George Armitage Miller

American psychologist (1920–2012)

George Armitage Miller

Born| (1920-02-03)February 3, 1920

Charleston, West Virginia, US

Died| July 22, 2012(2012-07-22) (aged 92)

Plainsboro, New Jersey, US

Alma mater|

* Harvard University
* University of Alabama

Known for|

* Contributions to Cognitive Psychology and Science
* The Magical Number Seven, Plus or Minus Two
* Directing WordNet

Awards|

* National Medal of Science (1991)
* Louis E. Levy Medal (1991)
* APA Award for Lifetime Contributions to Psychology (2003)

Scientific career
Fields| Psychology, cognitive science
Institutions|

* Princeton University
* Harvard University
* Massachusetts Institute of Technology
* Rockefeller University
* Oxford University
* University of Alabama
* American Psychological Association

Thesis|  Optimal Design of Jamming Signals  (1946)
Doctoral advisor| Stanley Smith Stevens
Notable students| George Sperling, Ulric Neisser

George Armitage Miller (February 3, 1920 – July 22, 2012)[1] was an American psychologist who was one of the founders of cognitive psychology, and more broadly, of cognitive science. He also contributed to the birth of psycholinguistics. Miller wrote several books and directed the development of WordNet, an online word-linkage database usable by computer programs. He authored the paper, "The Magical Number Seven, Plus or Minus Two," in which he observed that many different experimental findings considered together reveal the presence of an average limit of seven for human short-term memory capacity. This paper is frequently cited by psychologists and in the wider culture. Miller won numerous awards, including the National Medal of Science.

Miller began his career when the reigning theory in psychology was behaviorism, which eschewed the study of mental processes and focused on observable behavior. Rejecting this approach, Miller devised experimental techniques and mathematical methods to analyze mental processes, focusing particularly on speech and language. Working mostly at Harvard University, MIT and Princeton University, he went on to become one of the founders of psycholinguistics and was one of the key figures in founding the broader new field of cognitive science, c. 1978. He collaborated and co-authored work with other figures in cognitive science and psycholinguistics, such as Noam Chomsky. For moving psychology into the realm of mental processes and for aligning that move with information theory, computation theory, and linguistics, Miller is considered one of the great twentieth-century psychologists. A Review of General Psychology survey, published in 2002, ranked Miller as the 20th most cited psychologist of that era.[2]

## Biography

[edit]

Miller was born on February 3, 1920, in Charleston, West Virginia, the son of George E. Miller, a steel company executive [1] and Florence (née Armitage) Miller.[3] Soon after his birth, his parents divorced, and he lived with his mother during the Great Depression, attending public school and graduating from Charleston High School in 1937. He moved with his mother and stepfather to Washington, D.C., and attended George Washington University for a year. His family practiced Christian Science, which required turning to prayer, rather than medical science, for healing. After his stepfather was transferred to Birmingham, Alabama, Miller transferred to the University of Alabama.[4]

At the University of Alabama he took courses in phonetics, voice science, and speech pathology, earning his bachelor's degree in history and speech in 1940, and a master's in a speech in 1941. Membership in the Drama club had fostered his interest in courses in the Speech Department. He was also influenced by Professor Donald Ramsdell, who introduced him both to psychology, and, indirectly through a seminar, to his future wife Katherine James.[4] They married on November 29, 1939. Katherine died in January 1996.[3][5] He married Margaret Ferguson Skutch Page in 2008.[3][6]

Miller taught the course "Introduction to Psychology" at Alabama for two years. He enrolled in the Ph.D. program in psychology at Harvard University in 1943, after coming to the university in 1942.[4] At Harvard he worked in Psycho-Acoustic Laboratory, under the supervision of Stanley Smith Stevens, researching military voice communications for the Army Signal Corps during World War II. He received his doctorate in 1946; his doctoral thesis, "The Optimal Design of Jamming Signals," was classified top secret by the US Army.[4]

### Career

[edit]

After receiving his doctorate, Miller stayed at Harvard as a research fellow, continuing his research on speech and hearing. He was appointed an assistant professor of psychology in 1948. The course he developed on language and communication eventually led to his first major book, Language and communication (1951). He took a sabbatical in 1950, and spent a year as a visiting fellow at the Institute for Advanced Study, Princeton, to pursue his interest in mathematics. Miller befriended J. Robert Oppenheimer, with whom he played squash.[7] In 1951, Miller joined MIT as an associate professor of psychology. He led the psychology group at the MIT Lincoln Lab and worked on voice communication and human engineering. A notable outcome of this research was his identification of the minimal voice features of speech required for it to be intelligible. Based on this work, in 1955, he was invited to talk at the Eastern Psychological Association. That presentation, "The magical number seven, plus or minus two", was later published as a paper which went on to be a legendary one in cognitive psychology.[4]

Miller moved back to Harvard as a tenured associate professor in 1955 and became a full professor in 1958, expanding his research into how language affects human cognition.[4] At the university, he met a young Noam Chomsky, another of the founders of cognitive science. They spent a summer together at Stanford, where their two families shared a house. In 1958–59, Miller took leave to join the Center for Advanced Study in the Behavioral Sciences at Palo Alto, California, (now at Stanford University).[8] There he collaborated with Eugene Galanter and Karl Pribram on the book Plans and the Structure of Behavior. In 1960, along with Jerome S. Bruner,[1][4] he co-founded the Center for Cognitive Studies at Harvard.[4] The cognitive term was a break from the then-dominant school of behaviorism, which insisted cognition was not fit for scientific study.[1] The center attracted such notable visitors as Jean Piaget, Alexander Luria and Chomsky.[8] Miller then became the chair of the psychology department.[4] Miller was instrumental at the time for recruiting Timothy Leary to teach at Harvard. Miller knew Leary from the University of Alabama, where Miller was teaching psychology and Leary graduated with an undergraduate degree from the department.[citation needed]

In 1967, Miller taught at Rockefeller University for a year, as a visiting professor,[3] From 1968 to 1979, he was Professor at the Rockefeller and continued as adjunct professor there from 1979 to 1982. Following the election of a new president at Rockefeller [8] Miller moved to Princeton University as the James S. McDonnell Distinguished University Professor of Psychology.[5][9][4] At Princeton he helped to found (in 1986) the Cognitive Science Laboratory, and also directed the McDonnell-Pew Program in Cognitive Science.[4]. Eventually, he became a professor emeritus and senior research psychologist at Princeton.

Miller had honorary doctorates from the University of Sussex (1984), Columbia University (1980), Yale University (1979), Catholic University of Louvain (1978),[4] Carnegie Mellon University (in humane letters, 2003),[10] and an honorary DSC from Williams College (2000).[11] He was elected to the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1957,[12] the National Academy of Sciences in 1962,[12] the presidency of the Eastern Psychological Association in 1962,[4] the presidency of the American Psychological Association in 1969,[4] the American Philosophical Society in 1971,[13] and to the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1985.[12][14] Miller was the keynote speaker at the first convention of the Association for Psychological Science in 1989.[15] He was a Fulbright research fellow at Oxford University in 1964–65,[8] and in 1991, received the National Medal of Science.[12]

### Death

[edit]

In his later years, Miller enjoyed playing golf.[1] He died in 2012 at his home in Plainsboro, New Jersey of complications of pneumonia and dementia.[5] At the time of his death, he was survived by his wife Margaret; the children from his first marriage: son Donnally James and daughter Nancy Saunders; two stepsons, David Skutch and Christopher Skutch; and three grandchildren: Gavin Murray-Miller, Morgan Murray-Miller and Nathaniel James Miller.[6][12]

## Major contributions

[edit]

Miller began his career in a period during which behaviorism dominated research psychology. It was argued that observable processes are the proper subject matter of science, that behavior is observable and mental processes are not. Thus, mental processes were not a fit topic for study. Miller disagreed. He and others such Jerome Bruner and Noam Chomsky founded the field of Cognitive Psychology, which accepted the study of mental processes as fundamental to an understanding of complex behavior. In succeeding years, this cognitive approach largely replaced behaviorism as the framework governing research in psychology.[5]

### Working memory

[edit]

From the days of William James, psychologists had distinguished short-term from long-term memory. While short-term memory seemed to be limited, its limits were not known. In 1956, Miller put a number on that limit in the paper "The magical number seven, plus or minus two". He derived this number from tasks such as asking a person to repeat a set of digits, presenting a stimulus and a label and requiring recall of the label, or asking the person to quickly count things in a group. In all three cases, Miller found the average limit to be seven items. He later had mixed feelings about this work, feeling that it had been often been misquoted, and he jokingly suggested that he was being persecuted by an integer.[1] Miller invented the term chunk to characterize the way that individuals could cope with this limitation on memory, effectively reducing the number of elements by grouping them. A chunk might be a single letter or a familiar word or even a larger familiar unit. These and related ideas strongly influenced the budding field of cognitive psychology.[16]

### WordNet

[edit]

For many years starting from 1986, Miller directed the development of WordNet, a large computer-readable electronic reference usable in applications such as search engines, which was created by a team that included Christiane Fellbaum, among others.[12] Wordnet is a large lexical database representing human semantic memory in English. Its fundamental building block is a synset, which is a collection of synonyms representing a concept or idea. Words can be in multiple synsets. The entire class of synsets is grouped into nouns, verbs, adjectives and adverbs separately, with links existing only within these four major groups but not between them. Going beyond a thesaurus, WordNet also includes inter-word relationships such as part/whole relationships and hierarchies of inclusion.[17]Although not intended to be a dictionary, Wordnet did have many short definitions added to it as time went on. Miller and colleagues had planned the tool to test psycholinguistic theories on how humans use and understand words.[18] Miller also later worked closely with entrepreneur Jeff Stibel and scientists at Simpli.com Inc., on a meaning-based keyword search engine based on WordNet.[19] Wordnet has proved to be extremely influential on an international scale.[citation needed] It has now been emulated by wordnets in many different languages.[citation needed]

### Psychology of language

[edit]

Miller is one of the founders of psycholinguistics, which links language and cognition in the analysis of language creation and usage. [1] His 1951 book Language and Communication is considered seminal in the field.[5] His later book, The Science of Words (1991) also focused on the psychology of language.[20] Together with Noam Chomsky he published papers on the mathematical and computational aspects of language and its syntax, two new areas of study.[21][22][23] Miller also studied the human understanding of words and sentences, a problem also faced by artificial speech-recognition technology. The book Plans and the Structure of Behavior (1960), written with Eugene Galanter and Karl H. Pribram, explored how humans plan and act, trying to extrapolate this to how a robot could be programmed to plan and act.[1] Miller is also known for coining Miller's Law: "In order to understand what another person is saying, you must assume it is true and try to imagine what it could be true of".[24]

## Books

[edit]

Miller authored several books, many considered the first major works in their respective fields.

### Language and Communication, 1951

[edit]

Miller's Language and Communication was one of the first significant texts in the study of language behavior. The book was a scientific study of language, emphasizing quantitative data, and was based on the mathematical model of Claude Shannon's information theory.[25] It used a probabilistic model imposed on a learning-by-association scheme borrowed from behaviorism, with Miller not yet attached to a pure cognitive perspective.[26] The first part of the book reviewed information theory, the physiology and acoustics of phonetics, speech recognition and comprehension, and statistical techniques to analyze language.[25] The focus was more on speech generation than recognition.[26] The second part had the psychology: idiosyncratic differences across people in language use; developmental linguistics; the structure of word associations in people; use of symbolism in language; and social aspects of language use.[25]

Reviewing the book, Charles E. Osgood classified the book as a graduate-level text based more on objective facts than on theoretical constructs. He thought the book was verbose on some topics and too brief on others not directly related to the author's expertise area. He was also critical of Miller's use of simple, Skinnerian single-stage stimulus-response learning to explain human language acquisition and use. This approach, per Osgood, made it impossible to analyze the concept of meaning, and the idea of language consisting of representational signs. He did find the book objective in its emphasis on facts over theory, and depicting clearly application of information theory to psychology.[25]

### Plans and the Structure of Behavior, 1960

[edit]

In Plans and the Structure of Behavior, Miller and his co-authors tried to explain through an artificial-intelligence computational perspective how animals plan and act.[27] This was a radical break from behaviorism which explained behavior as a set or sequence of stimulus-response actions. The authors introduced a planning element controlling such actions.[28] They saw all plans as being executed based on input using a stored or inherited information of the environment (called the image), and using a strategy called test-operate-test-exit (TOTE). The image was essentially a stored memory of all past context, akin to Tolman's cognitive map. The TOTE strategy, in its initial test phase, compared the input against the image; if there was incongruity the operate function attempted to reduce it. This cycle would be repeated till the incongruity vanished, and then the exit function would be invoked, passing control to another TOTE unit in a hierarchically arranged scheme.[27]

Peter Milner, in a review in the Canadian Journal of Psychology, noted the book was short on concrete details on implementing the TOTE strategy. He also critically viewed the book as not being able to tie its model to details from neurophysiology at a molecular level. Per him, the book covered only the brain at the gross level of lesion studies, showing that some of its regions could possibly implement some TOTE strategies, without giving a reader an indication as to how the region could implement the strategy.[27]

### The Psychology of Communication, 1967

[edit]

Miller's 1967 work, The Psychology of Communication, was a collection of seven previously published articles. The first "Information and Memory" dealt with chunking, presenting the idea of separating physical length (the number of items presented to be learned) and psychological length (the number of ideas the recipient manages to categorize and summarize the items with). Capacity of short-term memory was measured in units of psychological length, arguing against a pure behaviorist interpretation since meaning of items, beyond reinforcement and punishment, was central to psychological length.[29]

The second essay was the paper on magical number seven. The third, 'The human link in communication systems,' used information theory and its idea of channel capacity to analyze human perception bandwidth. The essay concluded how much of what impinges on us we can absorb as knowledge was limited, for each property of the stimulus, to a handful of items.[29] The paper on "Psycholinguists" described how effort in both speaking or understanding a sentence was related to how much of self-reference to similar-structures-present-inside was there when the sentence was broken down into clauses and phrases.[30] The book, in general, used the Chomskian view of seeing language rules of grammar as having a biological basis—disproving the simple behaviorist idea that language performance improved with reinforcement—and using the tools of information and computation to place hypotheses on a sound theoretical framework and to analyze data practically and efficiently. Miller specifically addressed experimental data refuting the behaviorist framework at concept level in the field of language and cognition. He noted this only qualified behaviorism at the level of cognition, and did not overthrow it in other spheres of psychology.[29]

## Legacy

[edit]

The Cognitive Neuroscience Society established a George A. Miller Prize in 1995 for contributions to the field.[31] The American Psychological Association established a George A. Miller Award in 1995 for an outstanding article on general psychology.[32] From 1987 the department of psychology at Princeton University has presented the George A. Miller prize annually to the best interdisciplinary senior thesis in cognitive science.[33] The paper on the magical number seven continues to be cited by both the popular press to explain the liking for seven-digit phone numbers and to argue against nine-digit zip codes, and by academia, especially modern psychology, to highlight its break with the behaviorist paradigm.[1]

Miller was considered the 20th most eminent psychologist of the 20th century in a list[34] republished by, among others, the American Psychological Association.[35]

## Awards

[edit]

* Distinguished Scientific Contribution award from the American Psychological Association (APA) in 1963.[3]
* Distinguished Service award from the American Speech and Hearing Association, 1976.[3]
* Award in Behavioral Sciences from the New York Academy of Sciences, 1982.[3]
* Guggenheim fellow in 1986.[3]
* William James fellow of the American Psychological Society, 1989.[3]
* Hermann von Helmholtz award from the Cognitive Neurosciences Institute, 1989.[3]
* Gold Medal from the American Psychological Foundation in 1990.[3]
* National Medal of Science from The White House, 1991.[3]
* Louis E. Levy medal from the Franklin Institute, 1991.[3]
* International Prize from the Fyssen Foundation, 1992.[3]
* William James Book award from the APA Division of General Psychology, 1993.[3]
* John P. McGovern award from the American Association for the Advancement of Science, 2000.[3]
* Outstanding Lifetime Contribution to Psychology award from the APA in 2003.[3]
* Antonio Zampolli Prize from the European Languages Research Association, 2006.[36]

## Works

[edit]

* George A. Miller; Eugene Galanter; Karl H. Pribram (1960). Plans and the Structure of Behavior. Henry Holt & Co. ISBN 978-0-03-010075-8.
* -- (1963). Language and Communication. McGraw Hill. ASIN B000SRSOIK.
* -- (1965). Mathematics and Psychology (Perspectives in Psychology). John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-0-471-60408-2.
* Frank Smith; George A. Miller, eds. (1966). The genesis of language; a psycholinguistic approach; proceedings of a conference on language development in children. The MIT Press.
* Frank Smith; George A Miller (1968). The Genesis of Language: A Psycholinguistic Approach. The MIT Press. ISBN 978-0-262-69022-5.
* George A. Miller, ed. (1973). Communication, Language and Meaning (Perspectives in Psychology). Basic Books. ISBN 978-0-465-12833-4.
* -- (1974). Linguistic Communication: Perspectives for Research. International Reading Association. ISBN 978-0-87207-929-8.
* -- (1975). The Psychology of Communication. Harper Androw-1975. ISBN 978-0-465-09707-4.
* George A. Miller; Philip N Johnson-Laird (1976). Language and Perception. Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0-674-50947-4.
* Morris Halle; Joan Bresnan; George A. Miller, eds. (1978). Linguistic theory and psychological reality. The MIT Press. ISBN 978-0-262-08095-8.
* George A. Miller; Elizabeth Lenneberg, eds. (1978). Psychology and biology of language and thought: essays in honor of Eric Lenneberg. Academic Press. ISBN 978-0-12-497750-1.
* Oscar Grusky; George A. Miller, eds. (1981). Sociology of Organizations (2nd ed.). Free Press. ISBN 978-0-02-912930-2.
* Ned Joel Block; Jerrold J. Katz; George A. Miller, eds. (1981). Readings in Philosophy of Psychology, Volume II. Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0-674-74878-1.
* George A. Miller; Eugene Galanter; Karl H. Pribram (1986). Plans and the Structure of Behavior. Adams Bannister Cox Pubs. ISBN 978-0-937431-00-9.
* -- (1987). Spontaneous Apprentices: Children and Language (Tree of Life). Seabury Press. ISBN 978-0-8164-9330-2.
* -- (1987). Language and Speech. W H Freeman & Co (sd). ISBN 978-0-7167-1297-8.
* -- (1991). Psychology: The Science of Mental Life. Penguin Books Ltd. ISBN 978-0-14-013489-6.
* -- (1991). The Science of Words. W H Freeman & Co. ISBN 978-0-7167-5027-7.

### Chapters in books

[edit]

* Miller, George A.; Galanter, Eugene (1960), "Some comments on Stochastic models and psychological theories", in Arrow, Kenneth J.; Karlin, Samuel; Suppes, Patrick (eds.), Mathematical models in the social sciences, 1959: Proceedings of the first Stanford symposium, Stanford mathematical studies in the social sciences, IV, Stanford, California: Stanford University Press, pp. 277–297, ISBN 978-0-8047-0021-4.

## References

[edit]

1. ^ a b c d e f g h i Paul Vitello (August 1, 2012). "George A. Miller, a pioneer in cognitive psychology, is dead at 92". New York Times. Retrieved August 8, 2012.
2. ^ Haggbloom, Steven J.; Powell, John L. III; Warnick, Jason E.; Jones, Vinessa K.; Yarbrough, Gary L.; Russell, Tenea M.; Borecky, Chris M.; McGahhey, Reagan; et al. (2002). "The 100 most eminent psychologists of the 20th century". Review of General Psychology. 6 (2): 139–152. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.586.1913. doi:10.1037/1089-2680.6.2.139. S2CID 145668721.
3. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q "Profile details: George Armitage Miller". Marquis Who's Who. Retrieved August 7, 2012.
4. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n No Authorship Indicated (1991). "Gold medal awards for life achievement: George Armitage Miller". American Psychologist. 46 (4): 326–328. doi:10.1037/0003-066X.46.4.326.
5. ^ a b c d e Thomas M. Haugh II (August 6, 2012). "George A. Miller dies at 92; pioneer of cognitive psychology". Los Angeles Times. Retrieved August 8, 2012.
6. ^ a b Emily Langer (August 3, 2012). "George A. Miller; helped transform the study of psychology; at 92". Washington Post. Archived from the original on January 19, 2013. Retrieved August 8, 2012.
7. ^ Pais A. (2006). J. Robert Oppenheimer: A life. Oxford University Press. p. 89.
8. ^ a b c d Richard Hébert (July 2006). "The Miller's tale". Aps Observer. 19. American Psychological Society. Retrieved August 10, 2012.
9. ^ Lindzey, G. (1989). A History of psychology in autobiography. Stanford University Press.
10. ^ "Preeminent leaders awarded honorary degrees". Carnegie Mellon University: Carnegie Mellon Today. May 13, 2003. Retrieved August 23, 2012.
11. ^ "Honorary degrees". Williams University: Office of the President. Retrieved August 23, 2012.
12. ^ a b c d e f Michael Hotchkiss (July 26, 2012). "George Miller, Princeton psychology professor and cognitive pioneer, dies". Retrieved August 10, 2012.
13. ^ "APS Member History". search.amphilsoc.org. Retrieved August 25, 2022.
14. ^ "G.A. ('George') Miller (1920–2012)". Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences. Retrieved July 17, 2015.
15. ^ "The history of APS: A timeline". Association for Psychological Science. Archived from the original on May 15, 2012. Retrieved August 22, 2012.
16. ^ Cowan, N.; Morey, C. C.; Chen, Z. (2007). "The legend of the magical number seven" (PDF). In Sergio Della Sala (ed.). Tall tales About the Brain: Separating Fact from Fiction. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-856877-3. Archived from the original (PDF) on April 18, 2013. Retrieved August 11, 2012.
17. ^ Daniel Shiffman. "Daniel Shiffman: WordNet". Archived from the original on August 19, 2012. Retrieved August 10, 2012.
18. ^ Sampson, Geoffrey (2000). "Reviews". International Journal of Lexicography. 13 (1): 54–59. doi:10.1093/ijl/13.1.54.
19. ^ "Beyond keyword searching.Oingo and Simpli.com introduce meaning-based searching". December 20, 1999. Retrieved August 10, 2012.
20. ^ "George A. Miller". Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved August 8, 2012.
21. ^ N. Chomsky; George A. Miller (1957). Pattern Conception (Technical report). ASTIA. Document AD110076.
22. ^ Noam Chomsky; George A. Miller (1958). "Finite State Languages". Inform. And Control. 1 (2): 91–112. doi:10.1016/s0019-9958(58)90082-2.
23. ^ N. Chomsky; George A. Miller (1963). "Introduction to the Formal Analysis of Natural Languages". In R.R. Bush; E. Galanter; R.D. Luce (eds.). Handbook of Mathematical Psychology. Vol. 2\. Wiley. pp. 269–321.
24. ^ Robert J. Banis (September 8, 2007). "BA 3320.Introduction to operations management". Archived from the original on November 25, 2012. Retrieved August 10, 2012.
25. ^ a b c d Osgood, C. E. (1952). "Language and communication". Psychological Bulletin. 49 (4): 361–363. doi:10.1037/h0052690.
26. ^ a b Smith, S.M. (1952). "Language and Communication". Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology. 47 (3): 734–735. doi:10.1037/h0052503.
27. ^ a b c Milner, P. M. (1960). "Review of Plans and the Structure of Behavior". Canadian Journal of Psychology. 14 (4): 281–282. doi:10.1037/h0083461.
28. ^ Wallace, A.F.C (1960). "Plans and the structure of behavior: Review". American Anthropologist. 62 (6): 1065–1067. doi:10.1525/aa.1960.62.6.02a00190.
29. ^ a b c Bunge, Mario (1968). "Reviews: George A. Miller: The Psychology of Communication". The British Journal for the Philosophy of Science. 18 (4): 350–352. doi:10.1093/bjps/18.4.350.
30. ^ "Georage A. Miller: The Psychology of Communication: Seven Essays: Review". Journal of Business Communication. 5 (2): 54–55. 1968. doi:10.1177/002194366800500208. S2CID 220880417.
31. ^ "George A. Miller Prize in cognitive neuroscience". Cognitive Neuroscience Society. Archived from the original on March 26, 2012. Retrieved August 10, 2012.
32. ^ "George A. Miller Award for an Outstanding Recent Article on General Psychology". American Psychological Association. Retrieved August 10, 2012.
33. ^ "George A. Miller Sr. Thesis Prize". Department of Psychology, Princeton University. 2004. Archived from the original on October 19, 2013. Retrieved August 10, 2012.
34. ^ Haggbloom, S.J.; Powell, John L. III; Warnick, Jason E.; Jones, Vinessa K.; Yarbrough, Gary L.; Russell, Tenea M.; Borecky, Chris M.; McGahhey, Reagan; et al. (2002). "The 100 most eminent psychologists of the 20th century" (PDF). Review of General Psychology. 6 (2): 139.52. doi:10.1037/1089-2680.6.2.139. S2CID 145668721.
35. ^ "Sidebar: Eminent psychologists of the 20th century". Monitor on Psychology. 33 (7): 29. 2002.
36. ^ "LREC 2006 Conference: Winners of the 2006 Antonio Zampolli Prize". LREC. 2006. Retrieved August 10, 2012.

## External links

[edit]

* 2007 discussion on the cognitive revolution, with Chomsky, Bruner, Pinker and others: Part I
* 2007 discussion on the cognitive revolution, with Chomsky, Bruner, Pinker and others: Part II
* 2007 discussion on the cognitive revolution, with Chomsky, Bruner, Pinker and others: Part III
* 2007 discussion on the cognitive revolution, with Chomsky, Bruner, Pinker and others: Part IV
* Classics in the history of psychology: The seven plus/minus two paper
* Bio on Kurtzweil.net
* Old faculty page
* Communication, Language, and Meaning (edited by Miller) Archived February 22, 2020, at the Wayback Machine
* A blog with links to discussions on the seven-plus-minus-two paper
* Neurotree: Miller's academic genealogy
* George A. Miller at Library of Congress, with 26 library catalog records

* v
* t
* e

Presidents of the American Psychological Association

1892–1900|

* G. Stanley Hall (1892)
* George Trumbull Ladd (1893)
* William James (1894)
* James McKeen Cattell (1895)
* George Stuart Fullerton (1896)
* James Mark Baldwin (1897)
* Hugo Münsterberg (1898)
* John Dewey (1899)
* Joseph Jastrow (1900)

1901–1925|

* Josiah Royce (1901)
* Edmund Sanford (1902)
* William Lowe Bryan (1903)
* William James (1904)
* Mary Whiton Calkins (1905)
* James Rowland Angell (1906)
* Henry Rutgers Marshall (1907)
* George M. Stratton (1908)
* Charles Hubbard Judd (1909)
* Walter Bowers Pillsbury (1910)
* Carl Seashore (1911)
* Edward Thorndike (1912)
* Howard C. Warren (1913)
* Robert S. Woodworth (1914)
* John B. Watson (1915)
* Raymond Dodge (1916)
* Robert Yerkes (1917)
* John Wallace Baird (1918)
* Walter Dill Scott (1919)
* Shepherd Ivory Franz (1920)
* Margaret Floy Washburn (1921)
* Knight Dunlap (1922)
* Lewis Terman (1923)
* G. Stanley Hall (1924)
* I. Madison Bentley (1925)

1926–1950|

* Harvey A. Carr (1926)
* Harry Levi Hollingworth (1927)
* Edwin Boring (1928)
* Karl Lashley (1929)
* Herbert Langfeld (1930)
* Walter Samuel Hunter (1931)
* Walter Richard Miles (1932)
* Louis Leon Thurstone (1933)
* Joseph Peterson (1934)
* Albert Poffenberger (1935)
* Clark L. Hull (1936)
* Edward C. Tolman (1937)
* John Dashiell (1938)
* Gordon Allport (1939)
* Leonard Carmichael (1940)
* Herbert Woodrow (1941)
* Calvin Perry Stone (1942)
* John Edward Anderson (1943)
* Gardner Murphy (1944)
* Edwin Ray Guthrie (1945)
* Henry Garrett (1946)
* Carl Rogers (1947)
* Donald Marquis (1948)
* Ernest Hilgard (1949)
* J. P. Guilford (1950)

1951–1975|

* Robert Richardson Sears (1951)
* J. McVicker Hunt (1952)
* Laurance F. Shaffer (1953)
* Orval Hobart Mowrer (1954)
* E. Lowell Kelly (1955)
* Theodore Newcomb (1956)
* Lee Cronbach (1957)
* Harry Harlow (1958)
* Wolfgang Köhler (1959)
* Donald O. Hebb (1960)
* Neal E. Miller (1961)
* Paul E. Meehl (1962)
* Charles E. Osgood (1963)
* Quinn McNemar (1964)
* Jerome Bruner (1965)
* Nicholas Hobbs (1966)
* Gardner Lindzey (1967)
* Abraham Maslow (1968)
* George Armitage Miller (1969)
* George Albee (1970)
* Kenneth B. Clark (1971)
* Anne Anastasi (1972)
* Leona E. Tyler (1973)
* Albert Bandura (1974)
* Donald T. Campbell (1975)

1976–2000|

* Wilbert J. McKeachie (1976)
* Theodore H. Blau (1977)
* M. Brewster Smith (1978)
* Nicholas Cummings (1979)
* Florence Denmark (1980)
* John J. Conger (1981)
* William Bevan (1982)
* Max Siegel (1983)
* Janet Taylor Spence (1984)
* Robert Perloff (1985)
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2001–Present|

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Psychology

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Basic
psychology|

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United States National Medal of Science laureates

Behavioral and social science

| 1960s|

1964
Neal Elgar Miller

|

1980s|

1986
Herbert A. Simon
1987
Anne Anastasi
George J. Stigler
1988
Milton Friedman

1990s|

1990
Leonid Hurwicz
Patrick Suppes
1991
George A. Miller
1992
Eleanor J. Gibson
1994
Robert K. Merton
1995
Roger N. Shepard
1996
Paul Samuelson
1997
William K. Estes
1998
William Julius Wilson
1999
Robert M. Solow

2000s|

2000
Gary Becker
2003
R. Duncan Luce
2004
Kenneth Arrow
2005
Gordon H. Bower
2008
Michael I. Posner
2009
Mortimer Mishkin

2010s|

2011
Anne Treisman
2014
Robert Axelrod
2015
Albert Bandura

Biological sciences

| 1960s|

1963
C. B. van Niel
1964
Theodosius Dobzhansky
Marshall W. Nirenberg
1965
Francis P. Rous
George G. Simpson
Donald D. Van Slyke
1966
Edward F. Knipling
Fritz Albert Lipmann
William C. Rose
Sewall Wright
1967
Kenneth S. Cole
Harry F. Harlow
Michael Heidelberger
Alfred H. Sturtevant
1968
Horace Barker
Bernard B. Brodie
Detlev W. Bronk
Jay Lush
Burrhus Frederic Skinner
1969
Robert Huebner
Ernst Mayr

|

1970s|

1970
Barbara McClintock
Albert B. Sabin
1973
Daniel I. Arnon
Earl W. Sutherland Jr.
1974
Britton Chance
Erwin Chargaff
James V. Neel
James Augustine Shannon
1975
Hallowell Davis
Paul Gyorgy
Sterling B. Hendricks
Orville Alvin Vogel
1976
Roger Guillemin
Keith Roberts Porter
Efraim Racker
E. O. Wilson
1979
Robert H. Burris
Elizabeth C. Crosby
Arthur Kornberg
Severo Ochoa
Earl Reece Stadtman
George Ledyard Stebbins
Paul Alfred Weiss

1980s|

1981
Philip Handler
1982
Seymour Benzer
Glenn W. Burton
Mildred Cohn
1983
Howard L. Bachrach
Paul Berg
Wendell L. Roelofs
Berta Scharrer
1986
Stanley Cohen
Donald A. Henderson
Vernon B. Mountcastle
George Emil Palade
Joan A. Steitz
1987
Michael E. DeBakey
Theodor O. Diener
Harry Eagle
Har Gobind Khorana
Rita Levi-Montalcini
1988
Michael S. Brown
Stanley Norman Cohen
Joseph L. Goldstein
Maurice R. Hilleman
Eric R. Kandel
Rosalyn Sussman Yalow
1989
Katherine Esau
Viktor Hamburger
Philip Leder
Joshua Lederberg
Roger W. Sperry
Harland G. Wood

1990s|

1990
Baruj Benacerraf
Herbert W. Boyer
Daniel E. Koshland Jr.
Edward B. Lewis
David G. Nathan
E. Donnall Thomas
1991
Mary Ellen Avery
G. Evelyn Hutchinson
Elvin A. Kabat
Robert W. Kates
Salvador Luria
Paul A. Marks
Folke K. Skoog
Paul C. Zamecnik
1992
Maxine Singer
Howard Martin Temin
1993
Daniel Nathans
Salome G. Waelsch
1994
Thomas Eisner
Elizabeth F. Neufeld
1995
Alexander Rich
1996
Ruth Patrick
1997
James Watson
Robert A. Weinberg
1998
Bruce Ames
Janet Rowley
1999
David Baltimore
Jared Diamond
Lynn Margulis

2000s|

2000
Nancy C. Andreasen
Peter H. Raven
Carl Woese
2001
Francisco J. Ayala
George F. Bass
Mario R. Capecchi
Ann Graybiel
Gene E. Likens
Victor A. McKusick
Harold Varmus
2002
James E. Darnell
Evelyn M. Witkin
2003
J. Michael Bishop
Solomon H. Snyder
Charles Yanofsky
2004
Norman E. Borlaug
Phillip A. Sharp
Thomas E. Starzl
2005
Anthony Fauci
Torsten N. Wiesel
2006
Rita R. Colwell
Nina Fedoroff
Lubert Stryer
2007
Robert J. Lefkowitz
Bert W. O'Malley
2008
Francis S. Collins
Elaine Fuchs
J. Craig Venter
2009
Susan L. Lindquist
Stanley B. Prusiner

2010s|

2010
Ralph L. Brinster
Rudolf Jaenisch
2011
Lucy Shapiro
Leroy Hood
Sallie Chisholm
2012
May Berenbaum
Bruce Alberts
2013
Rakesh K. Jain
2014
Stanley Falkow
Mary-Claire King
Simon Levin

Chemistry

| 1960s|

1964
Roger Adams

|

1980s|

1982
F. Albert Cotton
Gilbert Stork
1983
Roald Hoffmann
George C. Pimentel
Richard N. Zare
1986
Harry B. Gray
Yuan Tseh Lee
Carl S. Marvel
Frank H. Westheimer
1987
William S. Johnson
Walter H. Stockmayer
Max Tishler
1988
William O. Baker
Konrad E. Bloch
Elias J. Corey
1989
Richard B. Bernstein
Melvin Calvin
Rudolph A. Marcus
Harden M. McConnell

1990s|

1990
Elkan Blout
Karl Folkers
John D. Roberts
1991
Ronald Breslow
Gertrude B. Elion
Dudley R. Herschbach
Glenn T. Seaborg
1992
Howard E. Simmons Jr.
1993
Donald J. Cram
Norman Hackerman
1994
George S. Hammond
1995
Thomas Cech
Isabella L. Karle
1996
Norman Davidson
1997
Darleane C. Hoffman
Harold S. Johnston
1998
John W. Cahn
George M. Whitesides
1999
Stuart A. Rice
John Ross
Susan Solomon

2000s|

2000
John D. Baldeschwieler
Ralph F. Hirschmann
2001
Ernest R. Davidson
Gábor A. Somorjai
2002
John I. Brauman
2004
Stephen J. Lippard
2005
Tobin J. Marks
2006
Marvin H. Caruthers
Peter B. Dervan
2007
Mostafa A. El-Sayed
2008
Joanna Fowler
JoAnne Stubbe
2009
Stephen J. Benkovic
Marye Anne Fox

2010s|

2010
Jacqueline K. Barton
Peter J. Stang
2011
Allen J. Bard
M. Frederick Hawthorne
2012
Judith P. Klinman
Jerrold Meinwald
2013
Geraldine L. Richmond
2014
A. Paul Alivisatos

Engineering sciences

| 1960s|

1962
Theodore von Kármán
1963
Vannevar Bush
John Robinson Pierce
1964
Charles S. Draper
Othmar H. Ammann
1965
Hugh L. Dryden
Clarence L. Johnson
Warren K. Lewis
1966
Claude E. Shannon
1967
Edwin H. Land
Igor I. Sikorsky
1968
J. Presper Eckert
Nathan M. Newmark
1969
Jack St. Clair Kilby

|

1970s|

1970
George E. Mueller
1973
Harold E. Edgerton
Richard T. Whitcomb
1974
Rudolf Kompfner
Ralph Brazelton Peck
Abel Wolman
1975
Manson Benedict
William Hayward Pickering
Frederick E. Terman
Wernher von Braun
1976
Morris Cohen
Peter C. Goldmark
Erwin Wilhelm Müller
1979
Emmett N. Leith
Raymond D. Mindlin
Robert N. Noyce
Earl R. Parker
Simon Ramo

1980s|

1982
Edward H. Heinemann
Donald L. Katz
1983
Bill Hewlett
George Low
John G. Trump
1986
Hans Wolfgang Liepmann
Tung-Yen Lin
Bernard M. Oliver
1987
Robert Byron Bird
H. Bolton Seed
Ernst Weber
1988
Daniel C. Drucker
Willis M. Hawkins
George W. Housner
1989
Harry George Drickamer
Herbert E. Grier

1990s|

1990
Mildred Dresselhaus
Nick Holonyak Jr.
1991
George H. Heilmeier
Luna B. Leopold
H. Guyford Stever
1992
Calvin F. Quate
John Roy Whinnery
1993
Alfred Y. Cho
1994
Ray W. Clough
1995
Hermann A. Haus
1996
James L. Flanagan
C. Kumar N. Patel
1998
Eli Ruckenstein
1999
Kenneth N. Stevens

2000s|

2000
Yuan-Cheng B. Fung
2001
Andreas Acrivos
2002
Leo Beranek
2003
John M. Prausnitz
2004
Edwin N. Lightfoot
2005
Jan D. Achenbach
2006
Robert S. Langer
2007
David J. Wineland
2008
Rudolf E. Kálmán
2009
Amnon Yariv

2010s|

2010
Shu Chien
2011
John B. Goodenough
2012
Thomas Kailath

Mathematical, statistical, and computer sciences

| 1960s|

1963
Norbert Wiener
1964
Solomon Lefschetz
H. Marston Morse
1965
Oscar Zariski
1966
John Milnor
1967
Paul Cohen
1968
Jerzy Neyman
1969
William Feller

|

1970s|

1970
Richard Brauer
1973
John Tukey
1974
Kurt Gödel
1975
John W. Backus
Shiing-Shen Chern
George Dantzig
1976
Kurt Otto Friedrichs
Hassler Whitney
1979
Joseph L. Doob
Donald E. Knuth

1980s|

1982
Marshall H. Stone
1983
Herman Goldstine
Isadore Singer
1986
Peter Lax
Antoni Zygmund
1987
Raoul Bott
Michael Freedman
1988
Ralph E. Gomory
Joseph B. Keller
1989
Samuel Karlin
Saunders Mac Lane
Donald C. Spencer

1990s|

1990
George F. Carrier
Stephen Cole Kleene
John McCarthy
1991
Alberto Calderón
1992
Allen Newell
1993
Martin David Kruskal
1994
John Cocke
1995
Louis Nirenberg
1996
Richard Karp
Stephen Smale
1997
Shing-Tung Yau
1998
Cathleen Synge Morawetz
1999
Felix Browder
Ronald R. Coifman

2000s|

2000
John Griggs Thompson
Karen Uhlenbeck
2001
Calyampudi R. Rao
Elias M. Stein
2002
James G. Glimm
2003
Carl R. de Boor
2004
Dennis P. Sullivan
2005
Bradley Efron
2006
Hyman Bass
2007
Leonard Kleinrock
Andrew J. Viterbi
2009
David B. Mumford

2010s|

2010
Richard A. Tapia
S. R. Srinivasa Varadhan
2011
Solomon W. Golomb
Barry Mazur
2012
Alexandre Chorin
David Blackwell
2013
Michael Artin

Physical sciences

| 1960s|

1963
Luis W. Alvarez
1964
Julian Schwinger
Harold Urey
Robert Burns Woodward
1965
John Bardeen
Peter Debye
Leon M. Lederman
William Rubey
1966
Jacob Bjerknes
Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar
Henry Eyring
John H. Van Vleck
Vladimir K. Zworykin
1967
Jesse Beams
Francis Birch
Gregory Breit
Louis Hammett
George Kistiakowsky
1968
Paul Bartlett
Herbert Friedman
Lars Onsager
Eugene Wigner
1969
Herbert C. Brown
Wolfgang Panofsky

|

1970s|

1970
Robert H. Dicke
Allan R. Sandage
John C. Slater
John A. Wheeler
Saul Winstein
1973
Carl Djerassi
Maurice Ewing
Arie Jan Haagen-Smit
Vladimir Haensel
Frederick Seitz
Robert Rathbun Wilson
1974
Nicolaas Bloembergen
Paul Flory
William Alfred Fowler
Linus Carl Pauling
Kenneth Sanborn Pitzer
1975
Hans A. Bethe
Joseph O. Hirschfelder
Lewis Sarett
Edgar Bright Wilson
Chien-Shiung Wu
1976
Samuel Goudsmit
Herbert S. Gutowsky
Frederick Rossini
Verner Suomi
Henry Taube
George Uhlenbeck
1979
Richard P. Feynman
Herman Mark
Edward M. Purcell
John Sinfelt
Lyman Spitzer
Victor F. Weisskopf

1980s|

1982
Philip W. Anderson
Yoichiro Nambu
Edward Teller
Charles H. Townes
1983
E. Margaret Burbidge
Maurice Goldhaber
Helmut Landsberg
Walter Munk
Frederick Reines
Bruno B. Rossi
J. Robert Schrieffer
1986
Solomon J. Buchsbaum
H. Richard Crane
Herman Feshbach
Robert Hofstadter
Chen-Ning Yang
1987
Philip Abelson
Walter Elsasser
Paul C. Lauterbur
George Pake
James A. Van Allen
1988
D. Allan Bromley
Paul Ching-Wu Chu
Walter Kohn
Norman Foster Ramsey Jr.
Jack Steinberger
1989
Arnold O. Beckman
Eugene Parker
Robert Sharp
Henry Stommel

1990s|

1990
Allan M. Cormack
Edwin M. McMillan
Robert Pound
Roger Revelle
1991
Arthur L. Schawlow
Ed Stone
Steven Weinberg
1992
Eugene M. Shoemaker
1993
Val Fitch
Vera Rubin
1994
Albert Overhauser
Frank Press
1995
Hans Dehmelt
Peter Goldreich
1996
Wallace S. Broecker
1997
Marshall Rosenbluth
Martin Schwarzschild
George Wetherill
1998
Don L. Anderson
John N. Bahcall
1999
James Cronin
Leo Kadanoff

2000s|

2000
Willis E. Lamb
Jeremiah P. Ostriker
Gilbert F. White
2001
Marvin L. Cohen
Raymond Davis Jr.
Charles Keeling
2002
Richard Garwin
W. Jason Morgan
Edward Witten
2003
G. Brent Dalrymple
Riccardo Giacconi
2004
Robert N. Clayton
2005
Ralph A. Alpher
Lonnie Thompson
2006
Daniel Kleppner
2007
Fay Ajzenberg-Selove
Charles P. Slichter
2008
Berni Alder
James E. Gunn
2009
Yakir Aharonov
Esther M. Conwell
Warren M. Washington

2010s|

2011
Sidney Drell
Sandra Faber
Sylvester James Gates
2012
Burton Richter
Sean C. Solomon
2014
Shirley Ann Jackson

* v
* t
* e

Human memory

Basic concepts|

* Encoding
* Storage
* Recall

* Attention
* Consolidation
* Neuroanatomy

Types|

| Sensory|

* Echoic
* Eidetic
* Eyewitness
* Haptic
* Iconic
* Motor learning
* Visual

|

Short-term|

* "The Magical Number Seven, Plus or Minus Two"
* Working memory

Long-term|

* Active recall
* Autobiographical
* Explicit
* Declarative
* Episodic
* Semantic
* Flashbulb
* Hyperthymesia
* Implicit
* Meaningful learning
* Personal-event
* Procedural
* Rote learning
* Selective retention
* Tip of the tongue

Forgetting|

* Amnesia
* anterograde
* childhood
* post-traumatic
* psychogenic
* retrograde
* selective
* transient global
* Decay theory
* Forgetting curve
* Interference theory
* Memory inhibition
* Motivated forgetting
* Repressed memory
* Retrieval-induced forgetting
* Weapon focus

Memory errors|

* Confabulation
* Cryptomnesia
* Hindsight bias
* Imagination inflation
* Memory biases
* Memory conformity
* Misattribution of memory
* Misinformation effect
* Source-monitoring error

False memory|

* Deese–Roediger–McDermott paradigm
* False memory syndrome
* Memory implantation
* Lost in the mall technique
* Recovered-memory therapy

Research methods|

* Exceptional memory
* Indirect tests of memory
* Memory disorder

In groups|

* Collective memory
* Politics of memory
* Cultural memory
* Memory and social interactions
* Memory conformity
* Transactive memory

Other topics|

* Aging
* Art of memory
* chunking
* mnemonic
* Effects of alcohol
* Effects of exercise
* Emotion
* Memory improvement
* Nutrition
* Sleep
* Trauma

In society|

* Memory sport
* World Memory Championships
* Shas Pollak

Related|

* Absent-mindedness
* Atkinson–Shiffrin memory model
* Context-dependent and state-dependent memory
* Childhood memory
* Exosomatic memory
* Free recall
* Intermediate-term memory
* Involuntary memory
* flashbacks
* Levels of Processing model
* Metamemory
* Muscle memory
* Priming
* intertrial
* Prospective and retrospective memory
* The Seven Sins of Memory

People|

| Researchers|

* Richard C. Atkinson
* Robert A. Bjork
* Stephen J. Ceci
* Susan Clancy
* Hermann Ebbinghaus
* Sigmund Freud
* Patricia Goldman-Rakic
* Ivan Izquierdo
* Marcia K. Johnson
* Eric Kandel
* Elizabeth Loftus
* Geoffrey Loftus
* James McGaugh
* Eleanor Maguire
* George Armitage Miller
* Brenda Milner
* Lynn Nadel
* Henry L. Roediger III
* Daniel Schacter
* Richard Shiffrin
* Arthur P. Shimamura
* Larry Squire
* Susumu Tonegawa
* Anne Treisman
* Endel Tulving
* Robert Stickgold

|

Patients|

* HM
* KC
* NA
* Clive Wearing

Other|

* Jonathan Hancock
* Paul R. McHugh
* Dominic O'Brien
* Ben Pridmore
* Cosmos Rossellius
* Andriy Slyusarchuk

* Psychology portal
* Philosophy portal

Authority control databases

International|

* FAST
* ISNI
* VIAF
* WorldCat

National|

* Spain
* 2
* France
* BnF data
* Catalonia
* Germany
* Israel
* Belgium
* United States
* Sweden
* Japan
* Czech Republic
* Korea
* Netherlands
* Poland

Academics|

* CiNii
* zbMATH

Other|

* SNAC
* IdRef

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