, mentioned on a 1st-century CE signet ring, bearing the Kharoṣṭhī inscription "Su Theodamasa" ("Su" was the Greek transliteration of the Kushan royal title "Shau" ("Shah" or "King")).

It is during this period that the fusion of Hellenistic and South Asian mythological, artistic and religious elements becomes most apparent, especially in the region of Gandhara.[citation needed]

Local Greek rulers still exercised a feeble and precarious power along the borderland, but the last vestige of the Greco-Indian rulers was finished by a people known to the old Chinese as the Yueh-Chi.[87]

### Apracharajas

[edit]

The Apracharajas were a historical dynasty situated in the region of Gandhara, extending from the governance of Menander II within the Indo-Greek Kingdom to the era of the early Kushans. Renowned for their significant support of Buddhism, this assertion is supported by swathes of discovered donations within their principal domain, between Taxila and Bajaur.[88] Archaeological evidence also establishes dynastic affiliations between them and the rulers of Oddiyana in modern-day Swat.[89]

Footprint of the Buddha. 1st century BCE, Gandhara.

The dynasty is argued to have been founded by Vijayakamitra, identified as a vassal to Menander II, according to the Shinkot casket. This epigraphic source further articulates that King Vijayamitra, a descendant of Vijayakamitra, approximately half a century subsequent to the initial inscription, is credited with its restoration following inflicted damage.[90] He is presumed to have gained the throne in c. 2 BCE after succeeding Visnuvarma, with a reign of three decades lasting til c. 32 CE [91] before being succeeded by his son Indravasu and then further by Indravasu's grandson Indravarma II in c. 50 CE.[92]

#### Indo-Scythian Kingdom

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One of the Buner reliefs showing Scythian soldiers dancing. Cleveland Museum of Art.

The Indo-Scythians were descended from the Sakas (Scythians) who migrated from Central Asia into South Asia from the middle of the 2nd century BCE to the 1st century BCE. They displaced the Indo-Greeks and ruled a kingdom that stretched from Gandhara to Mathura. The first Indo-Scythian king Maues established Saka hegemony by conquering Indo-Greek territories.[93]

Some Aprachas are documented on the Silver Reliquary discovered at Sirkap, near Taxila, designating the title "Stratega," denoting a position equivalent to Senapati, such as that of Indravarma who was a general during the reign of the Apracharaja Vijayamitra.[94] Indravarma is additionally noteworthy for receiving the above-mentioned Silver Reliquary from the Indo-Scythian monarch Kharahostes, which he subsequently re-dedicated as a Buddhist reliquary, indicating was a gift in exchange for tribute or assistance.[95] According to another reliquary inscription Indravarma is noted as the Lord of Gandhara and general during the reign of Vijayamitra.[96] According to Apracha chronology, Indravarma was the son of Visnuvarma, an Aprachraja preceding Vijayamitra.

Indravarmas son Aspavarma is situated between 20 and 50 CE, during which numismatic evidence overlaps him with the Indo-Scythian ruler Azes II and Gondophares of the Indo-Parthians whilst also describing him as 'Stratega' or general of the Aprachas.[97] In accordance with a Buddhist Avadana, Aspavarma and a Saka noble, Jhadamitra, engaged in discussions concerning the establishment of accommodation for monks during the rainy seasons, displaying that he was a patron of Buddhism.[98] A reliquary inscription dedicated to 50 CE, by a woman named Ariasrava, describes that her donation was made during the reign of Gondophares nephew, Abdagases I, and Aspavarma, describing the joint rule by the Aprachas and the Indo-parthians.[99]

#### Indo-Parthian Kingdom

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Ancient Buddhist monastery Takht-i-Bahi (a UNESCO World Heritage Site) constructed by the Indo-Parthians

The Indo-Parthian Kingdom was ruled by the Gondopharid dynasty, named after its first ruler Gondophares. For most of their history, the leading Gondopharid kings held Taxila (in the present Punjab province of Pakistan) as their residence, but during their last few years of existence, the capital shifted between Kabul and Peshawar. These kings have traditionally been referred to as Indo-Parthians, as their coinage was often inspired by the Arsacid dynasty, but they probably belonged to wider groups of Iranic tribes who lived east of Parthia proper, and there is no evidence that all the kings who assumed the title Gondophares, which means "Holder of Glory", were even related.

During the dominion of the Indo-Parthians, Apracharaja Sasan, as described on numismatic evidence identifying him as the nephew of Aspavarma, emerged as a figure of significance.[100] Aspavarman, a preceding Apracharaja contemporaneous with Gondophares, was succeeded by Sasan, after having ascended from a subordinate governance role to a recognised position as one of Gondophares's successors.[101] He assumed the position following Abdagases I.[102] The Kushan ruler Vima Takto is known through numismatic evidence to have overstruck the coins of Sasan, whilst a numismatic hoard had found coins of Sasan together with smaller coins of Kujula Kadphises[103] It has also been discovered that Sasan overstruck the coins of Nahapana of the Western Satraps, this line of coinage dating between 40 and 78 CE.[104]

It was noted by Philostratus and Apollonius of Tyana upon their visit with Phraotes in 46 AD, that during this time the Gandharans living between the Kabul River and Taxila had coinage of Orichalcum and Black brass, and their houses appearing as single-story structures from the outside, but upon entering, underground rooms were also present.[105] They describe Taxila as being the same size as Nineveh, being walled like a Greek city whilst also being shaped with Narrow roads,[106][107] and further describe Phraotes kingdom as containing the old territory of Porus.[108] Following an exchange with the king, Phraotes is reported to have subsidised both barbarians and neighbouring states, to avert incursions into his kingdom.[109] Phraotes also recounts that his father, being the son of a king, had become an orphan from a young age. In accordance with Indian customs, two of his relatives assumed responsibility for his upbringing until they were killed by rebellious nobles during a ritualistic ceremony along the Indus River.[110] This event led to the usurpation of the throne, compelling Phraotes' father to seek refuge with the king situated beyond the Hydaspes River, in modern-day Punjab, a ruler esteemed greater than Phraotes' father. Moreover, Phraotes states that his father received an education facilitated by the Brahmins upon request to the king and married the daughter of the Hydaspian king, whilst having one son who was Phraotes himself.[111] Phraotes proceeds to narrate the opportune moment he seized to reclaim his ancestral kingdom, sparked by a rebellion of the citizens of Taxila against the usurpers. With fervent support from the populace, Phraotes led a triumphant entry into the residence of the usurpers, whilst the citizens brandished torches, swords, and bows in a display of unified resistance.[112]

#### Tribes mentioned by Pliny

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During this period in the 1st century CE, Pliny the Elder notes a list of tribes in the Vahika and Gandhara regions spanning from the lower Indus to the mountain tribes near the Hindu Kush.

> After passing this island, the other side of the Indus is occupied, as we know by clear and undoubted proofs, by the Athoae, the Bolingae, the Gallitalutae, the Dimuri, the Megari, the Ardabae, the Mesae, and after them, the Uri and the Silae; beyond which last there are desert tracts, extending a distance of two hundred and fifty miles. After passing these nations, we come to the Organagae, the Abortae, the Bassuertae, and, after these last, deserts similar to those previously 'mentioned. We then come to the peoples of the Sorofages, the Arbae, the Marogomatrae, the Umbrittae, of whom there are twelve nations, each with two cities, and the Asini, a people who dwell in three cities, their capital being Bucephala, which was founded around the tomb of the horse belonging to king Alexander, which bore that name. Above these peoples there are some mountain tribes, which lie at the foot of Caucasus, the Soseadae and the Sondrae, and, after passing the Indus and going down its stream, the Samarabriae, the Sambraceni, the Bisambritae, the Orsi, the Anixeni, and the Taxilae, with a famous city, which lies on a low but level plain, the general name of the district being Amenda: there are four nations here, the Peucolaitae, the Arsagalitae, the Geretae, and the Assoi.

— Pliny the elder, Natural history

### Kushan Gandhāra

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Greco-Buddhist standing Buddha from Gandhara (1st–2nd century), Tokyo National Museum Casket of Kanishka the Great, with Buddhist motifs

The Kushans conquered Bactria after having been defeated by the Xiongnu and forced to retreat from the Central Asian steppes. The Yuezhi fragmented the region of Bactria into five distinct territories, with each tribe of the Yuezhi assuming dominion over a separate kingdom.[113] However, a century after this division, Kujula Kadphises of the Kushan tribe emerged victorious by destroying the other four Yuezhi tribes and consolidating his reign as king.[114] Kujula then invaded Parthia and annexed the upper reaches of the Kabul River before further conquering Jibin.[115] In 78 CE the Indo-Parthians seceded Gandhara to the Kushans with Kujula Kadphises son Vima Takto succeeding the Apracharaja Sases in Taxila and further conquering Tianzhu (India) before installing a general as a satrap.[116][117]

According to the Xiyu Zhuan, the inhabitants residing in the upper reaches of the Kabul River were extremely wealthy and excelled in commerce, with their cultural practices bearing resemblance to those observed in Tianzhu (India). However, the text also characterises them as weak and easily conquered with their political allegiance never being constant.[118] Over time, the region underwent successive annexations by Tianzhu, Jibin, and Parthia during periods of their respective strength, only to be lost when these powers experienced a decline.[119] The Xiyu Zhuan describes Tianzhu's customs as bearing similarities to that of the Yuezhi and the inhabitants riding on elephants in warfare.[120]

The Kushan period is considered the Golden Period of Gandhara. Peshawar Valley and Taxila are littered with ruins of stupas and monasteries of this period. Gandharan art flourished and produced some of the best pieces of sculpture from the Indian subcontinent. Gandhara's culture peaked during the reign of the great Kushan king Kanishka the Great (127 CE – 150 CE). The cities of Taxila (Takṣaśilā) at Sirsukh and Purushapura (modern-day Peshawar) reached new heights. Purushapura along with Mathura became the capital of the great empire stretching from Central Asia to Northern India with Gandhara being in the midst of it. Emperor Kanishka was a great patron of the Buddhist faith; Buddhism spread from India to Central Asia and the Far East across Bactria and Sogdia, where his empire met the Han Empire of China. Buddhist art spread from Gandhara to other parts of Asia. In Gandhara, Mahayana Buddhism flourished and Buddha was represented in human form. Under the Kushans new Buddhist stupas were built and old ones were enlarged. Huge statues of the Buddha were erected in monasteries and carved into the hillsides. Kanishka also built the 400-foot Kanishka stupa at Peshawar. This tower was reported by Chinese monks Faxian, Song Yun, and Xuanzang who visited the country. The stupa was built during the Kushan era to house Buddhist relics and was among the tallest buildings in the ancient world.[121][122][123]

* Head of a bodhisattva, c. 4th century CE

* The Buddha and Vajrapani under the guise of Herakles, c. 2nd–3rd century CE

### Kidarites

[edit]

The Kidarites conquered Peshawar and parts of the northwest Indian subcontinent including Gandhara probably sometime between 390 and 410 from Kushan empire,[124] around the end of the rule of Gupta Emperor Chandragupta II or beginning of the rule of Kumaragupta I.[125] It is probably the rise of the Hephthalites and the defeats against the Sasanians which pushed the Kidarites into northern India. Their last ruler in Gandhara was Kandik, c. 500 CE.

### Alchon Huns

[edit]

Around 430 King Khingila, the most notable Alchon ruler, emerged and took control of the routes across the Hindu Kush from the Kidarites.[126][127][128][129] Coins of the Alchons rulers Khingila and Mehama were found at the Buddhist monastery of Mes Aynak, southeast of Kabul, confirming the Alchon presence in this area around 450–500 CE.[130] The numismatic evidence as well as the so-called "Hephthalite bowl" from Gandhara, now in the British Museum, suggests a period of peaceful coexistence between the Kidarites and the Alchons, as it features two Kidarite noble hunters, together with two Alchon hunters and one of the Alchons inside a medallion.[131] At one point, the Kidarites withdrew from Gandhara, and the Alchons took over their mints from the time of Khingila.[131]

The silver bowl in the British Museum

Alchon horseman.[131]

The so-called "Hephthalite bowl" from Gandhara, features two Kidarite hunters wearing characteristic crowns, as well as two Alchon hunters (one of them shown here, with skull deformation), suggesting a period of peaceful coexistence between the two entities.[131] Swat District, Pakistan, 460–479 CE. British Museum.[132][133]

The Alchons undertook the mass destruction of Buddhist monasteries and stupas at Taxila, a high centre of learning, which never recovered from the destruction.[134][135] Virtually all of the Alchon coins found in the area of Taxila were found in the ruins of burned down monasteries, where some of the invaders died alongside local defenders during the wave of destructions.[134] It is thought that the Kanishka stupa, one of the most famous and tallest buildings in antiquity, was destroyed by them during their invasion of the area in the 460s CE. The Mankiala stupa was also vandalised during their invasions.[136]

Mihirakula in particular is remembered by Buddhist sources to have been a "terrible persecutor of their religion" in Gandhara.[137] During the reign of Mihirakula, over one thousand Buddhist monasteries throughout Gandhara are said to have been destroyed.[138] In particular, the writings of Chinese monk Xuanzang from 630 CE explained that Mihirakula ordered the destruction of Buddhism and the expulsion of monks.[139] The Buddhist art of Gandhara, in particular Greco-Buddhist art, became extinct around this period. When Xuanzang visited Gandhara in c. 630 CE, he reported that Buddhism had drastically declined in favour of Shaivism and that most of the monasteries were deserted and left in ruins.[140] It is also noted by Kalhana that Brahmins of Gandhara accepted from Mihirakula gifts of Agraharams.[141] Kalhana also noted in his Rajatarangini how Mihirakula oppressed local Brahmins of South Asia and imported Gandharan Brahmins into Kashmir and India and states that he had given thousands of villages to these Brahmins in Kashmir.[142][143]

### Turk and Hindu Shahis

[edit]

Horseman on a coin of Spalapati, i.e. the "War-lord" of the Shahis. The headgear has been interpreted as a turban.[144]

The Turk Shahis ruled Gandhara until 843 CE when they were overthrown by the Hindu Shahis. The Hindu Shahis are believed to belong to the Uḍi/Oḍi tribe, namely the people of Oddiyana in Gandhara.[145][146]

The history of the Hindu Shahis begins in 843 CE with Kallar deposing the last Turk Shahi ruler, Lagaturman. Samanta succeeded him, and it was during his reign that the region of Kabul was lost to the Persianate Saffarid empire.[147] Lalliya replaced Samanta soon after and re-conquered Kabul whilst also subduing the region of Zabulistan.[148][149] He is additionally noteworthy for coming into conflict with Samkaravarman of the Utpala dynasty, resulting in his victory and the latter's death in Hazara and was the first Shahi noted by Kalhana. He is depicted as a great ruler with strength to the standard where kings of other regions would seek shelter in his capital of Udabhanda, a change from the previous capital of Kabul.[150][151] Bhimadeva, the next most notable ruler, is most significant for vanquishing the Samanid Empire in Ghazni and Kabul in response to their conquests,[152] his grand-daughter Didda was also the last ruler of the Lohara dynasty. Jayapala then gained control and was brought into conflict with the newly formed Ghaznavid Empire, however, he was eventually defeated. During his rule and that of his son and successor, Anandapala, the kingdom of Lahore was conquered. The following Shahi rulers all resisted the Ghaznavids but were ultimately unsuccessful, resulting in the downfall of the empire in 1026 CE.

### Rediscovery

[edit]

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|

Many stupas, such as the Shingerdar stupa in Ghalegay, are scattered throughout the region near Peshawar.

By the time Gandhara had been absorbed into the empire of Mahmud of Ghazni, Buddhist buildings were already in ruins and Gandhara's art had been forgotten. After Al-Biruni, the Kashmiri writer Kalhaṇa wrote his book Rajatarangini in 1151. He recorded some events that took place in Gandhara and provided details about its last royal dynasty and capital Udabhandapura.

In the 19th century, British soldiers and administrators started taking an interest in the ancient history of the Indian Subcontinent. In the 1830s coins of the post-Ashoka period were discovered, and in the same period, Chinese travelogues were translated. Charles Masson, James Prinsep, and Alexander Cunningham deciphered the Kharosthi script in 1838. Chinese records provided locations and site plans for Buddhist shrines. Along with the discovery of coins, these records provided clues necessary to piece together the history of Gandhara. In 1848 Cunningham found Gandhara sculptures north of Peshawar. He also identified the site of Taxila in the 1860s. From then on a large number of Buddhist statues were discovered in the Peshawar valley.

Archaeologist John Marshall excavated at Taxila between 1912 and 1934. He discovered separate Greek, Parthian, and Kushan cities and a large number of stupas and monasteries. These discoveries helped to piece together much more of the chronology of the history of Gandhara and its art.

After 1947 Ahmed Hassan Dani and the Archaeology Department at the University of Peshawar made several discoveries in the Peshawar and Swat Valley. Excavation of many of the sites of the Gandhara Civilization is being done by researchers from Peshawar and several universities around the world.

## Culture

[edit]

### Language

[edit]

Main article: Gandhari language

Gandhara's language was a Prakrit or "Middle Indo-Aryan" dialect, usually called Gāndhārī.[153] Under the Kushan Empire, Gāndhārī spread into adjoining regions of South and Central Asia.[153] It used the Kharosthi script, which is derived from the Aramaic script, and it died out about in the 4th century CE.[153][154]

Linguistic evidence links some groups of the Dardic languages with Gandhari.[155][156][157] The Kohistani languages, now all being displaced from their original homelands, were once more widespread in the region and most likely descend from the ancient dialects of the region of Gandhara.[158][159] The last to disappear was Tirahi, still spoken some years ago in a few villages in the vicinity of Jalalabad in eastern Afghanistan, by descendants of migrants expelled from Tirah by the Afridi Pashtuns in the 19th century.[160] Georg Morgenstierne claimed that Tirahi is "probably the remnant of a dialect group extending from Tirah through the Peshawar district into Swat and Dir".[161] Nowadays, it must be entirely extinct and the region is now dominated by Iranian languages brought in by later immigrations, such as Pashto.[160] Among the modern day Indo-Aryan languages still spoken today, Torwali shows the closest linguistic affinity possible to Niya, a dialect of Gāndhārī.[159][162]

### Religion

[edit]

Further information: Silk Road transmission of Buddhism and Gandharan Buddhism

Maitreya Bodhisattva, Gautama Buddha, and Avalokiteśvara Bodhisattva. 2nd–3rd century CE, Gandhāra. Bronze statue of Avalokiteśvara Bodhisattva. Fearlessness mudrā. 3rd century CE, Gandhāra.

#### Mahāyāna Buddhism

[edit]

As per Pali sources, Buddhism first reached Gandhara following the Third Buddhist council which was held in Pataliputra during the reign of Ashoka in the third-century BCE.[163] Various monks were dispatched to different parts of the empire and the missionary dispatched to Gandhara specifically was Majjhantika who originated from the city of Varanasi in India.[164]

Mahāyāna Pure Land sutras were brought from the Gandhāra region to China as early as 147 CE, when the Kushan monk Lokakṣema began translating some of the first Buddhist sutras into Chinese.[165] The earliest of these translations show evidence of having been translated from the Gāndhārī language.[166] Lokakṣema translated important Mahāyāna sūtras such as the Aṣṭasāhasrikā Prajñāpāramitā Sūtra, as well as rare, early Mahāyāna sūtras on topics such as samādhi, and meditation on the Buddha Akṣobhya. Lokaksema's translations continue to provide insight into the early period of Mahāyāna Buddhism. This corpus of texts often includes and emphasises ascetic practices forest dwelling, and absorption in states of meditative concentration:[167]

> Paul Harrison has worked on some of the texts that are arguably the earliest versions we have of the Mahāyāna sūtras, those translated into Chinese in the last half of the second century AD by the Indo-Scythian translator Lokakṣema. Harrison points to the enthusiasm in the Lokakṣema sūtra corpus for the extra ascetic practices, for dwelling in the forest, and above all for states of meditative absorption (samādhi). Meditation and meditative states seem to have occupied a central place in early Mahāyāna, certainly because of their spiritual efficacy but also because they may have given access to fresh revelations and inspiration.

Some scholars believe that the Mahāyāna Longer Sukhāvatīvyūha Sūtra was compiled in the age of the Kushan Empire in the 1st and 2nd centuries CE, by order of Mahīśāsaka bhikṣus which flourished in the Gandhāra region.[168][169] However, it is likely that the longer Sukhāvatīvyūha owes greatly to the Mahāsāṃghika-Lokottaravāda sect as well for its compilation, and in this sutra, there are many elements in common with the Lokottaravādin Mahāvastu.[168] There are also images of Amitābha Buddha with the bodhisattvas Avalokiteśvara and Mahāsthāmaprāpta which were made in Gandhāra during the Kushan era.[170]

The Mañjuśrīmūlakalpa records that Kaniṣka of the Kushan Empire presided over the establishment of the Mahāyāna Prajñāpāramitā teachings in the northwest.[171] Tāranātha wrote that in this region, 500 bodhisattvas attended the council at Jālandhra monastery during the time of Kaniṣka, suggesting some institutional strength for Mahāyāna in the north-west during this period.[171] Edward Conze goes further to say that Prajñāpāramitā had great success in the north-west during the Kushan period, and may have been the "fortress and hearth" of early Mahāyāna, but not its origin, which he associates with the Mahāsāṃghika branch of Buddhism.[172]

#### Other religions

[edit]

Zoroastrianism also was present in Gandhara since the Persian conquest,[164] likely continuing to the reign of Ashoka and subsequently: some scholars have speculated that its presence may have influenced the development of unique aspects of Mahayana Buddhism in Gandhara.[173]

Gandhara, especially Taxila, during Kushan times also played an influential role in the development of arts and culture of the Hindu synthesis,[174] as the region's artistic traditions were influential to some of the early depictions of deities in Hindu art.[175][176]

### Art

[edit]

See also: Greco-Buddhist art, Kushan art, Indo-Greek art, and Indo-Scythian art

Lid with seated male figure, Gandhara. (1st–2nd century)

Gandhāra is noted for the distinctive Gandhāra style of Buddhist art, which shows the influence of Hellenistic and local Indian influences from the Gangetic Valley.[177] The Gandhāran art flourished and achieved its peak during the Kushan period, from the 1st to the 5th centuries, but it declined and was destroyed after the invasion of the Alchon Huns in the 5th century.

Siddhārtha shown as a bejewelled prince (before Siddhārtha renounces palace life) is a common motif.[178] Stucco, as well as stone, were widely used by sculptors in Gandhara for the decoration of monastic and cult buildings.[178][179] Buddhist imagery combined with some artistic elements from the cultures of the Hellenistic world. An example is the youthful Buddha, his hair in wavy curls, similar to statutes of Apollo.[178] Sacred artworks and architectural decorations used limestone for stucco composed by a mixture of local crushed rocks (i.e. schist and granite) which resulted compatible with the outcrops located in the mountains northwest of Islamabad.[180]

The artistic traditions of Gandhara art can be divided into the following phases:

* Indo-Greek art; 2nd century BCE to 1st century CE
* Indo-Scythian art; 1st century BCE to 1st century CE
* Kushan art; 1st century CE to 4th century CE

* Standing Bodhisattva (1st–2nd century)

* Buddha head (2nd century)

* Buddha head (4th–6th century)

* Buddha in acanthus capital

* The Greek god Atlas, supporting a Buddhist monument, Hadda

* The Bodhisattva Maitreya (2nd century)

* Wine-drinking and music, Hadda (1st–2nd century)

* Maya's white elephant dream (2nd–3rd century)

* The birth of Siddhārtha (2nd–3rd century)

* The Great Departure from the Palace (2nd–3rd century)

* The end of asceticism (2nd–3rd century)

* The Buddha preaching at the Deer Park in Sarnath (2nd–3rd century)

* Scene of the life of the Buddha (2nd–3rd century)

* The death of the Buddha, or parinirvana (2nd–3rd century)

* A sculpture from Hadda, (3rd century)

* The Bodhisattva and Chandeka, Hadda (5th century)

* Hellenistic decorative scrolls from Hadda, Afghanistan

* Hellenistic scene, Gandhara (1st century)

* A stone plate (1st century)

* "Laughing boy" from Hadda

* Bodhisattva seated in meditation

* Marine deities, Gandhara

* The Seated Buddha, dating from 300 to 500 CE, was found near Jamal Garhi, and is now on display at the Asian Art Museum in San Francisco.

* Sharing of the Buddha's relics, above a Gandhara fortified city

## Major cities

[edit]

Major cities of ancient Gandhara are as follows:

* Puṣkalavati (Charsadda), Pakistan
* Takshashila (Taxila), Pakistan
* Puruṣapura (Peshawer), Pakistan
* Sagala (Sialkot), Pakistan
* Oddiyana (Swat), Pakistan
* Jibin, Pakistan appears in the Chinese sources
* Chukhsa (Chhachh), Pakistan
* Attock Khurd (Attock), Pakistan
* Hund (Swabi), Pakistan
* Bajaur, capital of (Apraca), Pakistan
* Aornos, somewhere in Hazara, Pakistan

## Notable people

[edit]

Main article: list of people from Gandhara

## In popular culture

[edit]

* Gandhara:Buddha no Seisen is an action RPG released in Japan in 1987.[181]
* "Gandhara" is a 1978 song by Japanese rock band Godiego, serving as their 7th single.
* Gandhara is a fictional Buddhist pacifist organisation in the Japanese manga series Shaman King.

## See also

[edit]

* History of Pakistan
* History of Punjab
* Apracharajas
* History of Afghanistan

## References

[edit]

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50. ^ Khoinaijam Rita Devi (1 January 2007). History of ancient India: on the basis of Buddhist literature. Akansha Publishing House. ISBN 978-81-8370-086-3.
51. ^ Chattopadhyaya, Sudhakar (1974). The Achaemenids And India. pp. 22–23.
52. ^ a b Lamotte, Etienne (1988). History of Indian Buddhism: From the Origins to the Saka Era. Institut Orientaliste, Louvain-La-Neuve. p. 101\. "Pukkusāti, whose history we learn from a late and partly apocryphal tradition"
53. ^ Chattopadhyaya, Sudhakar (1974). The Achaemenids And India. p. 22\. "According to the Buddhist account Pukkusati, king of Taksasila, sent an embassy and a letter to king Bimbisara of Magadha and he also defeated Pradyota, king of Avanti."
54. ^ "Part 2 - Story of King Pukkusāti". 11 September 2019. "This man of good family read the message sent by his friend King Bimbisāra and after completely renouncing his one hundred yojana-wide domain of Takkasīla, he became a monk out of reverence for Me."
55. ^ Chattopadhyaya, Sudhakar (1974). The Achaemenids And India. p. 22\. "Bimbisara and his son Ajatasatru, he did not probably come to the throne before 540 or 530 bc, and Pukkusati also may be regarded as ruling in Gandhara about that time. He would be thus a contemporary of Cyrus who established his power and authority in 549 bc"
56. ^ "Pukkusāti". www.palikanon.com. Retrieved 26 July 2020.
57. ^ "VIEWER XDOCS". xdocs.net. pp. 61–62. Retrieved 25 April 2025.
58. ^ Mccrindle, J. W. Ancient India As Described By Megasthenes And Arrian by Mccrindle, J. W. p. 109\. "The Persians indeed summoned the Hydrakai from India to serve as mercenaries, but they did not lead an army into the country and only approached its borders when Kyros marched against the Massagatai."
59. ^ O. Bopearachchi, "Premières frappes locales de l'Inde du Nord-Ouest: nouvelles données", in Trésors d'Orient: Mélanges offerts à Rika Gyselen, Fig. 1 CNG Coins
60. ^ Bopearachchi, Osmund. Coin Production and Circulation in Central Asia and North-West India (Before and after Alexander's Conquest). pp. 300–301.
61. ^ "US Department of Defense". Archived from the original on 10 June 2020. Retrieved 7 October 2018.
62. ^ Errington, Elizabeth; Trust, Ancient India and Iran; Museum, Fitzwilliam (1992). The Crossroads of Asia: transformation in image and symbol in the art of ancient Afghanistan and Pakistan. Ancient India and Iran Trust. pp. 57–59\. ISBN 9780951839911.
63. ^ Bopearachchi, Osmund. Coin Production and Circulation in Central Asia and North-West India (Before and after Alexander's Conquest). pp. 308–.
64. ^ "LacusCurtius • Herodotus — Book VII: Chapters 57‑137". penelope.uchicago.edu. Retrieved 27 January 2024. "The Parthians, Chorasmians, Sogdians, Gandarians, and Dadicae in the army had the same equipment as the Bactrians."
65. ^ "LacusCurtius • Herodotus — Book VII: Chapters 57‑137". penelope.uchicago.edu. Retrieved 27 January 2024. "The Parthians and Chorasmians had for their commander Artabazus son of Pharnaces, the Sogdians Azanes son of Artaeus, the Gandarians and Dadicae Artyphius son of Artabanus."
66. ^ Rafi U. Samad, The Grandeur of Gandhara: The Ancient Buddhist Civilization of the Swat, Peshawar, Kabul and Indus Valleys. Algora Publishing, 2011, p. 32 ISBN 0875868592
67. ^ Konow, Sien (1929). Kharoshthi Inscriptions Except Those Of Asoka Vol.ii Part I (1929). p. 18\. "Buhler had shown that the KharoshthI characters are derived from Aramaic, which Origin of was in common use for official purposes all over the Achaemenian empire during the KharoshthI period when it comprised north-western India... And Buhler is right in assuming that KharoshthI is ' the result of the intercourse between the offices of the Satraps and of the native authorities"
68. ^ Mccrindle, J. W. Ancient India As Described By Megasthenes And Arrian by Mccrindle, J. W. pp. 179–180\. "The regions beyond the, river Indus on the west are inhabited, up to the river Kophen, by two Indian tribes, the Astakenoi and the Assakenoi...In the dominions of the Assakanoi there is a great city called Massaka, the seat of the sovereign power which controls the whole realm. And there is an other city, Peukalaitis, which is also of great size and not far from the Indus."
69. ^ "alexander and his successors in central asia" (PDF). p. 72\. "The ruler of Taxila wanted to satisfy his own grudge against Porus"
70. ^ "alexander and his successors in central asia" (PDF). p. 72\. "Taxiles and the others came to meet him, bringing gifts reckoned of value among the Indians. They presented him with the twenty-five elephants....and when they reached the Indus, they were to make all necessary preparations for the passage of the army. Taxiles and the other chiefs marched with them."
71. ^ "alexander and his successors in central asia" (PDF). p. 73\. "Then crossing the mountains Alexander descended to a city called Arigaeum [identified with Nawagai], and found that this had been set on fire by the inhabitants, who had afterwards fled."
72. ^ "alexander and his successors in central asia" (PDF). p. 74\. "Alexander then crossed the River Guraeus (the Panchkora, in Dir District). Beyond the Karmani pass lies the Talash valley. The Assacenians, identified with the Asvakas of Sanskrit literature, tried to defend themselves."
73. ^ "alexander and his successors in central asia" (PDF). pp. 74–75.
74. ^ "alexander and his successors in central asia" (PDF). p. Alexander while reconnoitring the fortifications, and unable to fix on a plan of attack, since nothing less than a vast mole, necessary for bringing up his engines to the walls, would suffice to fill up the chasms, was wounded from the ramparts by an arrow which chanced to hit him in the calf of the leg.
75. ^ "alexander and his successors in central asia" (PDF). p. 75\. "When many were thus wounded and not a few killed, the women, taking the arms of the fallen, fought side by side with the men for the imminence of the danger and the great interests at stake forced them to do violence to their nature, and to take an active part in the defence."
76. ^ Tarn, William Woodthorpe (24 June 2010). The Greeks in Bactria and India. Cambridge University Press. p. 152\. ISBN 978-1-108-00941-6. "The Mauryan empire proper, north of the line of the Nerbudda and the Vindhya mountains, had pivoted upon three great cities: pataliputra the capital and the seat of the emperor, Taxila the seat of the viceroy of the North West..."
77. ^ Sastri, K. a Nilakanta (1957). Comprehensive History Of India Vol.2 (mauryas And Satavahanas). p. 2\. "he bought the boy by paying on the spot 1000 kdrshapanas. Kautilya(Chanakya) then took the boy with him to his native city of Takshasila (Taxila), then the most renowned seat of learning in India, and had him educated there for a period of seven or eight years in the humanities and the practical arts and crafts of the time, including the military arts."
78. ^ Sastri, K. a Nilakanta (1957). Comprehensive History Of India Vol.2 (mauryas And Satavahanas). p. 2\. "This tradition is curiously confirmed by Plutarch's statement that Chandragupta as a youth had met Alexander during his campaigns in the Panjab. This was possible because Chandragupta was already living in that locality with Kautilya (Chanakya)."
79. ^ Sastri, K. a Nilakanta (1957). Comprehensive History Of India Vol.2 (mauryas And Satavahanas). p. 3\. "According to tradition he began by strengthening his position by an alliance with the Himalayan chief Parvataka, as stated in both the Sanskrit and Jaina texts, Mudradkshasa and Parisishtaparvan."
80. ^ Sastri, K. a Nilakanta (1957). Comprehensive History Of India Vol.2 (mauryas And Satavahanas). p. 4\. "The army of Malayaketu (Parvataka) comprised recruits from the following peoples : Khasa, Magadha, Gandhara, Yavana, Saka, Chedi and Huna."
81. ^ Lahiri, Nayanjot (5 August 2015). Ashoka in Ancient India. Harvard University Press. p. 67\. ISBN 978-0-674-91525-1. "Ashoka arrived in Taxila at the head of an armed contingent, the swords remained in their scabbards: the citizenry, instead of offering resistance came out of their city and on its roads to welcome him, saying 'we did not want to rebel against the prince.. nor even against King Bundusara; but evil ministers came and oppressed us'"
82. ^ Sastri, K. a Nilakanta (1957). Comprehensive History Of India Vol.2 (mauryas And Satavahanas). p. 22\. "In the Gupta epoch, again, some of the provinces were administered by princes of the royal blood designated kumaras. The same was the case in the time of Asoka. Three instances of such Kumara governorship are known from his edicts. Thus one kumara was stationed at Takshasila to govern the frontier province of Gandhara.."
83. ^ Cunningham, Alexander (6 December 2022). Archeological Survey of India: Vol. II. BoD – Books on Demand. p. 90\. ISBN 978-3-368-13568-3. "...3/4 of a mile to the north of this place there was a great stupa built by Ashoka"
84. ^ Prakesh, Buddha. "Studies In Indian History And Civilization" (PDF). p. 157\. "Subhagasena seems to be the successor of Virasena, who came to the throne after Ashoka, according to Taranatha. It appears that after the secession of the north-western half of India from the Maurya empire after the death of Ashoka, Virasena entrenched his hold over it while the other eastern and southern half of the country passed under the domination of Samprati."
85. ^ Prakesh, Buddha. "Studies In Indian History And Civilization" (PDF). p. 155\. "Polybius states: "He (Antiochus the Great) crossed the Caucasus and descended into India, renewed his friendship with Sophogsenus the king of the Indians; received more elephants, until he had 150 altogether"
86. ^ Rapson, Edward James; Haig, Sir Wolseley; Burn, Sir Richard; Dodwell, Henry; Wheeler, Sir Robert Eric Mortimer (1968). The Cambridge History of India. CUP Archive. p. 512\. "..with whom Antiochus the Great renewed an ancestral relationship in 206 BCE"
87. ^ (Imperial Gazetteer, p. 149)
88. ^ Neelis, Jason (19 November 2010). Early Buddhist Transmission and Trade Networks: Mobility and Exchange Within and Beyond the Northwestern Borderlands of South Asia. BRILL. p. 118\. ISBN 978-90-04-18159-5. "The domain of the Apracas was probably centred in Bajaur and extended to Swat, Gandhara, Taxila and other parts of Eastern Afghanistan"
89. ^ Neelis, Jason (19 November 2010). Early Buddhist Transmission and Trade Networks: Mobility and Exchange Within and Beyond the Northwestern Borderlands of South Asia. BRILL. p. 119\. ISBN 978-90-04-18159-5. "The apracas were also connected by marital alliance with the Odi kings in the Swat valley since a royal relative and officer named Suhasoma in a Buddhist reliquary inscription of Senavarman was married to Vasavadatta."
90. ^ Kubica, Olga (14 April 2023). Greco-Buddhist Relations in the Hellenistic Far East: Sources and Contexts. Taylor & Francis. pp. 134–135\. ISBN 978-1-000-86852-4.
91. ^ "Buddhism and Society in the Indic North and Northwest, 2nd Century BCE–3rd Century CE" (PDF). p. 207\. "The first was dedicated by Prahodi, the woman of the inner court of Vijayamitra, and is dated 32 Vijayamitra (30/31 CE)...This year represents in all likelihood one of Vijayamitra's last as ruler, for the throne would subsequently be given to his son Indravasu.."
92. ^ "Buddhism and Society in the Indic North and Northwest, 2nd Century BCE–3rd Century CE" (PDF). p. 220\. "More likely is that Indravasu governed until c. 50 CE, whereafter he was succeeded by his grandson Indravarma II"
93. ^ The Grandeur of Gandhara, Rafi-us Samad, Algora Publishing, 2011, p.64-67 [1]
94. ^ Neelis, Jason (19 November 2010). Early Buddhist Transmission and Trade Networks: Mobility and Exchange Within and Beyond the Northwestern Borderlands of South Asia. BRILL. pp. 118–119\. ISBN 978-90-04-18159-5. "Another important member of the Apraca lineage was the general (stratega) Aspavarman"
95. ^ Neelis, Jason (19 November 2010). Early Buddhist Transmission and Trade Networks: Mobility and Exchange Within and Beyond the Northwestern Borderlands of South Asia. BRILL. p. 119\. ISBN 978-90-04-18159-5. "A silver drinking vessel with an animal style ibex figure formerly belonging to the "Yagu king" Kharaosta that was rededicated as a Buddhist reliquary by Indravarman may indicate this object was given to the apracas as a gift in exchange for some form of tribute or assistance"
96. ^ "Buddhism and Society in the Indic North and Northwest, 2nd Century BCE–3rd Century CE" (PDF). pp. 204–205\. "the Lord Vijayamitra Apracarāja, and Indravarma the General, Ruler of Gandhāra, are worshipped"
97. ^ Neelis, Jason (19 November 2010). Early Buddhist Transmission and Trade Networks: Mobility and Exchange Within and Beyond the Northwestern Borderlands of South Asia. BRILL. p. 119\. ISBN 978-90-04-18159-5. "Since Aspavarman's coins overlap with late or post-humous issues of Azes II and the Indo-parthian ruler Gondophares, he probably flourished from ca. 20-50 CE."
98. ^ Khettry, Sarita (2014). "Social Background of Buddhism in Gandhara(c.2 Nd Century Bce to the Middle of the 4th Century Ce)". Proceedings of the Indian History Congress. 75: 44. ISSN 2249-1937. JSTOR 44158359. "The name of Aspavarma occurs four times in the eighth avadana of the above mentioned Buddhist manuscripts. The story in the avadana text involves some interaction between Aspavarman and Jhadamitra (a Saka noble) with regard to the provision of a place for the monks to stay during the rainy season. This shows that the Aspavarman was a patron of the Buddhist Samgha."
99. ^ "Buddhism and Society in the Indic North and Northwest, 2nd Century BCE–3rd Century CE" (PDF). p. 163\. "the Reliquary Inscription of Ariaśrava et al (No. 31), dated 98 Azes (50/51 CE), whose donor, Ariaśrava, stipulates her relic dedication was made in the reign of Gondopahres' nephew Abdagases and the General Aśpavarma, son of Indravarma I:"
100. ^ Sastri, K. a Nilakanta (1957). Comprehensive History Of India Vol.2 (mauryas And Satavahanas). p. 215\. "The interesting additional information we get from these coins is that Sasan, a former associate of Gondophares and afterwards one of his successors in the Taxila region, was the son of Aspa's brother"
101. ^ Sastri, K. a Nilakanta (1957). Comprehensive History Of India Vol.2 (mauryas And Satavahanas). p. 215\. "The coins further show that Sasan, who was at first a subordinate ruler under Gondophares, subsequently assumed independent or quasi-independent status."
102. ^ Srinivasan, Doris (30 April 2007). On the Cusp of an Era: Art in the Pre-Kuṣāṇa World. BRILL. p. 106\. ISBN 978-90-474-2049-1. "In the Indus valley Gondophares was succeeded by his nephew Abdagases and then by Sases."
103. ^ Srinivasan, Doris (30 April 2007). On the Cusp of an Era: Art in the Pre-Kuṣāṇa World. BRILL. p. 115\. ISBN 978-90-474-2049-1.
104. ^ Rienjang, Wannaporn; Stewart, Peter (14 March 2018). Problems of Chronology in Gandhāran Art: Proceedings of the First International Workshop of the Gandhāra Connections Project, University of Oxford, 23rd-24th March, 2017. Archaeopress. pp. 16–17\. ISBN 978-1-78491-855-2.
105. ^ Srinivasan, Doris (30 April 2007). On the Cusp of an Era: Art in the Pre-Kuṣāṇa World. BRILL. p. 107\. ISBN 978-90-474-2049-1. "Philostratus comments that the people who live between the River Kophen and Taxila have a coinage not of gold and silver but of Orichalcum and black brass. He describes the houses as designed so that if you look at them from the outside, they appear to have only one storey, but if you go inside they have underground rooms as well."
106. ^ De Beauvoir Priaulx, Osmond (1860). "The Indian Travels of Apollonius of Tyana". Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland. 17: 76. ISSN 0035-869X. JSTOR 25581224. "Taxila was about the size of Ninovoh, walled like a Greek city"
107. ^ De Beauvoir Priaulx, Osmond (1860). "The Indian Travels of Apollonius of Tyana". Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland. 17: 77. ISSN 0035-869X. JSTOR 25581224. "They are taken to the palace. They found the city divided by narrow streets, well-arranged, and reminding them of Athens."
108. ^ De Beauvoir Priaulx, Osmond (1860). "The Indian Travels of Apollonius of Tyana". Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland. 17: 76. ISSN 0035-869X. JSTOR 25581224. "and was the residence of a sovereign who ruled over what of old was the kingdom of Porus."
109. ^ De Beauvoir Priaulx, Osmond (1860). "The Indian Travels of Apollonius of Tyana". Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland. 17: 78. ISSN 0035-869X. JSTOR 25581224. "Phraotes, in answer, said that he was moderate because his wants were few, and that as he was wealthy, he employed his wealth in doing good to his friends, and in subsidizing the barbarians, his neighbours, to prevent them from themselves ravaging, or allowing other barbarians to ravage his territories."
110. ^ De Beauvoir Priaulx, Osmond (1860). "The Indian Travels of Apollonius of Tyana". Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland. 17: 81. ISSN 0035-869X. JSTOR 25581224. "The king then told how his father, the son of a king, had been left very young an orphan; and how during his minority two of his relatives according to Indian custom acted as regents, but with so little regard to law, that some nobles conspired against them, and slow them as they were sacrificing to the Indus, and seized upon the government"
111. ^ De Beauvoir Priaulx, Osmond (1860). "The Indian Travels of Apollonius of Tyana". Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland. 17: 81. ISSN 0035-869X. JSTOR 25581224. "How on this his father, then sixteen years of age, fled to the king beyond the Hydaspes, a greater king than himself, who received him kindly... he requested to be sent to the Brahmans; and how the Brahmans educated him; and how in time he married the daughter of the Hydaspian king, and received with her seven villages as pin-money, and had issue one son, himself, Phraotes."
112. ^ De Beauvoir Priaulx, Osmond (1860). "The Indian Travels of Apollonius of Tyana". Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland. 17: 81. ISSN 0035-869X. JSTOR 25581224. "When I crossed the Hydraotis, I heard that, of the usurpers, one was already dead, and the other besieged in this very palace; so I hurried on, proclaiming to the villages I passed through who I was, and what were my rights : and the people received me gladly, and declaring I was the very picture of my father and grandfather, they accompanied me, many of them armed with swords and bows, and our numbers increased daily; and when we reached this city, the inhabitants, with torches lit at the altar of the Sun, and singing the praises of my father and grandfather, came out and welcomed me, and brought me hither."
113. ^ 余太山著 (1 July 2021). A CONCISE COMMENTARY ON MONOGRAPHS ON THE WESTERN REGIONS IN THE OFFICIAL HISTORY BOOKS OF THE WESTERN & EASTERN HAN, WEI, JIN, SOUTHERN & NORTHERN DYNASTIES. Beijing Book Co. Inc. ISBN 978-7-100-19365-8. "Formerly, when the Yuezhi had been destroyed by the Xiongnu, they moved to Daxia and divided the country into five Xihou."
114. ^ 余太山著 (1 July 2021). A CONCISE COMMENTARY ON MONOGRAPHS ON THE WESTERN REGIONS IN THE OFFICIAL HISTORY BOOKS OF THE WESTERN & EASTERN HAN, WEI, JIN, SOUTHERN & NORTHERN DYNASTIES. Beijing Book Co. Inc. ISBN 978-7-100-19365-8. "More than a hundred years later, the xihou of guishuang(kushan) named Qiujiuque(Kujula) attacked and destroyed the other four xihou and established himself king."
115. ^ 余太山著 (1 July 2021). A CONCISE COMMENTARY ON MONOGRAPHS ON THE WESTERN REGIONS IN THE OFFICIAL HISTORY BOOKS OF THE WESTERN & EASTERN HAN, WEI, JIN, SOUTHERN & NORTHERN DYNASTIES. Beijing Book Co. Inc. ISBN 978-7-100-19365-8. "This king invaded Anxi(Parthia) and took Gaofu(Kabul) and destroyed Puda and Jibin."
116. ^ 余太山著 (1 July 2021). A CONCISE COMMENTARY ON MONOGRAPHS ON THE WESTERN REGIONS IN THE OFFICIAL HISTORY BOOKS OF THE WESTERN & EASTERN HAN, WEI, JIN, SOUTHERN & NORTHERN DYNASTIES. Beijing Book Co. Inc. ISBN 978-7-100-19365-8. "and his son yangouzhen(Vima takto) succeeded him as king. He in his turn destroyed Tianzhu and installed a general there to control it."
117. ^ 余太山著 (1 July 2021). A CONCISE COMMENTARY ON MONOGRAPHS ON THE WESTERN REGIONS IN THE OFFICIAL HISTORY BOOKS OF THE WESTERN & EASTERN HAN, WEI, JIN, SOUTHERN & NORTHERN DYNASTIES. Beijing Book Co. Inc. ISBN 978-7-100-19365-8. "occupied Gandhara around 60 CE and Taxila by 78 CE"
118. ^ 余太山著 (1 July 2021). A CONCISE COMMENTARY ON MONOGRAPHS ON THE WESTERN REGIONS IN THE OFFICIAL HISTORY BOOKS OF THE WESTERN & EASTERN HAN, WEI, JIN, SOUTHERN & NORTHERN DYNASTIES. Beijing Book Co. Inc. ISBN 978-7-100-19365-8. "The state of Gaofu to the southwest of Da Yuezhi and is also a large state. Its way of life resembles that of Tianzhu and the people are weak and easily conquered. They excel in commerce, and internally they are very wealthy. Their political allegiance has never been constant."
119. ^ 余太山著 (1 July 2021). A CONCISE COMMENTARY ON MONOGRAPHS ON THE WESTERN REGIONS IN THE OFFICIAL HISTORY BOOKS OF THE WESTERN & EASTERN HAN, WEI, JIN, SOUTHERN & NORTHERN DYNASTIES. Beijing Book Co. Inc. ISBN 978-7-100-19365-8. "The three states of Tianzhu Jibin and Anxi had possessed it when they were strong and have lost it when they were weak."
120. ^ 余太山著 (1 July 2021). A CONCISE COMMENTARY ON MONOGRAPHS ON THE WESTERN REGIONS IN THE OFFICIAL HISTORY BOOKS OF THE WESTERN & EASTERN HAN, WEI, JIN, SOUTHERN & NORTHERN DYNASTIES. Beijing Book Co. Inc. ISBN 978-7-100-19365-8. "its customs are the same as those of Yuezhi...the inhabitants ride on elephants in warfare"
121. ^ Le, Huu Phuoc (2010). Buddhist Architecture. Grafikol. p. 180\. ISBN 9780984404308.
122. ^ Marshall, John H. (1909): "Archaeological Exploration in India, 1908–9." (Section on: "The stūpa of Kanishka and relics of the Buddha"). Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society, 1909, pp. 1056–1061.
123. ^ Rai Govind Chandra (1 January 1979). Indo-Greek Jewellery. Abhinav Publications. pp. 82–. ISBN 978-81-7017-088-4. Retrieved 13 December 2012.
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125. ^ "The entry of the Kidarites into India may firmly be placed some time round about the end of the rule of Chandragupta II or beginning of the rule of Kumaragupta I (circa 410–420 a.d.)" in Gupta, Parmeshwari Lal; Kulashreshtha, Sarojini (1994). Kuṣāṇa Coins and History. D.K. Printworld. p. 122\. ISBN 9788124600177.
126. ^ "The Alchon Huns....established themselves as overlords of northwestern India, and directly contributed to the downfall of the Guptas" in Neelis, Jason (2010). Early Buddhist Transmission and Trade Networks: Mobility and Exchange Within and Beyond the Northwestern Borderlands of South Asia. BRILL. p. 162\. ISBN 9789004181595.
127. ^ Bakker, Hans (2017), Monuments of Hope, Gloom and Glory in the Age of the Hunnic Wars: 50 years that changed India (484–534), Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences, Section 4, ISBN 978-90-6984-715-3, archived from the original on 11 January 2020, retrieved 1 May 2021
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132. ^ Iaroslav Lebedynsky, "Les Nomades", p172.
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137. ^ Grousset, Rene (1970). The Empire of the Steppes. Rutgers University Press. pp. 69–71. ISBN 0-8135-1304-9.
138. ^ Behrendt, Kurt A. (2004). Handbuch der Orientalistik. Leiden: BRILL. ISBN 9789004135956.
139. ^ Upinder Singh (2017). Political Violence in Ancient India. Harvard University Press. pp. 241–242\. ISBN 9780674981287.
140. ^ Ann Heirman; Stephan Peter Bumbacher (11 May 2007). The Spread of Buddhism. Leiden: BRILL. p. 60\. ISBN 978-90-474-2006-4.
141. ^ Thakur Upender (1967). The Hunas In India Vol-lviii (1967) Ac 4776. Chowkhamba Sanskrit Series Office. p. 267\. "The Brahmanas of Gandhara accepted from him gift of agraharas; they no doubt, too, were similar as his own and were the meanest Brahmanas."
142. ^ "Modi_History of the Huns.pdf" (PDF). p. 342\. "It is the same Mihirkula who is referred to in the Rajatarangini, the History of Kashmir, by Kalhana, as a wicked king who was opposed to the local Brahmins and·who imported Gandhara Brahmins into Kashmir and India."
143. ^ Kalhana, Jogesh Chunder Dutt. Rajatarangini of Kalhana - English - Jogesh Chunder Dutt Volumes 1 & 2. p. 21\. "He gave thousands of villages in Vijayeahvara to the Brahmanas of Gandhara."
144. ^ Rehman 1976, p. 187 and Pl. V B., "the horseman is shown wearing a turban-like head-gear with a small globule on the top".
145. ^ Rahman, Abdul (2002). "New Light on the Khingal, Turk and the Hindu Sahis" (PDF). Ancient Pakistan. XV: 37–42\. "The Hindu Śāhis were therefore neither Bhattis, or Janjuas, nor Brahmans. They were simply Uḍis/Oḍis. It can now be seen that the term Hindu Śāhi is a misnomer and, based as it is merely upon religious discrimination, should be discarded and forgotten. The correct name is Uḍi or Oḍi Śāhi dynasty."
146. ^ Meister, Michael W. (2005). "The Problem of Platform Extensions at Kafirkot North" (PDF). Ancient Pakistan. XVI: 41–48\. "Rehman (2002: 41) makes a good case for calling the Hindu Śāhis by a more accurate name, "Uḍi Śāhis"."
147. ^ The Last Two Dynasties of The Shāhis. 1976. pp. 96–101.
148. ^ The Last Two Dynasties of The Shāhis. 1976. p. 110.
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152. ^ The Last Two Dynasties of The Shāhis. 1976. pp. 128–130.
153. ^ a b c Foundation, Encyclopaedia Iranica. "GĀNDHĀRĪ LANGUAGE". iranicaonline.org. Retrieved 20 July 2021.
154. ^ Rhie, Marylin Martin (15 July 2019). Early Buddhist Art of China and Central Asia, Volume 2 The Eastern Chin and Sixteen Kingdoms Period in China and Tumshuk, Kucha and Karashahr in Central Asia (2 vols). BRILL. p. 327\. ISBN 978-90-04-39186-4.
155. ^ Dani, Ahmad Hasan (2001). History of Northern Areas of Pakistan: Upto 2000 A.D. Sang-e-Meel Publications. pp. 64–67\. ISBN 978-969-35-1231-1.
156. ^ Saxena, Anju (12 May 2011). Himalayan Languages: Past and Present. Walter de Gruyter. p. 35\. ISBN 978-3-11-089887-3.
157. ^ Liljegren, Henrik (26 February 2016). A grammar of Palula. Language Science Press. pp. 13–14\. ISBN 978-3-946234-31-9. "Palula belongs to a group of Indo-Aryan (IA) languages spoken in the Hindukush region that are often referred to as "Dardic" languages... It has been and is still disputed to what extent this primarily geographically defined grouping has any real classificatory validity... On the one hand, Strand suggests that the term should be discarded altogether, holding that there is no justification whatsoever for any such grouping (in addition to the term itself having a problematic history of use), and prefers to make a finer classification of these languages into smaller genealogical groups directly under the IA heading, a classification we shall return to shortly... Zoller identifies the Dardic languages as the modern successors of the Middle Indo-Aryan (MIA) language Gandhari (also Gandhari Prakrit), but along with Bashir, Zoller concludes that the family tree model alone will not explain all the historical developments."
158. ^ Cacopardo, Alberto M.; Cacopardo, Augusto S. (2001). Gates of Peristan: History, Religion and Society in the Hindu Kush. IsIAO. p. 253\. ISBN 978-88-6323-149-6. "...This leads us to the conclusion that the ancient dialects of the Peshawar District, the country between Tirah and Swât, must have belonged to the Tirahi-Kohistani type and that the westernmost Dardic language, Pashai, which probably had its ancient centre in Laghmân, has enjoyed a comparatively independent position since early times". …Today the Kohistâni languages descendent from the ancient dialects that developed in these valleys have all been displaced from their original homelands, as described below."
159. ^ a b Burrow, T. (1936). "The Dialectical Position of the Niya Prakrit". Bulletin of the School of Oriental Studies, University of London. 8 (2/3): 419–435\. ISSN 1356-1898. JSTOR 608051. "... It might be going too far to say that Torwali is the direct lineal descendant of the Niya Prakrit, but there is no doubt that out of all the modern languages, it shows the closest resemblance to it. A glance at the map in the Linguistic Survey of India shows that the area at present covered by "Kohistani" is the nearest to that area around Peshawar, where, as stated above, there is most reason to believe was the original home of the Niya Prakrit. That conclusion, which was reached for other reasons, is thus confirmed by the distribution of the modern dialects."
160. ^ a b Dani, Ahmad Hasan (2001). History of Northern Areas of Pakistan: Upto 2000 A.D. Sang-e-Meel Publications. p. 56\. ISBN 978-969-35-1231-1. "In the Peshawar district, there does not remain any Indian dialect continuing this old Gandhari. The last to disappear was Tirahi, still spoken some years ago in Afghanistan, in the vicinity of Jalalabad, by descendants of migrants expelled from Tirah by the Afridis in the 19th century. Nowadays, it must be entirely extinct and in the NWFP are only to be found modern Iranian languages brought in by later immigrants (Baluch, Pashto) or Indian languages brought in by the paramount political power (Urdu, Panjabi) or by Hindu traders (Hindko)."
161. ^ Jain, Danesh; Cardona, George (26 July 2007). The Indo-Aryan Languages. Routledge. p. 991\. ISBN 978-1-135-79710-2.
162. ^ Salomon, Richard (10 December 1998). Indian Epigraphy: A Guide to the Study of Inscriptions in Sanskrit, Prakrit, and the other Indo-Aryan Languages. Oxford University Press. p. 79\. ISBN 978-0-19-535666-3.
163. ^ Lopez, Donald (2014). "Kashmir-Gandhāra". Princeton Dictionary of Buddhism.
164. ^ a b Wani, Muhammad (2023). The Making of Early Kashmir: Intercultural Networks and Identity Formation. Taylor and Francis. p. 82\. ISBN 9781000836554.
165. ^ "The Korean Buddhist Canon: A Descriptive Catalogue". www.acmuller.net.
166. ^ Mukherjee, Bratindra Nath. India in Early Central Asia. 1996\. p. 15
167. ^ Williams, Paul. Mahāyāna Buddhism: The Doctrinal Foundations. 2008\. p. 30
168. ^ a b Nakamura, Hajime. Indian Buddhism: A Survey With Biographical Notes. 1999\. p. 205
169. ^ Williams, Paul. Mahāyāna Buddhism: The Doctrinal Foundations. 2008\. p. 239
170. ^ "Gandharan Sculptural Style: The Buddha Image". Archived from the original on 18 December 2014. Retrieved 7 February 2016.
171. ^ a b Ray, Reginald. Buddhist Saints in India: A Study in Buddhist Values and Orientations. 1999\. p. 410
172. ^ Ray, Reginald. Buddhist Saints in India: A Study in Buddhist Values and Orientations. 1999\. p. 426
173. ^ Boyce, Mary; Grenet, F. (2015). A History of Zoroastrianism, Zoroastrianism under Macedonian and Roman Rule. BRILL. ISBN 978-90-04-29391-5.
174. ^ Schmidt, Karl J. (2015). An Atlas and Survey of South Asian History. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-317-47681-8. "In addition to being a center of religion for Buddhists, as well as Hindus, Taxila was a thriving center for art, culture, and learning."
175. ^ Srinivasan, Doris Meth (2008). "Hindu Deities in Gandharan art". Gandhara, the Buddhist Heritage of Pakistan: Legends, Monasteries, and Paradise. Kunst- und Ausstellungshalle der Bundesrepublik Deutschland ; Mainz : Verlag Philipp von Zabern. p. 130-143. ISBN 978-3-8053-3957-5. "Gandhara was not cut off from the heartland of early Hinduism in the Gangetic Valley. The two regions shared cultural and political connections and trade relations and this facilitated the adoption and exchange of religious ideas. [...] It is during the Kushan Era that flowering of religious imagery occurred. [...] Gandhara often introduced its own idiosyncratic expression upon the Buddhist and Hindu imagery it had initially come in contact with."
176. ^ Blurton, T. Richard (1993). Hindu Art. Harvard University Press. p. 84, 176. ISBN 978-0-674-39189-5. "The earliest figures of Shiva which show him in purely human form come from the area of ancient Gandhara [...] Coins from Gandhara of the first century BC show Lakshmi [...] four-armed, on a lotus."
177. ^ Behrendt, Kurt (2011). Gandharan Buddhism: Archaeology, Art, and Texts. UBC Press. p. 241\. ISBN 978-0774841283. Retrieved 16 August 2019.
178. ^ a b c "Buddhism and Buddhist Art".
179. ^ Siple, Ella S. (1931). "Stucco Sculpture from Central Asia". The Burlington Magazine for Connoisseurs. 59 (342): 140–145\. ISSN 0951-0788. JSTOR 864875.
180. ^ Carlo Rosa; Thomas Theye; Simona Pannuzi (2019). "Geological overwiew of Gandharan sites and petrographical analysis on Gandharan stucco and clay artefacts" (pdf). Restauro Archeologico. 27 (1). Firenze University Press: Abstract. doi:10.13128/RA-25095. ISSN 1724-9686. OCLC 8349098991. Archived from the original on 15 February 2020. Retrieved 15 February 2020. on DOAJ
181. ^ "Gandhara:Buddha no Seisen". Retrieved 21 March 2023.[permanent dead link]

## Sources

[edit]

* Beal, Samuel. 1884. Si-Yu-Ki: Buddhist Records of the Western World, by Hiuen Tsiang. 2 vols. Trans. by Samuel Beal. London. Reprint: Delhi. Oriental Books Reprint Corporation. 1969.
* Beal, Samuel. 1911. The Life of Hiuen-Tsiang by the Shaman Hwui Li, with an Introduction containing an account of the Works of I-Tsing. Trans. by Samuel Beal. London. 1911. Reprint: Munshiram Manoharlal, New Delhi. 1973.
* Bellew, H.W. Kashmir and Kashgar. London, 1875. Reprint: Sang-e-Meel Publications 1999 ISBN 969-35-0738-X
* Caroe, Sir Olaf,  The Pathans, Oxford University Press, Karachi, 1958.
* Eggermont, Pierre Herman Leonard (1975), Alexander's Campaigns in Sind and Baluchistan and the Siege of the Brahmin Town of Harmatelia, Peeters Publishers, ISBN 978-90-6186-037-2
* Herodotus (1920). Histories (in Greek and English). With an English translation by A. D. Godley. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.
* Hill, John E. 2003. "Annotated Translation of the Chapter on the Western Regions according to the Hou Hanshu". 2nd Edition: Through the Jade Gate to Rome: A Study of the Silk Routes, 1st to 2nd centuries CE. 2015. John E. Hill. Volume I, ISBN 978-1500696702; Volume II, ISBN 978-1503384620. CreateSpace, North Charleston, S.C.
* Hussain, J.  An Illustrated History of Pakistan, Oxford University Press, Karachi, 1983.
* "Imperial Gazetteer2 of India, Volume 19– Imperial Gazetteer of India". Digital South Asia Library. Retrieved 22 April 2015.
* Legge, James. Trans. and ed. 1886. A Record of Buddhistic Kingdoms: being an account by the Chinese monk Fâ-hsien of his travels in India and Ceylon (A.D. 399–414) in search of the Buddhist Books of Discipline. Reprint: Dover Publications, New York. 1965.
* Neelis, Jason (2010), Early Buddhist Transmission and Trade Networks: Mobility and Exchange Within and Beyond the Northwestern Borderlands of South Asia, BRILL, ISBN 978-90-04-18159-5
* Raychaudhuri, Hemchandra (1953). Political History of Ancient India: From the Accession of Parikshit to the Extinction of Gupta Dynasty. University of Calcutta.
* Rehman, Abdur (January 1976). The Last Two Dynasties of the Sahis: An analysis of their history, archaeology, coinage and palaeography (Thesis). Australian National University.
* Shaw, Isobel. Pakistan Handbook, The Guidebook Co., Hong Kong, 1989
* Watters, Thomas. 1904–5. On Yuan Chwang's Travels in India (A.D. 629–645). Reprint: Mushiram Manoharlal Publishers, New Delhi. 1973.
* Wynbrandt, James (2009). A Brief History of Pakistan. New York: Infobase Publishing.

## Further reading

[edit]

* Lerner, Martin (1984). The flame and the lotus: Indian and Southeast Asian art from the Kronos collections. New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art. ISBN 0-87099-374-7.
* Rehman, Abdur (2009). "A Note on the Etymology of Gandhāra". Bulletin of the Asia Institute. 23: 143–146\. JSTOR 24049432.
* Filigenzi, Anna (2000). "Reviewed Work: A Catalogue of the Gandhāra Sculpture in the British Museum, Vol. I: Text, Vol. II: Plates by Wladimir Zwalf". Wladimir Zwalf, Review by: Anna Filigenzi. 50 (1/4). Istituto Italiano per l'Africa e l'Oriente: 584–586\. JSTOR 29757475.
* Rienjang, Wannaporn, and Peter Stewart (eds), The Rediscovery and Reception of Gandharan Art (Archaeopress, 2022) ISBN 978-1-80327-233-7.
* Filigenzi, Anna. East and West, vol. 50, no. 1/4, 2000, pp. 584–86. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/29757475. Accessed 9 December 2024.

## External links

[edit]

Wikimedia Commons has media related to Gandhara.

* Gandharan Connections Project (Cambridge, 2016–2021)
* Livius.org: Gandara Archived 19 July 2013 at the Wayback Machine
* The Buddhist Manuscript project
* University of Washington's Gandharan manuscript
* Coins of Gandhara janapada
* Gandhara Civilization Archived 19 January 2020 at the Wayback Machine\- National Fund for Cultural Heritage (Pakistan)

* v
* t
* e

Gandhara

History|

* Gandhara kingdom
* Achaemenid invasion of the Indus Valley
* Greek conquests in India
* Mauryan Empire
* Greco-Bactrian kingdom
* Indo-Greek kingdom
* Indo-Scythians
* Indo-Parthians
* Kushan Empire
* Alchon Huns
* Turk Shahis
* Hindu Shahis
* Ghaznavid Empire

Culture|

* Greco-Buddhist art
* Greco-Buddhism
* Hellenistic influence on Indian art
* Silk Road transmission of Buddhism
* Art of Gandhara by museum

Archaeology|

| Peshawar basin|

* Takht-i-Bahi
* Sahr-i-Bahlol
* Baho Dheri
* Aziz Dheri
* Shaji-ki-Dheri
* Kanishka stupa
* Loriyan Tangai
* Jamal Garhi
* Yusufzai‎
* Sikri Yusufzai
* Butkara Stupa
* Bhamala
* Aziz Dheri
* Shingardara
* Ali Masjid
* Sphola
* Ahin Posh
* Swat
* Saidu Sharif
* Chakpat
* Barikot
* Charsadda
* Pushkalavati
* Ranigat
* Hashtnagar
* Sikri stupa

|

Taxila|

* Sirkap
* Dharmarajika
* Jaulian
* Kalawan
* Mohra Muradu
* Jandial
* Kunala Stupa
* Lalchak monastery
* Badalpur
* Bhallar
* Mankiala
* Bhir Mound

Eastern Afghanistan|

* Hadda
* Tapa Shotor
* Chakhil-i-Ghoundi
* Tapa-i Kafariha
* Shotorak
* Paitava
* Bimaran
* Mes Aynak
* Fondukistan
* Khair Khaneh
* Sphola Stupa
* Tapa Sardar
* Tepe Narenj
* Tepe Maranjan

Artifacts|

* Aramaic Inscription of Taxila
* Bimaran Casket
* Kanishka reliquary
* Stone palettes
* Buddhas of Bamiyan
* Buner reliefs
* Saptarishi Tila statue
* Post-Mauryan coinage of Gandhara
* Kabul hoard
* Shinkot casket
* Rukhuna reliquary
* Treasure of Begram
* Wardak Vase
* Standing Buddha
* Brussels Buddha
* Bajaur casket
* Silver Reliquary of Indravarman
* Hephthalite silver bowl
* Gardez Ganesha

* v
* t
* e

* Provinces of the Achaemenid Empire
* (Behistun / Persepolis / Naqsh-e Rustam / Susa / Daeva inscriptions)

* Akaufaka (Quhistan?)
* Amyrgoi
* Arabia
* Arachosia
* Aria
* Armenia
* Assyria
* Babylonia
* Bactria
* Cappadocia
* Caria
* Carmania
* Chorasmia
* Cilicia
* Colchis
* Dahae
* Drangiana
* 1st Egypt / 2nd Egypt
* Eber-Nari (Levant)
* Elam
* Kush (Nubia)
* Gandāra (Gandhara)
* Gedrosia
* Hyrcania
* Ionia
* Hindush
* Libya
* Lydia
* Maka
* Margiana
* Media
* Massagetae
* Parthia
* Persis
* Phoenicia
* Phrygia
* Hellespontine Phrygia
* Greater Phrygia
* Saka
* Samaritan Province
* Sattagydia
* Skudra (Thrace)
* Sogdia
* Yehud

See also Taxation districts of the Achaemenid Empire (according to Herodotus)

* v
* t
* e

Tribes and kingdoms mentioned in the Mahabharata

* Abhira
* Andhra
* Anarta
* Anga
* Anupa
* Assaka
* Asmaka
* Avanti
* Ay
* Bahlika
* Bhārata
* Chedi
* Chera
* Chola
* Chinas
* Dakshina Kosala
* Dakshinatya
* Danda
* Dasarna
* Dasharna
* Dasherka
* Dwaraka
* Gandhāra
* Garga
* Gomanta
* Gopa Rashtra
* Hara Huna
* Haihaya kingdom
* Himalaya
* Huna
* Kanchi
* Kasmira
* Kalakuta
* Kalinga
* Kamboja
* Karnata
* Karusha
* Kashi
* Kekeya
* Khasa
* Kikata
* Kimpurusha
* Kinnara
* Kirata
* Kingdom
* Kishkindha
* Konkana
* Kosala
* Kuninda
* Kunti
* Kuru
* Lanka
* Madra
* Madraka
* Magadha
* Maha Chinas
* Mahisha
* Malla
* Malava
* Manipura
* Matsya
* Mekhalas
* Mleccha
* Mudgala
* Mushika
* Nasikya
* Nepa
* Niharas
* Nishadas
* Odra
* Pallava
* Panchala
* Pandya
* Parada
* Parama Kamboja
* Parasika
* Parvartaka
* Parvata
* Paurava
* Pishacha
* Pragjyotisha
* Pratyagratha
* Prasthala
* Pundra
* Pulinda
* Saka
* Salva
* Salveya
* Salwa
* Saraswata
* Saurashtra
* Sauvira
* Shakya
* Sindhu
* Sinhala
* Sivi
* Sonita
* Sudra
* Suhma
* Surparaka
* Surasena
* Tamraparni
* Tangana
* Trigarta
* Tulu
* Tushara
* Ursa
* Uttara Kuru
* Uttara Madra
* Utkala
* Vanga
* Vatadhana
* Vatsa
* Videha
* Vidarbha
* Yavana
* Yaudheya

* v
* t
* e

Mahajanapadas

Great Indian Kingdoms
(c. 600 BCE–c. 300 BCE)|

* Anga
* Asmaka (Assaka)
* Avanti
* Chedi
* Gandhara
* Kashi
* Kamboja
* Kosala
* Kuru
* Magadha
* Malla
* Maccha (Matsya)
* Panchala
* Surasena
* Vajji
* Vatsa (Vamsa)

* v
* t
* e

Middle kingdoms of India

|  | Timeline and
cultural period  | Indus plain
(Punjab-Sapta Sindhu-Gujarat)  | Gangetic Plain | Central India  | Southern India

|
|
|
|

Upper Gangetic Plain
(Ganga-Yamuna doab)  | Middle Gangetic Plain  | Lower Gangetic Plain
IRON AGE
Culture | Late Vedic Period | Late Vedic Period
Painted Grey Ware culture | Late Vedic Period
Northern Black Polished Ware | Pre-history
6th century BCE | Gandhara | Kuru-Panchala | Magadha  | Adivasi (tribes) | Assaka
Culture | Persian-Greek influences | "Second Urbanisation"
Rise of Shramana movements
Jainism \- Buddhism \- Ājīvika \- Yoga | Pre-history
5th century BCE | (Persian conquests)  |  | Shaishunaga dynasty | Adivasi (tribes) | Assaka
4th century BCE | (Greek conquests)  | Nanda empire |
HISTORICAL AGE
Culture | Spread of Buddhism | Pre-history |
3rd century BCE | Maurya Empire | Satavahana dynasty
Sangam period
(300 BCE – 200 CE)
Early Cholas
Early Pandyan kingdom
Cheras

Culture | Preclassical Hinduism[a] \- "Hindu Synthesis"[b] (ca. 200 BC - 300 CE)[c][d]
Epics \- Puranas \- Ramayana \- Mahabharata \- Bhagavad Gita \- Brahma Sutras \- Smarta Tradition
Mahayana Buddhism |
2nd century BCE | Indo-Greek Kingdom | Shunga Empire
Maha-Meghavahana Dynasty | Satavahana dynasty
Sangam period
(300 BCE – 200 CE)
Early Cholas
Early Pandyan kingdom
Cheras

1st century BCE
1st century CE |

Indo-Scythians
Indo-Parthians

| Kuninda Kingdom |  |
2nd century | Kushan Empire
3rd century | Kushano-Sasanian Kingdom
Western Satraps | Kushan Empire | Kamarupa kingdom  | Adivasi (tribes)
Culture | "Golden Age of Hinduism"(ca. CE 320-650)[e]
Puranas
Co-existence of Hinduism and Buddhism
4th century | Kidarites | Gupta Empire
Varman dynasty | Andhra Ikshvakus
Kalabhra dynasty
Kadamba Dynasty
Western Ganga Dynasty
5th century | Hephthalite Empire | Alchon Huns | Vishnukundina
Kalabhra dynasty

6th century | Nezak Huns
Kabul Shahi
Maitraka |  |  |  | Adivasi (tribes) | Vishnukundina
Badami Chalukyas
Kalabhra dynasty

Culture | Late-Classical Hinduism (ca. CE 650-1100)[f]
Advaita Vedanta \- Tantra
Decline of Buddhism in India
7th century | Indo-Sassanids |  | Vakataka dynasty
Empire of Harsha | Mlechchha dynasty | Adivasi (tribes) | Badami Chalukyas
Eastern Chalukyas
Pandyan kingdom (revival)
Pallava
Karkota dynasty
8th century | Kabul Shahi | Pala Empire | Eastern Chalukyas
Pandyan kingdom
Kalachuri
9th century | Gurjara-Pratihara | Rashtrakuta Empire
Eastern Chalukyas
Pandyan kingdom
Medieval Cholas
Chera Perumals of Makkotai
10th century | Ghaznavids |  |  | Pala dynasty
Kamboja-Pala dynasty | Kalyani Chalukyas
Eastern Chalukyas
Medieval Cholas
Chera Perumals of Makkotai
Rashtrakuta

References and sources for table

References

1. ^ Michaels (2004) p.39
2. ^ Hiltebeitel (2002)
3. ^ Michaels (2004) p.39
4. ^ Hiltebeitel (2002)
5. ^ Michaels (2004) p.40
6. ^ Michaels (2004) p.41

Sources

* Flood, Gavin D. (1996), An Introduction to Hinduism, Cambridge University Press
* Hiltebeitel, Alf (2002), Hinduism. In: Joseph Kitagawa, "The Religious Traditions of Asia: Religion, History, and Culture", Routledge
* Michaels, Axel (2004), Hinduism. Past and present, Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press

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* IdRef
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