Genocide

Intentional destruction of a people

For other uses, see Genocide (disambiguation).

During the Cambodian genocide, many perceived dissidents were killed using axes, poles or other agricultural tools. The sites of their mass burial are now collectively referred to as the Killing Fields, and countless memorials have been created to honor them

Genocide is violence that targets individuals because of their membership of a group and aims at the destruction of a people.[1]

Raphael Lemkin, who first coined the term, defined genocide as "the destruction of a nation or of an ethnic group" by means such as "the disintegration of [its] political and social institutions, of [its] culture, language, national feelings, religion, and [its] economic existence".[2] During the struggle to ratify the Genocide Convention, powerful countries restricted Lemkin's definition to exclude their own actions from being classified as genocide, ultimately limiting it to any of five "acts committed with intent to destroy, in whole or in part, a national, ethnical, racial or religious group".[3]

Genocide has occurred throughout human history, even during prehistoric times, but is particularly likely in situations of imperial expansion and power consolidation. Therefore, it is associated with colonial empires and settler colonies, as well as with both world wars and repressive governments in the twentieth century. The colloquial understanding of genocide is heavily influenced by the Holocaust as its archetype and is conceived as innocent victims targeted for their ethnic identity rather than for any political reason. Genocide is widely considered to be the epitome of human evil and often referred to as the "crime of crimes", consequently, events are often denounced as genocide.

## Origins

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Raphael Lemkin coined the term genocide.[4]

Polish-Jewish lawyer Raphael Lemkin coined the term genocide between 1941 and 1943.[4][5] Lemkin's coinage combined the Greek word γένος (genos, "race, people") with the Latin suffix -caedo ("act of killing").[6] He submitted the manuscript for his book Axis Rule in Occupied Europe to the publisher in early 1942, and it was published in 1944 as the Holocaust was coming to light outside Europe.[4] Lemkin's proposal was more ambitious than simply outlawing this type of mass slaughter. He also thought that the law against genocide could promote more tolerant and pluralistic societies.[6]

According to Lemkin, the central definition of genocide was "the destruction of a nation or of an ethnic group" in which its members were not targeted as individuals, but rather as members of the group. The objectives of genocide "would be the disintegration of the political and social institutions, of culture, language, national feelings, religion, and the economic existence of national groups".[2] These were not separate crimes but different aspects of the same genocidal process.[7] Lemkin's definition of nation was sufficiently broad to apply to nearly any type of human collectivity, even one based on a trivial characteristic.[8] He saw genocide as an inherently colonial process, and in his later writings analyzed what he described as the colonial genocides occurring within European overseas territories as well as the Soviet and Nazi empires.[6] Furthermore, his definition of genocidal acts, which was to replace the national pattern of the victim with that of the perpetrator, was much broader than the five types enumerated in the Genocide Convention.[6] Lemkin considered genocide to have occurred since the beginning of human history and dated the efforts to criminalize it to the Spanish critics of colonial excesses Francisco de Vitoria and Bartolomé de Las Casas.[9] The 1946 judgement against Arthur Greiser issued by a Polish court was the first legal verdict that mentioned the term, using Lemkin's original definition.[10]

## Crime

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Main articles: Genocide Convention and international criminal law

### Development

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The expulsion of Germans was one of the instances of state violence that was deliberately written out of the definition of genocide.[11]

According to the legal instrument used to prosecute defeated German leaders at the International Military Tribunal at Nuremberg, atrocity crimes were only prosecutable by international justice if they were committed as part of an illegal war of aggression. The powers prosecuting the trial were unwilling to restrict a government's actions against its own citizens.[12] In order to criminalize peacetime genocide, Lemkin brought his proposal to criminalize genocide to the newly established United Nations in 1946. He approached the African delegations first in an attempt to build a coalition of smaller states and former colonies that had themselves recently experienced genocide. Lemkin hoped that at this point the major powers—the United States, United Kingdom, and Soviet Union—would step in and take credit for passing the convention.[12]

Opposition to the convention was greater than Lemkin expected due to various countries, and not just great powers, concerned that it would lead their own policies - including treatment of indigenous peoples, European colonialism, racial segregation in the United States, and Soviet nationalities policy \- to be labeled genocide. Before the convention was passed, powerful countries (both Western powers and the Soviet Union) secured changes in an attempt to make the convention unenforceable and applicable to their geopolitical rivals' actions but not their own. The result gutted Lemkin's original intentions; he privately considered it a failure.[13] Over the course of these revisions, Lemkin's anti-colonial conception of genocide was transformed into one acceptable to colonial powers.[14] Among the violence freed from the stigma of genocide included the same actions targeting political groups, which the Soviet Union is particularly blamed for blocking.[15][16] Although Lemkin credited women's NGOs with securing the passage of the convention, the gendered violence of forced pregnancy, marriage, and divorce was left out.[17] Additionally omitted was forced migration of populations—which had been recently carried out by the Soviet Union and its satellites, condoned by the Western Allies, against millions of Germans from central and Eastern Europe.[18]

### Genocide Convention

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Participation in the Genocide Convention

Signed and ratified

Acceded or succeeded

Only signed

On 9 December 1948, the UN General Assembly adopted the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide (CPPCG);[19] it came into effect on 12 January 1951 after 20 countries ratified it without reservations.[20] The convention's definition of genocide was adopted verbatim by the ad hoc international criminal tribunals and by the Rome Statute that established the International Criminal Court (ICC).[21] Genocide is defined as:

> ... any of the following acts committed with intent to destroy, in whole or in part, a national, ethnical, racial or religious group, as such:

>   * (a) Killing members of the group;
>   * (b) Causing serious bodily or mental harm to members of the group;
>   * (c) Deliberately inflicting on the group conditions of life calculated to bring about its physical destruction in whole or in part;
>   * (d) Imposing measures intended to prevent births within the group;
>   * (e) Forcibly transferring children of the group to another group.[3]

In addition, attempted genocide, conspiracy to commit genocide, incitement to genocide, and complicity in genocide are criminalized.[22] The convention does not allow the retroactive prosecution of events that took place prior to 1951.[22] Many countries have incorporated genocide into their municipal law, varying to a lesser or greater extent from the convention.[23]

A specific "intent to destroy" is the mens rea requirement of genocide.[24] The issue of what it means to destroy a group "as such" and how to prove the required intent has been difficult for courts to resolve. The legal system has also struggled with how much of a group can be targeted before triggering the Genocide Convention.[25][26][27] The two main approaches to intent are the purposive approach, where the perpetrator specifically intends to commit genocide, and the knowledge-based approach, where the perpetrator understands that genocidal outcomes will result from his actions.[28] Perpetrators do not always make their intentions clear in public statements, although courts sometimes ascribe intent based on other factors.[29] Perpetrators often take advantage of the legal special intent requirement to claim that they merely sought the removal of the group from a given territory, instead of destruction as such,[30] or that the genocidal actions were collateral damage of military activity.[31]

### Prosecutions

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During the Cold War, genocide remained at the level of rhetoric because both superpowers (the United States and the Soviet Union) felt vulnerable to accusations of genocide, and were therefore unwilling to press charges against the other party.[32] Despite political pressure to charge "Soviet genocide", the United States government refused to ratify the convention fearing countercharges of racial segregation against African Americans.[33] The first conviction for genocide in an international court was in 1998 for a perpetrator of the Rwandan genocide. The first head of state to be convicted of genocide was in 2018 for the Cambodian genocide.[5]

Prosecutions for genocide do not obviously satisfy any of the purposes that criminal prosecution is supposed to serve. Retribution is impossible because any punishment proportionate to the crime would require collective punishment, which violates the principle of individual guilt.[34] The most plausible rationale for prosecuting genocide perpetrators is that it could prevent future genocides, but very few perpetrators are ever brought to trial and evidence of a deterrent effect is lacking.[35] However, genocide prosecutions might still serve the goal of upholding the power of international law.[36]

## Genocide studies

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Main article: Genocide studies

The field of genocide studies emerged in the 1970s and 1980s, as social science began to consider the phenomenon of genocide.[37] Due to the occurrence of the Bosnian genocide, Rwandan genocide, and the Kosovo crisis, genocide studies exploded in the 1990s.[38] In contrast to earlier researchers who took for granted the idea that liberal and democratic societies were less likely to commit genocide, revisionists associated with the International Network of Genocide Scholars emphasized how Western ideas led to genocide.[39] Pioneers of research into settler colonialism such as Patrick Wolfe spelled out the genocidal logic of settler projects, prompting a rethinking of colonialism.[40]

### Definitions

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Main article: Genocide definitions

The definition of genocide generates controversy whenever a new case arises and debate erupts as to whether or not it qualifies as a genocide. Sociologist Martin Shaw writes, "Few ideas are as important in public debate, but in few cases are the meaning and scope of a key idea less clearly agreed."[41][42] Some scholars and activists use the Genocide Convention definition.[14] Others prefer narrower definitions that indicate genocide is rare in human history, reducing genocide to mass killing[43] or distinguishing it from other types of violence by the innocence,[44] helplessness, or defencelessness of its victims.[45] Most genocides occur during wartime, and distinguishing genocide or genocidal war from non-genocidal warfare can be difficult.[46] Likewise, genocide is distinguished from violent and coercive forms of rule that aim to change behavior rather than destroy groups.[47][48] Some definitions include political or social groups as potential victims of genocide.[49] Many of the more sociologically oriented definitions of genocide overlap that of the crime against humanity of extermination, which refers to large-scale killing or induced death as part of a systematic attack on a civilian population.[50] Isolated or short-lived phenomena that resemble genocide can be termed genocidal violence.[51]

Cultural genocide or ethnocide—actions targeted at the reproduction of a group's language, culture, or way of life[52]—was part of Raphael Lemkin's original concept, and its proponents in the 1940s argued that it, along with physical genocide, were two mechanisms aiming at the same goal: destruction of the targeted group. Because cultural genocide clearly applied to some colonial and assimilationist policies, several states with overseas colonies threatened to refuse to ratify the convention unless it was excluded.[53] Most genocide scholars believe that both cultural genocide and structural violence should be included in the definition of genocide, if committed with intent to destroy the targeted group.[54] Although included in Lemkin's original concept and by some scholars, political groups were also excluded from the Genocide Convention. The result of this exclusion was that perpetrators of genocide could redefine their targets as being a political or military enemy, thus excluding them from consideration.[55]

### Criticism of the concept of genocide and alternatives

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The death of large numbers of civilians as collateral damage of military activity such as aerial bombings is excluded from the definition of genocide, even when they make up a significant portion of a nation's population.[56]

Most civilian killings in the twentieth century were not from genocide, which only applies to select cases.[57][58] Alternative terms have been coined to describe processes left outside narrower definitions of genocide. Ethnic cleansing—the forced expulsion of a population from a given territory—has achieved widespread currency, although many scholars recognize that it frequently overlaps with genocide, even where Lemkin's definition is not used.[59] Other terms have proliferated, such as Rudolph Rummel's democide, for the killing of people by a government.[60] Words like ethnocide, gendercide, politicide, classicide, and urbicide were coined for the destruction of particular types of groupings (ethnic groups, genders, political groups, social classes, and a particular locality).[60][61]

Historian A. Dirk Moses argues that because of its position as the "crime of crimes", the concept of genocide "blinds us to other types of humanly caused civilian death, like bombing cities and the 'collateral damage' of missile and drone strikes, blockades, and sanctions".[62][63]

## History

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Main article: Genocides in history

For a more comprehensive list, see List of genocides.

Massacre of Polish hostages after an attack on a German policeman. The Holocaust heavily influences the popular understanding of genocide, as mass killing of innocent people based on their ethnic identity.[44][64]

Lemkin applied the concept of genocide to a wide variety of events throughout human history. He and other scholars date the first genocides to prehistoric times.[65][66][9] Genocide is mentioned in various ancient sources including the Hebrew Bible, in which God commanded genocide (herem) against some of the Israelites' enemies, especially Amalek.[67][68] Genocide in the ancient world often consisted of the massacre of men and the enslavement or forced assimilation of women and children—often limited to a particular town or city rather than applied to a larger group.[69] Potential medieval examples are found in Europe, even though experts caution against applying a modern term like genocide to such events.[70] Overall, premodern examples that can be considered genocide were relatively uncommon.[71] Beginning in the early modern period, racial ideologies emerged as a more important factor.[72]

The destruction of indigenous societies as part of European colonialism, including in colonial states such as United States and Australia, was initially not recognized as a form of genocide.[73][74] Such genocides were often characterized by an initial violent struggle for land and resources on an imperial frontier which escalates to extermination. Later on, the survivors face ongoing genocide in the form of "a wide range of eliminatory practices such as cultural suppression, expulsion, segregation, child confiscation, assimilation, and of course, continued violence".[75]

According to Mohamed Adhikari, the two main drivers of settler genocide is, in the long run, the pursuit of profit on the global commodity market and in the short run, indigenous resistance that triggered settler retaliation.[76] Economic activities such as mining, ranching, and agriculture prove so destructive to indigenous societies that the elimination of indigenous people is quicker when settlers are more integrated into global markets and have a higher expectation of profit.[77] While the lack of law enforcement on the frontier ensured impunity for settler violence, the closing of the frontier enabled settlers to consolidate their gains using the legal system.[78] According to Mark Levene, seeing native people as "savages" and racism "played a critical role in psychocultural justifications for genocide" in areas such as Australia and North America.[79]

Genocide was committed on a large scale during both world wars. The prototypical genocide, the Holocaust, involved such large-scale logistics that it reinforced the impression that genocide was the result of civilization drifting off course and required both the "weapons and infrastructure of the modern state and the radical ambitions of the modern man".[80] Scientific racism and nationalism were common ideological drivers of many twentieth century genocides.[81]

## Causes and perpetration

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See also: Risk factors for genocide and Perpetrator studies

> We have been reproached for making no distinction between the innocent Armenians and the guilty: but that was utterly impossible in view of the fact that those who are innocent today might be guilty tomorrow. The concern for the safety of Turkey simply had to silence all other concerns.

—Talaat Pasha in Berliner Tageblatt, 4 May 1916[82][83]

Imperial Russian Army soldiers in the former Armenian village of Sheykhalan near Mush, 1915

Genocide is not an end of itself, but a means to another end—often chosen by perpetrators after other options failed.[84] Moses argues that security—particularly the quest for absolute security informed by paranoia—is the underlying rationale behind all atrocity crimes, including genocide.[85] Genocide perpetrators harm noncombatants along with combatants because of the collective guilt ascribed to an entire people—defined according to race but targeted because of its supposed security threat.[86] Likewise, Jonathan Leader Maynard argues that "mass killings are strategies to achieve familiar security-centric aims, such as defeating perceived enemies, upholding regimes, policing societies, and winning wars", but argues that ideological factors are necessary to explain why such atrocities seem to be a desirable solution to the identified security problem.[87] When exaggerations of the threat are combined with such rationales as military necessity, defense against aggression, and national security, people can be induced to support extreme atrocities.[88] Other motives for genocide have included theft, land grabbing, and revenge.[3]

A large proportion of genocides occurred under the course of imperial expansion and power consolidation.[89] The organizer of genocide is often assumed to be a centralized totalitarian government.[90] While genocides are often carried out by states and military forces,[91] in many cases, paramilitaries and other decentralized forces are involved.[90] In response to greater international scrutiny of genocide, state-sponsored atrocities can be carried out in secrecy by paramilitary groups that are offered impunity for their crimes. This offers the benefit of plausible deniability while widening complicity in the atrocities.[92][93] Although genocide is typically organized around pre-existing identity boundaries, it has the outcome of strengthening them.[94] Although many scholars have emphasized the role of ideology in genocide, there is little agreement in how ideology contributes to violent outcomes.[95] Others have cited rational explanations for atrocities.[87]

How ordinary people can become involved in extraordinary violence under circumstances of acute conflict is poorly understood.[96][97] The foot soldiers of genocide (as opposed to its organizers) are not demographically or psychologically aberrant.[98] People who commit crimes during genocide often do not fit stereotypes of evil, nor recognize themselves as perpetrators.[99] Furthermore, researchers have recognized that people's behavior changes under the course of events, and someone might choose to kill one genocide victim while saving another.[100][101] Although genocide perpetrators have often been assumed to be male, the role of women in perpetrating genocide—although they were historically excluded from leadership—has also been explored.[102] Anthropologist Richard Rechtman writes that in circumstances where atrocities such as genocides are perpetrated, many people refuse to become perpetrators, which often entails great sacrifices such as risking their lives and fleeing their country.[103]

## Reactions

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Further information: Genocide prevention

According to rational choice theory, it should be possible to intervene to prevent genocide by raising the costs of engaging in such violence relative to alternatives.[104]

Responsibility to protect is a doctrine that emerged around 2000, in the aftermath of several genocides around the world, that seeks to balance state sovereignty with the need for international intervention to prevent genocide.[105] Yet, in practice it is primarily deployed by the United States and its allies against less powerful countries, without affecting the immunity of powerful countries and their allies from legal liability for genocide.[106]

## Effects

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This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (September 2024)

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Mourners at a 2007 funeral for victims of the Srebrenica massacre

Most of the qualitative research on genocide has focused on the testimonies of victims, survivors, and other eyewitnesses.[107] Studies of genocide survivors have examined rates of depression, anxiety, schizophrenia, suicide, post-traumatic stress disorder, and post-traumatic growth. While some have found negative results, others find no association with genocide survival.[108] There are no consistent findings that children of genocide survivors have worse health than comparable individuals.[109]

## Genocide recognition

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Main article: Genocide recognition politics

The word genocide inherently carries a value judgement[110] as it is widely considered to be the epitome of human evil.[111] In the past this was not the case, and violence that could be labeled genocide was sometimes celebrated[112]—although it always had its critics.[113] Although in a strict legal sense, genocide is not more severe than other atrocity crimes—crimes against humanity or war crimes—it is often perceived as the "crime of crimes" and grabs attention more effectively than other violations of international law.[114] Consequently, victims of atrocities often label their suffering genocide as an attempt to gain attention to their plight and attract foreign intervention.[115]

The colloquial understanding of genocide is heavily influenced by the Holocaust as its archetype and is conceived as innocent victims targeted for their ethnic identity rather than for any political reason.[44] Genocide is incorrectly conceived of as a large-scale hate crime motivated by racism instead of political reasons,[44] although this does not accurately identify the motivations for the Holocaust itself.[86]

## References

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1. ^ Kiernan et al. 2023, p. 11.
2. ^ a b Bachman 2022, p. 48.
3. ^ a b c Kiernan 2023, p. 6.
4. ^ a b c Irvin-Erickson 2023, p. 7.
5. ^ a b Kiernan 2023, p. 2.
6. ^ a b c d Irvin-Erickson 2023, p. 14.
7. ^ Shaw 2015, p. 39.
8. ^ Irvin-Erickson 2023, p. 15.
9. ^ a b Irvin-Erickson 2023, p. 11.
10. ^ Irvin-Erickson 2023, pp. 7–8.
11. ^ Weiss-Wendt 2017, pp. 267–268.
12. ^ a b Irvin-Erickson 2023, p. 20.
13. ^ Irvin-Erickson 2023, pp. 20–21.
14. ^ a b Irvin-Erickson 2023, p. 22.
15. ^ Weiss-Wendt 2017, p. 4.
16. ^ Bachman 2022, p. 53.
17. ^ Irvin-Erickson 2023, p. 8.
18. ^ Weiss-Wendt 2017, pp. 267–268, 283.
19. ^ Weiss-Wendt 2017, p. 3.
20. ^ Weiss-Wendt 2017, p. 158.
21. ^ Ozoráková 2022, p. 281.
22. ^ a b Kiernan, Madley & Taylor 2023, p. 2.
23. ^ Schabas 2010, p. 123.
24. ^ Schabas 2010, pp. 136, 138.
25. ^ Ozoráková 2022, pp. 292–295.
26. ^ Irvin-Erickson 2023, p. 13.
27. ^ Schabas 2010, p. 136.
28. ^ Lemos, Taylor & Kiernan 2023, p. 35.
29. ^ Kiernan, Madley & Taylor 2023, pp. 4, 9.
30. ^ Bachman 2022, p. 57.
31. ^ Bachman 2022, p. 47.
32. ^ Weiss-Wendt 2017, p. 9.
33. ^ Weiss-Wendt 2017, p. 266.
34. ^ Bloxham & Pendas 2010, p. 632.
35. ^ Bloxham & Pendas 2010, pp. 633–634.
36. ^ Bloxham & Pendas 2010, p. 636.
37. ^ Kiernan et al. 2023, pp. 13, 17.
38. ^ Kiernan et al. 2023, pp. 17–18.
39. ^ Kiernan et al. 2023, pp. 23–24.
40. ^ Kiernan et al. 2023, p. 9.
41. ^ Shaw 2015, p. 38.
42. ^ Williams 2020, p. 8.
43. ^ Shaw 2014, p. 4.
44. ^ a b c d Moses 2023, p. 19.
45. ^ Shaw 2015, Sociologists redefine genocide.
46. ^ Shaw 2014, pp. 6–7.
47. ^ Shaw 2014, p. 7.
48. ^ Kiernan, Madley & Taylor 2023, pp. 11–12.
49. ^ Kiernan et al. 2023, p. 3.
50. ^ Kiernan et al. 2023, pp. 3–4.
51. ^ Shaw 2014, p. 5.
52. ^ Bachman 2022, pp. 56–57.
53. ^ Bachman 2022, p. 62.
54. ^ Bachman 2021, p. 375.
55. ^ Bachman 2022, pp. 45–46, 48–49, 53.
56. ^ Moses 2023, pp. 22–23.
57. ^ Moses 2023, p. 25.
58. ^ Graziosi & Sysyn 2022, p. 15.
59. ^ Shaw 2015, Chapter 5.
60. ^ a b Shaw 2015, Chapter 6.
61. ^ Lemos, Taylor & Kiernan 2023, p. 33.
62. ^ Moses 2021, p. 1.
63. ^ Bachman 2022, p. 118.
64. ^ Shaw 2015, Conclusion of Chapter 4.
65. ^ Naimark 2017, p. vii.
66. ^ Lemos, Taylor & Kiernan 2023, p. 31.
67. ^ Naimark 2017, pp. 7–9.
68. ^ Lemos, Taylor & Kiernan 2023, pp. 50–51.
69. ^ Lemos, Taylor & Kiernan 2023, pp. 39, 50.
70. ^ Fraser 2010, p. 277.
71. ^ Lemos, Taylor & Kiernan 2023, p. 47.
72. ^ Lemos, Taylor & Kiernan 2023, p. 55.
73. ^ Kiernan, Madley & Taylor 2023, p. 6–10.
74. ^ Blackhawk 2023, p. 38: "With these works, a near consensus emerged. By most scholarly definitions and consistent with the UN Convention, these scholars all asserted that genocide against at least some Indigenous peoples had occurred in North America following colonisation, perpetuated first by colonial empires and then by independent nation-states"
75. ^ Adhikari 2023, p. 43.
76. ^ Adhikari 2023, pp. 46–47.
77. ^ Adhikari 2023, pp. 44–46.
78. ^ Adhikari 2023, pp. 45–46.
79. ^ Levene 2015, p. 430.
80. ^ Kiernan et al. 2023, p. 7.
81. ^ Kiernan et al. 2023, p. 8.
82. ^ Ihrig 2016, pp. 162–163.
83. ^ Moses 2023, p. 32.
84. ^ Kathman & Wood 2011, pp. 737–738.
85. ^ Moses 2023, pp. 16–17, 27.
86. ^ a b Moses 2021, p. 329.
87. ^ a b Maynard 2022, p. 308.
88. ^ Maynard 2022, p. 319.
89. ^ Lemos, Taylor & Kiernan 2023, p. 49.
90. ^ a b Shaw 2014, p. 8.
91. ^ Lemos, Taylor & Kiernan 2023, pp. 36–37.
92. ^ Anderson & Jessee 2020, p. 12.
93. ^ Anderton 2023, p. 146.
94. ^ Lemos, Taylor & Kiernan 2023, p. 50.
95. ^ Maynard 2022, p. 307.
96. ^ Anderson & Jessee 2020, p. 3.
97. ^ Rechtman 2021, p. 174.
98. ^ Williams 2020, pp. 1–2, 211; Anderson & Jessee 2020, pp. 8–9; Rechtman 2021, p. 190; Maynard 2022, p. 319
99. ^ Anderson & Jessee 2020, p. 11.
100. ^ Anderton 2023, p. 143.
101. ^ Rechtman 2021, p. 177.
102. ^ Kiernan et al. 2023, p. 10.
103. ^ Rechtman 2021, pp. 181–182, 187, 191.
104. ^ Kathman & Wood 2011, p. 738.
105. ^ Bachman 2022, p. 119.
106. ^ Bachman 2022, pp. 133–134.
107. ^ Anderson & Jessee 2020, p. 7.
108. ^ Lindert et al. 2019, p. 2.
109. ^ Lindert et al. 2017, p. 246.
110. ^ Lemos, Taylor & Kiernan 2023, pp. 31–32.
111. ^ Lang 2005, pp. 5–17.
112. ^ Lemos, Taylor & Kiernan 2023, p. 32.
113. ^ Lemos, Taylor & Kiernan 2023, pp. 45–46.
114. ^ Moses 2023, p. 22.
115. ^ Moses 2023, p. 23.

### Bibliography

[edit]

#### Books

[edit]

* Bachman, Jeffrey S. (2022). The Politics of Genocide: From the Genocide Convention to the Responsibility to Protect. Rutgers University Press. ISBN 978-1-9788-2147-7.
* Ihrig, Stefan (2016). Justifying Genocide: Germany and the Armenians from Bismarck to Hitler. Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0-674-50479-0.
* Maynard, Jonathan Leader (2022). Ideology and Mass Killing: The Radicalized Security Politics of Genocides and Deadly Atrocities. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-108266-5.
* Moses, A. Dirk (2021). The Problems of Genocide: Permanent Security and the Language of Transgression. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-009-02832-5.
* Naimark, Norman M. (2017). Genocide: A World History. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-976527-0.
* Rechtman, Richard (2021). Living in Death: Genocide and Its Functionaries. Fordham University Press. ISBN 978-0-8232-9788-7.
* Shaw, Martin (2014). Genocide and International Relations: Changing Patterns in the Transitions of the Late Modern World. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-11013-6.
* Shaw, Martin (2015). What is Genocide?. John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-0-7456-8710-0.
* Weiss-Wendt, Anton (2017). The Soviet Union and the Gutting of the UN Genocide Convention. University of Wisconsin Press. ISBN 978-0-299-31290-9.
* Williams, Timothy (2020). The Complexity of Evil: Perpetration and Genocide. Rutgers University Press. hdl:20.500.12657/52460. ISBN 978-1-9788-1431-8.

#### Collections

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* Anderson, Kjell; Jessee, Erin (2020). "Introduction". Researching Perpetrators of Genocide. University of Wisconsin Press. ISBN 978-0-299-32970-9.
* Bloxham, Donald; Moses, A. Dirk, eds. (2010). The Oxford Handbook of Genocide Studies. Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199232116.001.0001. ISBN 978-0-19-161361-6.
* Bloxham, Donald; Pendas, Devin O. "Punishment as Prevention?". In Bloxham & Moses (2010), pp. 617–637.
* Schabas, William A. "The Law and Genocide". In Bloxham & Moses (2010), pp. 123–141.
* Fraser, James E. "Early Medieval Europe: The Case of Britain and Ireland". In Bloxham & Moses (2010), pp. 259–278.
* Graziosi, Andrea; Sysyn, Frank E. (2022). "Introduction: Genocide and Mass Categorical Violence". In Graziosi, Andrea; Sysyn, Frank E. (eds.). Genocide: The Power and Problems of a Concept. McGill-Queen's University Press. pp. 3–21. ISBN 978-0-2280-0951-1.
* Kiernan, Ben; Lemos, T. M.; Taylor, Tristan S., eds. (2023). The Cambridge World History of Genocide. Vol. I: Genocide in the Ancient, Medieval and Premodern Worlds. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-108-64034-3.
* Kiernan, Ben. "General Editor’s Introduction to the Series: Genocide: Its Causes, Components, Connections and Continuing Challenges". In Kiernan, Lemos & Taylor (2023), pp. 1–30.
* Lemos, T. M.; Taylor, Tristan S.; Kiernan, Ben. "Introduction to Volume I". In Kiernan, Lemos & Taylor (2023), pp. 31–56.
* Blackhawk, Ned; Kiernan, Ben; Madley, Benjamin; Taylor, Rebe, eds. (2023). The Cambridge World History of Genocide. Vol. II: Genocide in the Indigenous, Early Modern and Imperial Worlds, from c.1535 to World War One. Cambridge University Press. doi:10.1017/9781108765480. ISBN 978-1-108-76548-0.
* Kiernan, Ben; Madley, Benjamin; Taylor, Rebe. "Introduction to Volume II". In Blackhawk et al. (2023), pp. 1–20.
* Blackhawk, Ned. "'The Centrality of Dispossession': Native American Genocide and Settler Colonialism". In Blackhawk et al. (2023), pp. 23–45.
* Kiernan, Ben; Lower, Wendy; Naimark, Norman; Straus, Scott (2023). "Introduction to Volume III". The Cambridge World History of Genocide: Volume 3: Genocide in the Contemporary Era, 1914–2020. Cambridge University Press. pp. 1–28. ISBN 978-1-108-76711-8.
* Lang, Berel (2005). "The Evil in Genocide". Genocide and Human Rights: A Philosophical Guide. Palgrave Macmillan UK. pp. 5–17. ISBN 978-0-230-55483-2.
* McNeill, J. R.; Pomeranz, Kenneth, eds. (2015). Production, Destruction and Connection, 1750-Present, Part 1, Structures, Spaces, and Boundary Making. The Cambridge World History. Vol. 7\. Cambridge University Press. doi:10.1017/CBO9781139196079. ISBN 978-1-108-40775-5.
* Levene, Mark. "Genocide". In McNeill & Pomeranz (2015), pp. 420–440.
* Moses, A. Dirk (2023). "Genocide as a Category Mistake: Permanent Security and Mass Violence Against Civilians". Genocidal Violence: Concepts, Forms, Impact. De Gruyter. pp. 15–38. doi:10.1515/9783110781328-002. ISBN 978-3-11-078132-8.
* Simon, David J.; Kahn, Leora, eds. (2023). Handbook of Genocide Studies. Edward Elgar Publishing. doi:10.4337/9781800379343. ISBN 9781800379336.
* Irvin-Erickson, Douglas. "The history of Rapha'l Lemkin and the UN Genocide Convention". In Simon & Kahn (2023), pp. 7–26.
* Adhikari, Mohamed. "Destroying to replace: reflections on motive forces behind civilian-driven violence in settler genocides of Indigenous peoples". In Simon & Kahn (2023), pp. 42–53.
* Anderton, Charles H. "Genocide prevention: perspectives from psychological and social economic choice models". In Simon & Kahn (2023), pp. 142–156.

#### Journals

[edit]

* Bachman, Jeffrey S. (2021). "Situating Contributions from Underrepresented Groups and Geographies within the Field of Genocide Studies". International Studies Perspectives. 22 (3): 361–382. doi:10.1093/isp/ekaa011.
* Kathman, Jacob D.; Wood, Reed M. (2011). "Managing Threat, Cost, and Incentive to Kill: The Short- and Long-Term Effects of Intervention in Mass Killings". Journal of Conflict Resolution. 55 (5): 735–760. doi:10.1177/0022002711408006.
* Lindert, Jutta; Kawachi, Ichiro; Knobler, Haim Y.; Abramowitz, Moshe Z.; Galea, Sandro; Roberts, Bayard; Mollica, Richard; McKee, Martin (2019). "The long-term health consequences of genocide: developing GESQUQ - a genocide studies checklist". Conflict and Health. 13 (1): 14. doi:10.1186/s13031-019-0198-9. ISSN 1752-1505. PMC 6460659. PMID 31011364.
* Lindert, Jutta; Knobler, Haim Y.; Kawachi, Ichiro; Bain, Paul A.; Abramowitz, Moshe Z.; McKee, Charlotte; Reinharz, Shula; McKee, Martin (2017). "Psychopathology of children of genocide survivors: a systematic review on the impact of genocide on their children's psychopathology from five countries". International Journal of Epidemiology: 246–257.
* Ozoráková, Lilla (2022). "The Road to Finding a Definition for the Crime of Genocide – the Importance of the Genocide Convention". The Law & Practice of International Courts and Tribunals. 21 (2): 278–301. doi:10.1163/15718034-12341475. ISSN 1569-1853.

## External links

[edit]

* Quotations related to Genocide at Wikiquote
* The dictionary definition of genocide at Wiktionary
* Media related to Genocide at Wikimedia Commons

* v
* t
* e

Genocide

Genocides
(list by death toll)|

Before 1490

* Destruction of Carthage (146 BCE)
* Asiatic Vespers (88 BCE)
* Gauls (50s BCE)
* Eburones
* Bar Kokhba (132–136)
* Ancestral Puebloans (800s)
* Harrying of the North (1069–1070)
* Mongol conquests (1200s–1360s)
* Cathars (1209–1229)
* Mongols in the Delhi Sultanate (1311)
* Assyria (1393–1394)
* Guanches (1402–1496)

1490 to 1913

* Taíno (1492–1514)
* Ainu (1500s–)
* Indigenous peoples in Brazil (1500–)
* Kashmiri Shias (1548–1872)
* Huguenots (1572)
* Kalinago (1626)
* Lameyans (1636)
* Pequots (1636–1638)
* Huron (1640–1649)
* Jews in the Cossack Hetmanate (1648–1657)
* Indigenous peoples in Canada
* Beothuk (1700s–1800s)
* Residential school system (1874–1996)
* 1740 Batavia massacre (1740)
* Great Gypsy Round-up (1749)
* Dzungars (1750s)
* Chechens (1785–2017)
* Indigenous peoples in Australia
* Black War (1825–1832)
* Stolen Generations (1869–1977)
* Al-Jawazi massacre (1816)
* Siege of Tripolitsa (1821)
* Indigenous peoples in the United States
* Indian removal (1830–1847)
* Trail of Tears (1830–1850)
* California (1846–1873)
* Sand Creek massacre (1864)
* Charrúa (1831)
* Moriori (1835)
* Manchus (1850–1864)
* Circassians (1860s)
* Putumayo genocide (1879–1913)
* Hazaras (1888–1893)
* Selk'nam (1890s–1900s)
* Hamidian massacres (1894–1896)
* Herero and Nama (1904–1907)
* Ukame (1905–1907)
* Persecution of Muslims during the Ottoman contraction
* Massacres of Albanians in the Balkan Wars (1912–1913)

1913 to 1945

* Late Ottoman genocides
* Greeks (1913–1922)
* Pontic Greeks
* Thracian Bulgarians (1913)
* Assyrians (1915–1919)
* Armenians (1915–1917)
* Christians in Diyarbekir (1915)
* Kurds (1916–1934)
* Kyrgyz (1916–1917)
* Osage Indian murders (1918–1931)
* Cossacks (1919–1933)
* Ingrian Finns (1920s–1930s)
* Kantō Massacre (1923)
* Napalpí massacre (1924)
* Kinder der Landstrasse (1926–1973)
* Libyan Arabs (1929–1932)
* Kazakhs (1930–1933)
* La Matanza (1932)
* Holodomor (1932–1933)
* Simele massacre (1933)
* Romani Holocaust (1935–1945)
* Polish Operation (1937–1938)
* Parsley massacre (1937)
* Nanjing Massacre (1937–1938)
* Poles (1939–1945)
* Three Alls policy (1940–1942)
* The Holocaust (1941–1945)
* German atrocities committed against Soviet POWs (1941–1945)
* Serbs in Croatia (1941–1945)
* Muslims and Croats (1941–1945)
* Sook Ching (1942)
* Nanshitou Massacre (1942–1945)
* Volhynia (1943–1945)
* Chechens and Ingush (1944–1948)
* Crimean Tatars (1944–1948)

1946 to 1999

* Hyderabadi Muslims (1948)
* Indigenous peoples in Paraguay (1956–1989)
* Guatemalan (1962–1996)
* Arabs in Zanzibar (1964)
* 1966 anti-Igbo pogrom (1966)
* Biafra (1966–1970)
* Feyli Kurds (1970–2003)
* Bangladesh (1971)
* Burundi
* 1972
* 1993
* East Timor (1974–1999)
* Cambodian (1975–1979)
* Chittagong Hill Tracts (1977–1997)
* Sabra and Shatila massacre (1982)
* Sri Lankan Tamils (1983–2009)
* Gukurahundi (1983–1987)
* Anfal (1986–1989)
* Isaaq (1987–1989)
* Plan Verde (1989–2000)
* Amhara (1990–)
* Ahwaris (1991–2003)
* Bosnian (1992–1995)
* Srebrenica massacre
* Rwandan (1994)
* Massacres of Hutus during the First Congo War (1996–1997)

21st century

* Effacer le tableau (2002–2003)
* Darfur (2003–)
* Masalit massacres
* Southern Kaduna (2011–2023)
* Iraqi Turkmen (2014–2017)
* Yazidis (2014–2017)
* Shias under ISIS (2014–)
* Christians under ISIS (2014–)
* Rohingya (2017–)
* Gaza Strip (2023–)

Terms|

* Democide
* Autogenocide
* Politicide
* Classicide
* Eliticide
* Ethnocide
* Cultural genocide
* Eugenics
* Gendercide
* Transgender genocide
* Genocide of indigenous peoples
* Policide
* Utilitarian genocide
* Mass killing
* Domicide

Methods|

* Cultural genocide
* Rape
* Ethnic cleansing
* Extermination camp
* Forced assimilation
* Massacres
* Killing Fields
* Pogroms
* Death marches
* Death squads
* Incitement
* Settler colonialism

Denial|

* The Holocaust
* Trivialization
* Armenian
* Serbian
* Bosnian
* Rwandan
* Holodomor
* Cambodian
* Indigenous

Issues|

* Definitions
* Names of the Holocaust
* Terminology of the Armenian genocide
* Holocaust terminology
* Genocide law
* Prevention
* Effects on young survivors
* Politics of recognition
* Justification
* Mass killings under communist regimes
* Anti-communist mass killings

Legal proceedings|

Holocaust trials (1943–2022)

* Krasnodar trial (1943)
* Kharkov trial (1943)
* Épuration légale (1944–1951)
* Majdanek trials (1944–1989)
* Chełmno trials (1945–2001)
* Dachau trials (1945–1947)
* Belsen trials (1945–1948)
* Euthanasia trials (1945–1949)
* Nuremberg trial (1945–1946)
* Minsk trial (1945–1946)
* Riga trial (1946)
* Stutthof trials (1946–1947)
* Post–World War II Romanian war crime trials (1946–1953)
* Supreme National Tribunal (1946–1948)
* Hamburg Ravensbrück trials (1946–1948)
* Nuremberg Military Tribunals (1946–1949)
* Erich von Manstein (1949)
* Ulm Einsatzkommando trial (1958)
* War crimes trials in Soviet Estonia (1961–1962)
* Eichmann trial (1961)
* Belzec trial (1963–1965)
* Frankfurt Auschwitz trials (1963–1989)
* Treblinka trials (1964–1970)
* Sobibor trial (1965–1966)
* Fedorenko trial (1986)
* Finta trial (1994)

20th century

* Budak trial (1945)
* International Military Tribunal for the Far East (1946–1948)
* Belgrade Process (1946)
* Nanjing War Crimes Tribunal (1946–1948)
* Bosnian genocide case (1993–2007)
* International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia (1993–2017)
* Slobodan Milošević (2002–2006)
* Radovan Karadžić (2008–2016)
* Ratko Mladić (2011–2017)
* International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda (1994–2015)
* Khmer Rouge Tribunal (1997–2022)
* Croatia–Serbia genocide case (1999–2015)

21st century

* International Criminal Court investigation in Darfur (2005–)
* International Crimes Tribunal of Bangladesh (2012–)
* Rohingya genocide case (2019–)
* Uyghur Tribunal (2020–2021)
* International Criminal Court investigation in Ukraine (2022–)
* Ukraine v. Russian Federation (2022–)
* South Africa v. Israel (2023–)
* Defense for Children International – Palestine et al v. Biden et al (2023–2024)
* Nicaragua v. Germany (2024)

* v
* t
* e

International criminal law

Sources|

* Customary international law
* Peremptory norm
* Hague Conventions
* Geneva Conventions
* Nuremberg Charter
* Nuremberg principles
* United Nations Charter
* Genocide Convention
* Convention Against Torture
* Rome Statute

Crimes against
international law

* Crimes against humanity
* Crime of aggression
* Crime of apartheid
* Genocide
* Genocidal intent
* Incitement to genocide
* Piracy
* Slave trading
* Starvation
* War crime

International courts
(in order of foundation)

* International Military Tribunal (Nuremberg Trials)
* International Military Tribunal for the Far East
* International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia
* International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda
* Special Court for Sierra Leone
* International Criminal Court
* Extraordinary Chambers in the Courts of Cambodia
* Special Panels of the Dili District Court
* Special Tribunal for Lebanon
* International Residual Mechanism for Criminal Tribunals

Related concepts|

* Command responsibility
* Superior orders
* Joint criminal enterprise
* International humanitarian law
* International speech crimes
* Universal jurisdiction

* v
* t
* e

Religious persecution and discrimination

By group|

* Ahmadiyya
* Atheism
* Baháʼí Faith
* Buddhism
* Catholicism
* Christianity
* post–Cold War era
* Falun Gong
* Hinduism
* Persecution
* Untouchability
* Islam
* Persecution
* Jehovah's Witnesses
* Judaism
* Persecution
* LDS or Mormon
* Neopaganism
* Eastern Orthodox
* Oriental Orthodox
* Protestantism
* Rastafari
* Shi'ism
* Sufism
* Zoroastrianism

Methods|

* Censorship
* Communal violence
* Cultural genocide
* Deprogramming
* Desecration
* Domicide
* Discrimination
* Ethnic cleansing
* Ethnic conflict
* Ethnic violence
* Extrajudicial killing
* Extrajudicial punishment
* Forced conversion
* Forced displacement
* Hate crime
* Iconoclasm
* Intolerance
* Pogrom
* Political violence
* Population cleansing
* Population transfer
* Sectarian violence
* Social cleansing
* Segregation
* State atheism
* State religion
* Terrorism
* Violence
* War

Events|

* Persecution of Christians in the Roman Empire (64–313)
* Persecution of pagans in the late Roman Empire (c. 324–c. 491)
* Decline of Buddhism in the Indian subcontinent (c.550–c. 1200)
* Yellow Turban Rebellion (c.184–c. 205)
* Battle of Tours (732)
* Rhineland massacres (1096)
* Jerusalem massacre (1099)
* Muslim conquests in the Indian subcontinent (643–1526)
* Inquisition (1184–1908)
* Massacre at Ayyadieh (1191)
* Northern Crusades (12th–16th cent.)
* Crusades against schismatics (13th–15th cent.)
* Forced conversions of Muslims in Spain (1500–1526)
* European wars of religion (1522–1712)
* Ottoman–Habsburg wars (1526–1791)
* Goa Inquisition (1561–1812)
* French Wars of Religion (1562–1598)
* Expulsion of the Moriscos (1609–1614)
* Test Acts (1673–1829)
* Persecution of Muslims during the Ottoman contraction (1683–1922)
* Christianization of the Sámi people (1700s)
* French Revolutionary dechristianisation (1789–1801)
* Utah War (1857–1858)
* 1860 Mount Lebanon civil war (1860)
* Circassian genocide (1864)
* Dungan Revolt (1862–1877)
* Adana massacre (1909)
* Massacres of Albanians in the Balkan Wars (1912–1913)
* Greek genocide (1913–1922)
* Pontic Greek genocide
* Assyrian genocide (1914–1924)
* Armenian genocide (1915–1923)
* Persecution of Christians in the Eastern Bloc (1917–1990)
* Soviet persecution (1922–1991)
* 1917-1921
* 1921-1928
* 1928-1941
* 1958-1964
* 1970-1987
* legislation
* Šahovići massacre (1924)
* White Terror (Spain) (1936–1975)
* Nazi boycott of Jewish businesses (1933)
* The Holocaust (1939–1945)
* Genocide of Serbs in the Independent State of Croatia (1941–1945)
* Communist Polish persecution (1945–1989)
* Communist Romanian persecution (1945–1989)
* Noakhali riots (1946)
* Direct Action Day (1946)
* 1946 Bihar riots (1946)
* Rawalpindi massacres (1947)
* Persecution of Hindus in Pakistan (1947–ongoing)
* Violence against Muslims in India (1947–ongoing)
* Violence against Hindus in independent India (1947–ongoing)
* 1948 Palestinian expulsion and flight (1948)
* Jewish exodus from the Muslim world (1948–1980)
* Antireligious campaigns of the Chinese Communist Party (1949–ongoing)
* Persecution of Tibetans (1950–ongoing)
* Exodus of Turks from Bulgaria (1950)
* Religious violence in Nigeria (1953–ongoing)
* Istanbul pogrom (1955)
* Buddhist crisis (1963)
* Huế Phật Đản shootings (1963)
* Thích Quảng Đức (1963)
* Xá Lợi Pagoda raids (1963)
* Cultural Revolution (1966–1976)
* Four Olds (1966)
* Famen Temple (1966)
* Bangladesh genocide (1971)
* Persecution of Hindus in Bangladesh (1971–ongoing)
* Lebanese Civil War (1975–1990)
* Cambodian genocide (1975–1979)
* 1984 anti-Sikh riots (1984)
* Revival Process (1984–1989)
* Big Excursion (1989)
* Exodus of Kashmiri Hindus (1990)
* Yugoslav Wars (1991–2001)
* Ethnic cleansing in the Bosnian War (1992–1996)
* Bosnian genocide (1995)
* War crimes in the Kosovo War (1999)
* Walisongo school massacre (2000)
* Kosheh massacres (2000)
* September 11 attacks (2001)
* 2002 Gujarat riots (2002)
* South Thailand insurgency (2004–ongoing)
* Boko Haram insurgency (2009–ongoing)
* Maspero demonstrations (2011)
* Attacks by Islamic extremists in Bangladesh (2013–2016)
* Yazidi genocide (2014–2017)
* Genocide of Christians by ISIL (2014–ongoing)
* Iraqi Turkmen genocide (2014–2017)
* Persecution of Uyghurs in China (2014–ongoing)
* Rohingya genocide (2016–ongoing)
* Christchurch mosque shootings (2019)
* 2019 Sri Lanka Easter bombings (2019)
* 2020 Delhi riots (2020)
* 2023 Hamas-led attack on Israel (2023)
* 2024 Istanbul church shooting
* Crocus City Hall attack (2024)

Religion

* v
* t
* e

Discrimination

Forms|

* Institutional
* Structural
* Statistical
* Taste-based

Attributes|

* Age
* Caste
* Class
* Dialect
* Disability
* Genetic
* Hair texture
* Height
* Language
* Looks
* Mental disorder
* Race / Ethnicity
* Skin color
* Scientific racism
* Rank
* Sex
* Sexual orientation
* Species
* Size
* Viewpoint

Social|

* Arophobia
* Acephobia
* Adultism
* Anti-albinism
* Anti-autism
* Anti-homelessness
* Anti-drug addicts
* Anti-intellectualism
* Anti-intersex
* Anti-left handedness
* Anti-Masonry
* Antisemitism
* Aporophobia
* Audism
* Biphobia
* Clannism
* Cronyism
* Elitism
* Ephebiphobia
* Social determinants of health
* Social determinants of health in poverty
* Social determinants of mental health
* Fatphobia
* Gayphobia
* Gerontophobia
* Heterosexism
* HIV/AIDS stigma
* Homophobia
* Leprosy stigma
* Lesbophobia
* Discrimination against men
* Misandry
* Misogyny
* Nepotism
* Pedophobia
* Perpetual foreigner
* Pregnancy
* Reverse
* Sectarianism
* Supremacism
* White
* Male
* Transphobia
* Non-binary
* Transmisogyny
* Trans men
* Vegaphobia
* Xenophobia

Religious|

* Ahmadiyya
* Atheism
* Baháʼí Faith
* Buddhism
* Catholicism
* Christianity
* post–Cold War era
* Falun Gong
* Hinduism
* Persecution
* Untouchability
* Islam
* Persecution
* Jehovah's Witnesses
* Judaism
* Persecution
* LDS or Mormon
* Neopaganism
* Eastern Orthodox
* Oriental Orthodox
* Protestantism
* Rastafari
* Shi'ism
* Sufism
* Zoroastrianism

Ethnic/National|

* Afghan
* African
* Albanian
* American
* Arab
* Armenian
* Asian
* France
* South Africa
* United States
* Assyrian
* Azerbaijani
* Black people
* African Americans
* China
* South Africa
* Bengali
* Bulgarian
* Catalan
* Chechen
* Chinese
* Colombian
* Croat
* Filipino
* Fulani
* Finnish
* Georgian
* Greek
* Haitian
* Hazara
* Hungarian
* Igbo
* Indian
* Indigenous people
* Australia
* Canada
* United States
* Irish
* Israeli
* Italian
* Japanese
* Jewish
* Korean
* Kurdish
* Lithuanian
* Malay
* Māori
* Mexican
* Middle Eastern
* Mongolian
* Nigerian
* Pakistani
* Palestinians
* Pashtun
* Polish
* Quebec
* Romani
* Romanian
* Serb
* Slavic
* Somali
* Tatar
* Thai
* Turkish
* Ukrainian
* Uyghur
* Venezuelan
* Vietnamese

Manifestations|

* Anti-LGBTQ rhetoric
* SPLC-designated list of anti-LGBTQ hate groups
* Blood libel
* Bullying
* Cancel culture
* Capital punishment for homosexuality
* Compulsory sterilization
* Corrective rape
* Counter-jihad
* Cultural genocide
* Defamation
* Democide
* Disability hate crime
* Dog whistle
* Economic
* Education
* Employment
* Eliminationism
* Enemy of the people
* Ethnic cleansing
* Ethnic conflict
* Ethnic hatred
* Ethnic joke
* Ethnocide
* Excellence
* Forced conversion
* Freak show
* Gay bashing
* Gendercide
* Genital modification and mutilation
* Genocide
* examples
* Glass ceiling
* Hate crime
* LGBT
* Hate group
* Hate speech
* Homeless dumping
* Housing
* Indian rolling
* Intersectionality
* Kill Haole Day
* Lavender scare
* LGBT grooming conspiracy theory
* List of people killed for being transgender
* Lynching
* Mortgage
* Murder music
* Native American mascots
* Braves
* Blackhawks
* Chiefs
* Occupational segregation
* Opposition to immigration
* Persecution
* Pogrom
* Political repression
* Purge
* Racialization
* Religious persecution
* Religious terrorism
* Religious violence
* Religious war
* Scapegoating
* Segregation academy
* Sexual harassment
* Sex-selective abortion
* Slut-shaming
* Trans bashing
* Victimisation
* Violence against women
* White flight
* White genocide conspiracy theory
* Wife selling
* Witch-hunt

Discriminatory
policies|

* Age of candidacy
* Blood purity
* Blood quantum
* Crime of apartheid
* Disabilities
* Catholic
* Jewish
* Gender pay gap
* Gender roles
* Gerontocracy
* Gerrymandering
* Ghetto benches
* Internment
* Jewish quota
* Law for Protection of the Nation
* MSM blood donation restrictions
* No kid zone
* Numerus clausus (as religious or racial quota)
* One-drop rule
* Racial quota
* Racial segregation
* Jim Crow laws
* Nuremberg Laws
* Racial steering
* Redlining
* Same-sex marriage (laws and issues prohibiting)
* Segregation
* age
* racial
* religious
* sexual
* Social exclusion
* Sodomy law
* State atheism
* State religion
* Ugly law
* Voter suppression

Countermeasures|

* Affirmative action
* Anti-discrimination law
* Anti-racism
* Constitutional colorblindness
* Cultural assimilation
* Cultural pluralism
* Diversity training
* Empowerment
* Fat acceptance movement
* Feminism
* Fighting Discrimination
* Hate speech laws by country
* Human rights
* Intersex human rights
* LGBT rights
* Masculism
* Multiculturalism
* Nonviolence
* Racial integration
* Reappropriation
* Self-determination
* Social integration
* Toleration

Related topics|

* Allophilia
* Amatonormativity
* Bias
* Christian privilege
* Cisnormativity
* Civil liberties
* Dehumanization
* Diversity
* Ethnic penalty
* Figleaf
* Gender-blind
* Heteronormativity
* Historical eugenics
* Internalized oppression
* Intersectionality
* Male privilege
* Masculism
* Medical model of disability
* autism
* Multiculturalism
* Net bias
* Neurodiversity
* Oikophobia
* Oppression
* Police brutality
* Political correctness
* Polyculturalism
* Power distance
* Prejudice
* Prisoner abuse
* Racial bias in criminal news in the United States
* Racism by country
* Racial color blindness
* Religious intolerance
* Second-generation gender bias
* Snobbery
* Social exclusion
* Social identity threat
* Social model of disability
* Social stigma
* Speciesism
* Stereotype
* threat
* The talk
* White privilege

* Category
* Commons

* v
* t
* e

Population

Major topics|

* Demographics of the world
* Demographic transition
* Estimates of historical world population
* Population growth
* Population momentum
* Projections of population growth
* World population

Population
biology

* Population decline
* Population density
* Physiological density
* Population dynamics
* Population model
* Population pyramid

Population
ecology

* Biocapacity
* Carrying capacity
* I = P × A × T
* Kaya identity
* Malthusian growth model
* Overshoot (population)
* World3 model

Society and
population|

* Eugenics
* Dysgenics
* Human overpopulation
* Malthusian catastrophe
* Human population planning
* Compulsory sterilization
* Family planning
* One-child policy
* Two-child policy
* Overconsumption
* Political demography
* Population ethics
* Antinatalism
* Mere addition paradox
* Natalism
* Non-identity problem
* Reproductive rights
* Sustainable population
* Zero population growth

Publications|

* Population and Environment
* Population and Development Review

Lists|

* Population and housing censuses by country
* Largest cities
* World population milestones
* 6 billion
* 7
* 8
* Population concern organizations

Events and
organizations

* 7 Billion Actions
* Church of Euthanasia
* International Conference on Population and Development
* Population Action International
* Population Connection
* Population Matters
* United Nations Population Fund
* United Nations world population conferences
* Voluntary Human Extinction Movement
* World Population Conference
* World Population Day
* World Population Foundation

Related topics|

* Bennett's law
* Green Revolution
* Human impact on the environment
* Migration
* Sustainability

* Commons
* Category

Authority control databases

National|

* Germany
* United States
* France
* BnF data
* Japan
* Czech Republic
* Spain
* Israel

Other|

* NARA
* Encyclopedia of Modern Ukraine
* Internet Encyclopedia of Ukraine

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