History of African Americans in Texas

Ethnic group

African Americans in TexasTotal population

3,444,712[1] (2020)
Regions with significant populations
Ark-La-Tex, Central Texas, East Texas, Galveston, Greater Austin, Greater Houston, Beaumont–Port Arthur metropolitan area, Dallas–Fort Worth metropolitan area, Greater San Antonio,[2] North Texas, Northeast Texas, Southeast Texas
Languages
Texan English, Texan Spanish, Southern American English, Louisiana Creole, African-American Vernacular English, African languages
Religion
Black Protestant, Roman Catholicism, Hoodoo (spirituality), Louisiana Voodoo[3]
Related ethnic groups
Other Black Southerners especially Black Louisianians and Black Oklahomans, Afro-Mexicans, Blaxicans in Texas, Tejanos, White Americans in Texas, Louisiana Creoles in Texas
An African American museum located in Bryan, Texas Part of a series on

Ethnicity in Texas

* African Americans
* Chinese
* Czechs
* Germans
* Hispanics and Latinos
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* Japanese
* Jews
* Native Americans
* Romani
* Wends

* * *

* v
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Part of a series on

African Americans

History

|  Periods

* Timeline
* Atlantic slave trade
* Abolitionism in the United States
* Slavery in the colonial history of the US
* Revolutionary War
* Antebellum period
* Slavery and military history during the Civil War
* Reconstruction era
* Politicians
* Juneteenth
* Civil rights movement (1865–1896)
* Jim Crow era (1896–1954)
* Civil rights movement (1954–1968)
* Black power movement
* Post–civil rights era

Aspects

* Agriculture history
* Black Belt in the American South
* Business history
* Military history
* Treatment of the enslaved

Migrations

* Great Migration
* Second Great Migration
* New Great Migration

Culture

|  Lifeways

* Dance
* Family structure
* Film
* Folktales
* Music
* Musical theater
* Names
* Neighborhoods
* Newspapers
* Soul food

Schools

* Education during the slave period in the US
* Education of freed people during the Civil War
* History of African-American education, after the Civil War
* Historically black colleges and universities
* Fraternities

Academic study

* Studies
* Art
* Literature

Celebrations

* Martin Luther King Jr. Day
* Black History Month
* Juneteenth
* Kwanzaa

Economic class

* African-American businesses
* Middle class
* Upper class
* Billionaires

Symbols and ideas

* African-American beauty
* Black is beautiful
* Black pride
* African-American hair
* Good hair
* Stepping
* "Lift Every Voice and Sing"
* Self-determination

Religion

|  Institutions

* Black church

Theologies

* Black theology
* Womanist theology

Non-Christian groups

* Hoodoo
* Black Hebrew Israelites
* African-American Jews
* African-American Muslims
* Nation of Islam
* Louisiana Voodoo
* African Diaspora Religions

Politics

|  Organizations

* Congressional Black Caucus
* Joint Center
* National Black Caucus of State Legislators
* National Conference of Black Mayors

Ideologies

* Afrocentrism
* Anarchism
* Back-to-Africa movement
* Black power
* Capitalism
* Conservatism
* Garveyism
* Leftism
* Liberalism
* Nationalism
* Pan-Africanism
* Patriotism
* Populism
* Radicalism
* Socialism

Civic/economic groups

|  Organizations

* Association for the Study of African
American Life and History
* Black conductors
* NAACP
* National Black Chamber of Commerce
* National Council of Negro Women
* National Pan-Hellenic Council
* National Urban League
* TransAfrica
* UNCF

Sports

* Negro league baseball

Athletic associations and conferences

* Central (CIAA)
* HBCU (HBCUAC)
* Mid-Eastern (MEAC)
* Southern (SIAC)
* Southwestern (SWAC)

Sub-communities

|  Multiethnic

* African-American Jews
* Afro-Puerto Ricans
* Alabama Creole people
* Black Indians
* Black Seminoles
* Mascogos
* Blaxicans
* Brass Ankles
* Creoles of color
* Dominickers
* Freedmen
* Great Dismal Swamp maroons
* Louisiana Creoles
* Melungeon
* Carmel
* Redbone

Specific ancestries

* Americo-Liberians
* Creek Freedmen
* Gullah
* Merikins
* Nova Scotians
* Samaná Americans
* Sierra Leone Creole

Sexual orientation

* LGBT community

Dialects and languages

|  English dialects

* African-American English
* African-American Vernacular English
* Liberian English
* Samaná English
* Tutnese

Languages and other dialects

* Gullah
* Afro-Seminole Creole
* Negro Dutch
* Black American Sign Language

Population

|  US states

* Alabama
* Arkansas
* California
* Florida
* Georgia
* Illinois
* Indiana
* Iowa
* Kansas
* Louisiana
* Maryland
* Mississippi
* Nebraska
* New York
* North Carolina
* Ohio
* Oklahoma
* Oregon
* South Carolina
* South Dakota
* Tennessee
* Texas
* Utah
* Virginia

US cities

* Black mecca
* List of neighborhoods
* Atlanta
* Baltimore
* Boston
* Chicago
* Dallas-Fort Worth
* Davenport
* Detroit
* Houston
* Jacksonville
* Kentucky
* Lexington
* Los Angeles
* New York City
* Omaha
* Philadelphia
* San Antonio
* San Francisco

Historic places

* District of Columbia
* Florida
* Georgia
* Mississippi
* Missouri
* Omaha, Nebraska
* North Carolina
* South Carolina
* Texas
* West Virginia

Population count

* US states and territories
* US metropolitan areas
* US cities
* US communities
* Places by plurality of population

Diaspora

* Africa
* Canada
* France
* Ghana
* Israel
* Liberia
* Nova Scotia
* Sierra Leone

Prejudice

|  Racism

* Black genocide
* Race and ethnicity in the US census
* Racism against Black Americans
* Reparations for slavery
* School segregation in the US
* Unarmed African Americans killed by police officers

Stereotypes and media depictions

* Blackface
* Criminal stereotypes
* Hollywood
* Magical Negro
* Minstrel show

* United States portal
* Category
* Index

* v
* t
* e

African American Texans or Black Texans are residents of the state of Texas who are of African ancestry and people that have origins as African-American slaves. African Americans formed a unique ethnic identity in Texas while facing the problems of societal and institutional discrimination as well as colorism for many years. The first person of African heritage to arrive in Texas was Estevanico, who came to Texas in 1528.[4]

The earliest black residents in Texas were Afro-Mexican slaves brought by the Spanish.[5]

A large majority of Black Texans live in the Houston, Dallas-Fort Worth, San Antonio and Beaumont-Port Arthur metropolitan areas.[6]

The 2020 U.S. Census identified the Black population alone, non-Hispanic population at 3,444,712,[1] making Texas' Black population the largest of all states and territories in the United States.[7]

## History

[edit]

Main articles: History of slavery in Texas and Slavery in colonial Spanish America

See also: History of Texas

The Texas Black Liberation Flag Slave hunting dogs advertisement in Texas

In 1529, a Moroccan Muslim man named Estevanico became the first African to come to Texas. He was from Morocco, and was sold into slavery to a Spanish explorer. Arriving in the New World, Estevanico and the rest of his party (including Cabeza de Vaca) were shipwrecked near Galveston Island, captured by a group of Coahuiltecan Native Americans, escaped, and trekked across what is now Texas and northern Mexico. He was killed later while traveling to the state of New Mexico.[8]

The first Africans that lived in Texas were Afro-Mexicans when Texas was still a part of Mexico before the Mexican–American War. Enslaved Africans arrived in 1528 in Spanish Texas.[9] In 1792, there were 34 blacks and 414 mulattos in Spanish Texas.[10] Anglo white immigration into Mexican Texas in the 1820s brought an increased numbers of enslaved people.[11]

Most slaves in Texas were brought by white families from the south. Some enslaved blacks came through the domestic slave trade, which was centered in the city of New Orleans. Most enslaved blacks in Texas were forced into unskilled labor as field hands in the production of cotton, corn, and sugar. Some other enslaved blacks lived and worked on large plantations and in urban areas where they engaged in more skilled forms of labor such as cooks, blacksmiths, and carpenters.[12]

Their proportion of the population has declined since the early 20th century after many left the state in the Great Migration. Blacks of both Hispanic and non-Hispanic origin made up 11.5 percent of the population in 2015; blacks of non-Hispanic origin formed 11.3 percent of the populace. African Americans of both Hispanic and non-Hispanic origin numbered roughly 2.7 million individuals, increasing in 2018 to 3,908,287.[13] The majority of the Black and African American population of Texas lives in the Greater Houston, Dallas and San Antonio metropolitan areas.[2]

## Population

[edit]

Many African Americans in Texas remained in slavery until after the U.S. Civil War ended. There was scarce Union Army activity in Texas, preventing them from joining the Northern Army. Some escaped over the borders to areas where the Union Army was operating. The announcement of emancipation was delayed until June 19, 1865, when officials announced that slavery had been formally abolished. It was celebrated first in Texas as Juneteenth. Juneteenth was celebrated in many African American Communities throughout the United States, it was not until 156 years later in 2021, it became a Federally Nationally recognized Holiday. African Americans left Texas by the tens of thousands during the Great Migration in the first half of the 20th century, seeking work and political opportunities elsewhere. As of the 2020 U.S. Census, African Americans were 11.8% of the state's population which mirrors the national average of 12.1%. The long-term effects of slavery can be seen to be present in the state's demographics. The eastern quarter of the state, where cotton production depended on thousands of slaves, is the westernmost extension of the Deep South and contains a very significant number of Texas' African-American population.[4]

Texas has the largest African-American population in the country.[14] African Americans are concentrated in eastern, east-central and northern Texas, as well as the Houston, Dallas-Fort Worth and San Antonio metropolitan areas.[15] African Americans form 24 percent of both the cities of Dallas and Houston, 19% of Fort Worth, 8.1 percent of Austin, and 7.5 percent of San Antonio.[2] The African American population in Texas is increasing due to the New Great Migration.[14][15]

A 2014 University of Texas at Austin study observed that the state's capital city of Austin was the only U.S. city with a high growth rate that was nevertheless losing African Americans, due to suburbanization and gentrification.[16]

In 2018, African-Americans had the second highest net growth in population in Texas compared to 2010. Harris County accounted for the largest percentage of that growth.[17] Harris County's largest city Houston is now known as a center of African-American political power, education, economic prosperity, and culture, often called the next black mecca.[18]

There is a black Louisiana Creole community in Texas.[19]

There is also a Black Seminole presence in the state.[20]

## Historically black colleges and universities in Texas

[edit]

There are nine historically black colleges and universities (HBCUs) in Texas. Texas Southern University (largest) and Prairie View A&M University (second largest) are the two most notable HBCUs in Texas and annually produce a significant portion of college degreed African-American in the state. The schools are also major SWAC sports rivals.[21][22] St. Philip's College is a public community college located in San Antonio, accredited by the Southern Association of Colleges and Schools. It is the westernmost HBCU in the United States.

## Notable Black Texans

[edit]

Beyoncé

Here are some prominent singers, actresses and other celebrities with separate articles.[23]

* Barbara Jordan, politician
* Beyoncé
* Forest Whitaker
* Ivy Taylor, politician
* Jamie Foxx
* Lecrae
* Travis Scott
* Ciara
* Megan Thee Stallion
* Lizzo
* Bessie Coleman, pilot
* Debbie Allen
* Doris Miller, war hero
* Mel Waiters
* Mickey Leland, politician
* Juanita Craft, politician
* Etta Barnett
* J. Mason Brewer
* Rube Foster, baseball
* Yella Beezy
* Phylicia Rashad
* Chamillionaire

## Racial laws regarding African Americans

[edit]

The Reconstruction era government by Republicans, 1865 to 1874, worked to help the freed slaves despite fierce resistance from Democrats.[24]

1865: Juneteenth [Constitution] The people of Texas are informed that, in accordance with a proclamation from the Executive of the United States, all slaves are free. This involves an absolute equality of personal rights and rights of property between former masters and slaves, and the connection heretofore existing between them becomes that between employer and hired labor. The freedmen are advised to remain quietly at their present homes and work for wages. They are informed that they will not be allowed to collect at military posts and that they will not be supported in idleness either there or elsewhere.[25] During the Reconstruction era before 1875, laws were passed to benefit he freed slaves.

1866: Education [Constitution] All taxes paid by African Americans go to maintaining African schools. Duty of the legislature to "encourage colored schools."

1866: Railroads [Statute] All railroad companies shall attach one passenger car for the special accommodation of freedmen.

1871: Barred segregation on public carriers [Statute] Public carriers prohibited from making any distinctions in the carrying of passengers. Penalty: Misdemeanor punishable by a fine from $100 to $500, or imprisonment from 30 to 90 days, or both.

1874: Jim Crow practices were begun informally after the overthrow of Republican control in 1874.[26] However by the 1890-1910 era they were often codified and enforced by statewide laws with criminal penalties.[27][28][29]

1879: Miscegenation [Statute] Confirmed intermarriage law passed in 1858. Penalty applied equally to both parties.

1889: Railroads [Statute] Railroad companies required to maintain separate coaches for white and colored passengers, equal in comfort. Penalty: Passengers refusing to sit where assigned were guilty of a misdemeanor, and could be fined between $5 and $20.[30]

1891: Railroads [Statute] Separate coach laws strengthened. Separate coaches for white and Negro passengers to be equal in all points of comfort and convenience. Designed by signage posted in a conspicuous place in each compartment. Trains allowed to carry chair cars or sleeping cars for the exclusive use of either race. Law did not apply to streetcars. Penalty: Conductors who failed to enforce law faced misdemeanor charge punish able by a fine from $5 to $25. The railroad company could be fined from $100 to $1,000 for each trip. Passengers who refused to sit in designated areas faced fines from $5 to $25.

1902: Poll tax [Amendment to state constitution] Required electors to pay poll tax. People who did not vote did not have to pay the tax, so many poor people stayed home.[31]

1907: Streetcars [Statute] Required all streetcars to comply with the separate coach law passed in 1889. Penalty: Streetcar companies could be fined from $100 to $1,000 for failing to enact law. A passenger wrongfully riding in an improper coach was guilty of a misdemeanor, and faced fines from $5 to $25.[32]

1909: Railroads [Statute] Depot buildings required to provide separate waiting areas for the use of white and Negro passengers.

1914: Railroads [Statute] Negro porters shall not sleep in sleeping car berths nor use bedding intended for white passengers.

1915: Miscegenation [State Code] The penalty for intermarriage is imprisonment in the penitentiary from two to five years.

1919: Public accommodations [Statute] Ordered that Negroes were to use separate branches of county free libraries.[33]

1922: Voting Rights [Statute] "...in no event shall a Negro be eligible to participate in a Democratic party primary election held in the State of Texas. " Overturned in 1927 by U.S. Supreme Court in Nixon v. Herndon.

1925: Education [Statute] Required racially segregated schools.[34]

1925: Public accommodations [Statute] Separate branches for Negroes to be administered by a Negro custodian in all county libraries.

1925: Miscegenation [Penal Code] Miscegenation declared a felony. Nullified interracial marriages if parties went to another jurisdiction where such marriages were legal.

1926: Public carriers [Statute] Public carriers to be segregated.

1935: Health Care [Statute] Established a state tuberculosis sanitarium for blacks.

1935: Public carriers [State Code] Directed that separate coaches for whites and blacks on all common carriers.

1943: Public carriers [State Code] Ordered separate seating on all buses.

1949: Employment [Statute] Coal mines required to have separate washrooms.

1950: Public accommodations [Statute] Separate facilities required for white and black citizens in state parks.

1951: Voting rights [Constitution] Required electors to pay poll tax.

1951: Miscegenation [Statute] Unlawful for person of Caucasian blood to marry person of African blood. Penalty: Two to five years' imprisonment.

1952: Health Care [Statute] Establishment of TB hospitals for blacks.

1953: Public carriers [Penal Code] Public carriers to be segregated.

1956: Public accommodations [Municipal Ordinance] Abolished previously required segregation in the city of San Antonio's swimming pools and other recreational facilities.

1958: Education [Statute] No child compelled to attend schools that are racially mixed. No desegregation unless approved by election. Governor may close schools where troops used on federal authority.

1960: Miscegenation [State Code] Strictly Prohibited marriage or living together as man and wife between racially mixed persons. Penalty: One to ten years imprisonment in county jail, or fine

## See also

[edit]

* Texas portal

* History of African Americans in Austin
* History of African Americans in Houston
* History of African Americans in Dallas–Fort Worth
* History of African Americans in San Antonio
* History of Nigerian Americans in Dallas–Fort Worth
* History of Nigerian Americans in San Antonio
* Sweatt v. Painter
* Ivy Taylor
* Barbara Jordan
* Joe Lockridge
* History of slavery in Texas
* Demographics of Texas
* History of education in Texas
* Black Southerners
* Black cowboys
* East End Historic District (Galveston, Texas)
* History of Mexican Americans in Texas
* List of African-American historic places in Texas
* List of African-American newspapers in Texas

## References

[edit]

1. ^ a b "P2 HISPANIC OR LATINO, AND NOT HISPANIC OR LATINO BY RACE – 2020: DEC Redistricting Data (PL 94-171) – United States by State and Territory". United States Census Bureau. Archived from the original on 27 March 2023. Retrieved 20 June 2023.
2. ^ a b c "How the Eastside Became Home to San Antonio's Black Community". San Antonio Report. 15 January 2018. Archived from the original on 21 January 2021. Retrieved 14 December 2020.
3. ^ "Religious Landscape Study". Archived from the original on 3 June 2022. Retrieved 3 June 2022.
4. ^ a b Dulaney, W. Marvin (25 July 2016) [June 9, 2010]. "African Americans". Handbook of Texas (online ed.). Texas State Historical Association.
5. ^ "The Emergence of Afro-Tejano Society During the Spanish Colonial Period in Texas, 1528-1700". Archived from the original on 19 July 2022. Retrieved 19 July 2022.
6. ^ "Texas". Archived from the original on 13 May 2019. Retrieved 22 July 2019.
7. ^ "The Growing Diversity of Black America". 25 March 2021. Archived from the original on 24 July 2022. Retrieved 8 October 2022.
8. ^ "The Institute Of Texan Cultures. Texans One and All – African-American Texans" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 9 July 2021.
9. ^ "The African American Story | Texas State History Museum". www.thestoryoftexas.com. Archived from the original on 7 May 2021. Retrieved 30 May 2021.
10. ^ "TSHA | African Americans". www.tshaonline.org. Archived from the original on 13 September 2020. Retrieved 27 August 2020.
11. ^ "A Lasting Legacy - Texas Historical Commission" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 16 May 2021. Retrieved 27 August 2020.
12. ^ "The African American Story". Archived from the original on 7 May 2021. Retrieved 27 August 2020.
13. ^ "American Community Survey 2018 Demographic and Housing Estimates". data.census.gov. Archived from the original on 21 October 2020. Retrieved 18 October 2020.
14. ^ a b Frey, William H. (May 2004). The New Great Migration: Black Americans' Return to the South, 1965–2000 (Report). The Brookings Institution. p. 1\. Archived (PDF) from the original on 28 April 2008.
15. ^ a b "Texas". BlackDemographics.com. Archived from the original on 13 May 2019. Retrieved 22 July 2019.
16. ^ Donahue, Emily and David Brown. "Austin's the Only Fast-Growing City in the Country Losing African-Americans" (Archive). KUT. Moody College of Communication at the University of Texas at Austin, Friday May 16, 2014. Retrieved on May 20, 2014.
17. ^ "Texas' Hispanic population is on pace to surpass white residents | The Texas Tribune". 20 June 2019. Archived from the original on 18 October 2020. Retrieved 16 January 2020.
18. ^ Graves, Earl G. Sr. (8 December 2016). "Join us in Houston, America's Next Great Black Business Mecca". Black Enterprise. Archived from the original on 20 August 2019. Retrieved 6 September 2019.
19. ^ Steptoe, Tyina (15 December 2015). "When Louisiana Creoles Arrived in Texas, Were They Black or White? | Essay". Archived from the original on 15 September 2022. Retrieved 19 July 2022.
20. ^ Association, Texas State Historical. "Black Seminole Indians". Texas State Historical Association. Retrieved 10 February 2024.
21. ^ Dean, Richard (12 January 2020). "Texas Southern fends off Prairie View A&M in rivalry showdown". Chron. Archived from the original on 9 August 2020. Retrieved 14 August 2020.
22. ^ Radow, Alex (26 August 2019). "5 things to know about TSU-Prairie View A&M rivalry in annual Labor Day Classic". KPRC. Archived from the original on 18 January 2020. Retrieved 14 August 2020.
23. ^ "Black Texans Who Shaped Our State and Changed Our Country". texasdemocrats.org. 11 February 2020. Archived from the original on 25 July 2022. Retrieved 25 July 2022.
24. ^ Kenneth Wayne Howell, ed. Still the Arena of Civil War: Violence and Turmoil in Reconstruction Texas, 1865-1874 (U of North Texas Press, 2012).
25. ^ "Juneteenth | TSLAC".
26. ^ Lawrence D Rice, The Negro in Texas: 1874–1900 (1971) pp.16, 53.
27. ^ C. Vann Woodward, The Strange Career of Jim Crow (1955) pp. 97–102 online.
28. ^ Bruce A. Glasrud, "Jim Crow's Emergence in Texas." American Studies 15.1 (1974): 47-60. online
29. ^ Leslie V. Tischauser, Jim Crow Laws (Bloomsbury Publishing USA, 2012).
30. ^ William S. Osborn, "Curtains for Jim Crow: Law, race, and the Texas railroads." Southwestern Historical Quarterly 105.3 (2002): 393-427. online
31. ^ Dick Smith, "Texas and the Poll Tax." Southwestern Social Science Quarterly (1964): 167-173. online
32. ^ Jennifer Roback, "The Political Economy of Segregation: The Case of Segregated Streetcars" Journal of Economic History 46#4 1986, pp. 893–917 DOI:https://doi.org/10.1017/S0022050700050634
33. ^ Andrew K. Sandoval-Strausz, "Travelers, Strangers, and Jim Crow: Law, Public Accommodations, and Civil Rights in America." Law and History Review 23.1 (2005): 53-94.
34. ^ Jeanne M. Powers, "On separate paths: The Mexican American and African American legal campaigns against school segregation." American Journal of Education 121.1 (2014): 29-55. online

## Further reading

[edit]

* Abel, Joseph. "African Americans, Labor Unions, and the Struggle for Fair Employment in the Aircraft Manufacturing Industry of Texas, 1941–1945", Journal of Southern History 77 (Aug. 2011), 595–638
* Alonzo, Armando C. Tejano Legacy: Rancheros and Settlers in South Texas, 1734–1900 (1998)
* Barr, Alwyn. Black Texans: A History of African Americans in Texas, 1528–1995 (1996) online
* Barr, Alwyn. Black cowboys of Texas (Texas A&M University Press, 2000) online.
* Barr, Alwyn. "Black Urban Churches on the Southern Frontier, 1865-1900." Journal of Negro History 82.4 (1997): 368-383. online
* Barr, Alwyn. "The Black militia of the new south: Texas as a case study." Journal of Negro History 63.3 (1978): 209-219. online
* Barr, Alwyn. "Black Legislators of Reconstruction Texas." Civil War History 32.4 (1986): 340-352. excerpt
* Barr, Alwyn. in Light Townsend Cummins and Alvin R. Bailey Jr., eds., A Guide to the History of Texas (1988),
* Crouch, Barry, et al.  The Dance of Freedom: Texas African Americans during Reconstruction (2007)
* Crouch, Barry A. The Freedmen's Bureau and Black Texans. (1992).
* Crouch; Barry A. "The 'Chords of Love': Legalizing Black Marital and Family Rights in Postwar Texas" The Journal of Negro History, Vol. 79, 1994
* Davidson, Chandler. Race and Class in Texas Politics. (1990).

* Durham, Jami, and Tommie Boudreaux. African Americans of Galveston (Arcadia, 2013)

* Foley, Neil. The White Scourge: Mexicans, Blacks, and Poor Whites in Texas Cotton Culture (University of California Press, 1997).
* Glasrud, Bruce A. and Merline Pitre. Black Women in Texas History (2008)
* Glasrud, Bruce A. et al eds. African Americans in Central Texas History From Slavery to Civil Rights (2019); scholarly essays online
* Glasrud, Bruce A. and James Smallwood, ed. The African American Experience in Texas: An Anthology (2007) essays online
* Glasrud, Bruce (March 2014). "Anti-Black Violence in 20th Century East Texas" (PDF). East Texas Historical Journal. \- Article 13

* Glasrud, Bruce A. "Jim Crow's Emergence in Texas." American Studies 15.1 (1974): 47-60. online
* Goodwin, Ronald E. African Americans of Houston (Arcadia Publishing, 2013).
* Harper, Cecil Jr (12 June 2010). "Freedmen's Bureau in Texas". Handbook of Texas (online ed.). Texas State Historical Association.
* Kellar, William Henry. Make haste slowly : moderates, conservatives, and school desegregation in Houston (1999) online
* Ladino, Robyn Duff. Desegregating Texas Schools: Eisenhower, Shivers, and the Crisis at Mansfield High (University of Texas Press, 1996) footnotes
* Mills, Jeri. African Americans in Nacogdoches (Arcadia, 2014)
* Moneyhon, Carl H. Texas after the Civil War: The Struggle of Reconstruction (Texas A. & M. U. Press, 2004).
* Moneyhon, Carl H. "George T. Ruby and the Politics of Expediency in Texas", in Howard N. Rabinowitz, ed. Southern Black Leaders of the Reconstruction Era (1982) pp 363–92.
* Pitre, Merline. Through Many Dangers, Toils, and Snares: The Black Leadership of Texas, 1868–1900 (1985).
* Rice, Lawrence D. The Negro in Texas, 1874–1900 (1971)
* Richter, William L. Overreached on All Sides: The Freedmen's Bureau Administrators in Texas, 1865–1868 (1991).
* Shabazz, Amilcar. Advancing Democracy: African Americans and the Struggle for Access and Equity in Higher Education in Texas (University of North Carolina Press, 2004);
* Smallwood, James M.; Crouch, Barry A.; and Peacock, Larry. Murder and Mayhem: The War of Reconstruction in Texas. Texas A. & M. U. Press, 2003. 182 pp.
* Sneed, Edgar P. "A Historiography of Reconstruction in Texas: Some Myths and Problems", Southwestern Historical Quarterly 1969 72(4): 435–448
* Storey, John W., and Mary L. Kelley, eds. Twentieth Century Texas: A Social and Cultural History (2008)
* Taylor, Quintard. "Texas: The South Meets the West, The View Through African American History", Journal of the West (2005) 44#2 pp 44–52.
* Winegarten, Ruthe et al. eds. Black Texas Women: A Sourcebook (1996), primary sources
* Wintz, Cary D. "The Struggle for Dignity: African-Americans in Twentieth-Century Texas" in Twentieth-Century Texas: A Social and Cultural History ed by John W. Storey and Mary L. Kelley. (2008) pp. 69-104.
* Work, David, "United States Colored Troops in Texas during Reconstruction, 1865–1867", Southwestern Historical Quarterly, 109 (Jan. 2006), 337–57.
* Zelden, Charles L. The Battle for the Black Ballot: Smith v. Allwright and the Defeat of the Texas All-White Primary (UP of Kansas, 2004).

### Historiography and memory

[edit]

* Barr, Alwyn. "African Americans in Texas: From Stereotypes to Diverse Roles,"jn Walter L. Buenger, and Robert A. Calvert, eds. "Texas Through Time: Evolving Interpretations." (1991): 50-80, reviews the historiography.
* Crouch, Barry A. "'Unmanacling' Texas Reconstruction: A Twenty-Year Perspective", Southwestern Historical Quarterly 1990 93(3): 275–302

## External links

[edit]

Wikimedia Commons has media related to African Americans in Texas.

* "African Americans." Handbook of Texas.
* Blacks in Colonial Spanish Texas
* Afro-Mexicans: The History, The Culture, The Presence
* African Presence in Texas
* Education For African Americans
* African Americans and Politics
* African-American Churches
* Free Blacks
* Black Cowboys

* v
* t
* e

Ethnic groups in Texas

Groups|

* African Americans
* Czechs
* Filipinos
* Germans
* Mexicans and other Hispanics and Latinos
* Japanese
* Jews
* Native Americans
* Romani
* Wends (Sorbs)
* Spaniards

* v
* t
* e

African Americans

History|

* Timeline
* Abolitionism
* African American founding fathers
* Afrocentrism
* American Civil War
* Atlantic slave trade
* Black Codes
* Black cowboys
* Black genocide
* Black Lives Matter
* Brown v. Board of Education (1954)
* Children of the plantation
* Civil Rights Acts
* 1964
* Voting Rights Act of 1965
* 1968
* Civil rights movement 1865–1896
* Civil right movement 1896–1954
* Civil rights movement 1954–1968
* Montgomery bus boycott
* Browder v. Gayle (1956)
* Sit-in movement
* Freedom Riders
* Birmingham movement
* March on Washington
* Freedom Summer
* Selma to Montgomery marches
* Chicago Freedom Movement
* Post–civil rights era
* Cornerstone Speech
* COVID-19 impact
* Dred Scott v. Sandford (1857)
* Free Negro
* Free people of color
* George Floyd protests
* Great Migration
* Second
* New
* Exodusters
* Inauguration of Barack Obama 2009 / Inauguration of Barack Obama 2013
* Jim Crow laws
* Lynching
* Military history
* Million Man March
* Nadir of American race relations
* The Negro Motorist Green Book
* Partus sequitur ventrem
* Plantations
* Plessy v. Ferguson (1896)
* Reconstruction Amendments
* Reconstruction era
* Redlining
* Separate but equal
* Silent Parade
* Slavery
* Treatment of slaves
* Tulsa race massacre
* Underground Railroad
* Women's suffrage movement

Culture|

* Afrofuturism
* Art
* Black mecca
* Businesses
* Dance
* Family structure
* Film
* Folktales
* Hair
* Harlem Renaissance
* New Negro
* Hoodoo
* Juneteenth
* Kwanzaa
* LGBTQ community
* Literature
* Music
* Musical theater
* Names
* Negro National Anthem
* Neighborhoods
* Newspapers
* Soul food
* Stereotypes
* Middle class
* Upper class

Notable people|

* Ralph Abernathy
* Maya Angelou
* Crispus Attucks
* James Baldwin
* James Bevel
* Julian Bond
* Amelia Boynton
* James Bradley
* Carol Moseley Braun
* Edward Brooke
* Blanche Bruce
* Ralph Bunche
* George Washington Carver
* Shirley Chisholm
* Claudette Colvin
* Frederick Douglass
* W. E. B. Du Bois
* Medgar Evers
* James Farmer
* Henry Highland Garnet
* Marcus Garvey
* Fred Gray
* Prathia Hall
* Fannie Lou Hamer
* Kamala Harris
* Jimi Hendrix
* Jesse Jackson
* Ketanji Brown Jackson
* Michael Jackson
* Harriet Jacobs
* Barbara Jordan
* Coretta Scott King
* Martin Luther King Jr.
* Bernard Lafayette
* James Lawson
* Huddie Ledbetter
* John Lewis
* Joseph Lowery
* Malcolm X
* Thurgood Marshall
* Toni Morrison
* Bob Moses
* Diane Nash
* Barack Obama
* Michelle Obama
* Rosa Parks
* Adam Clayton Powell Jr.
* Colin Powell
* Gabriel Prosser
* Joseph Rainey
* A. Philip Randolph
* Hiram Revels
* Paul Robeson
* Al Sharpton
* Fred Shuttlesworth
* Clarence Thomas
* Emmett Till
* Sojourner Truth
* Harriet Tubman
* Nat Turner
* Denmark Vesey
* C. T. Vivian
* David Walker
* Booker T. Washington
* Ida B. Wells
* Roy Wilkins
* Oprah Winfrey
* Andrew Young
* Whitney Young

Education, science
and technology|

* Black studies
* Black schools
* Historically black colleges and universities
* Inventors and scientists
* Museums
* Women
* in computer science
* in medicine
* in STEM fields

Religion|

* African-American Jews
* Islam
* American Society of Muslims
* Nation of Islam
* Black church
* Azusa Street Revival
* Black Hebrew Israelites
* Black theology
* Doctrine of Father Divine

Political movements|

* Anarchism
* Back-to-Africa movement
* Black power
* Movement
* Capitalism
* Conservatism
* Leftism
* Pan-Africanism
* Populism
* Raised fist
* Self-determination
* Nationalism
* Socialism

Civic and economic
groups

* Association for the Study of African American Life and History (ASALH)
* Black Panther Party
* Committee to Eliminate Media Offensive to African People (CEMOTAP)
* Congress of Racial Equality (CORE)
* National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP)
* Nashville Student Movement
* National Black Chamber of Commerce (NBCC)
* National Council of Negro Women (NCNW)
* National Pan-Hellenic Council (NPHC)
* National Urban League (NUL)
* Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC)
* Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC)
* Thurgood Marshall College Fund
* United Negro College Fund (UNCF)
* Universal Negro Improvement Association and African Communities League (UNIA-ACL)

Sports|

* Negro league baseball
* Baseball color line
* Black players in professional American football
* Black NFL quarterbacks
* Black players in ice hockey
* Muhammad Ali
* Arthur Ashe
* Jack Johnson
* Joe Louis
* Jesse Owens
* Jackie Robinson
* Serena Williams

Athletic associations
and conferences

* Central (CIAA)
* Mid-Eastern (MEAC)
* Southern (SIAC)
* Southwestern (SWAC)

Ethnic subdivisions|

* By African descent
* Fula
* Gullah
* Igbo
* Yoruba
* Alabama Creole
* Black Indians
* Black Seminoles
* Cherokee Freedmen
* Choctaw Freedmen
* Creek Freedmen
* Black Southerners
* Blaxicans
* Great Dismal Swamp maroons
* Louisiana Creole
* of color
* Melungeon

Demographics|

* Neighborhoods
* list
* U.S. cities with large populations
* 2000 majorities
* 2010 majorities
* Metropolitan areas
* States and territories

Languages|

* Afro-Seminole Creole
* American Sign
* Black American Sign
* English
* American English
* African-American English
* African-American Vernacular English
* social context
* Gullah
* Louisiana Creole

By state/city|

* Alabama
* Arkansas
* California
* Los Angeles
* San Francisco
* Florida
* Jacksonville
* Tallahassee
* Georgia
* Atlanta
* Hawaii
* Illinois
* Chicago
* Indiana
* Iowa
* Davenport
* Kansas
* Kentucky
* Lexington
* Louisiana
* Maryland
* Baltimore
* Massachusetts
* Boston
* Michigan
* Detroit
* Mississippi
* Nebraska
* Omaha
* New Jersey
* New York
* New York City
* North Carolina
* Ohio
* Cleveland
* Oklahoma
* Oregon
* Pennsylvania
* Philadelphia
* Puerto Rico
* South Carolina
* South Dakota
* Tennessee
* Texas
* Austin
* Dallas–Fort Worth
* Houston
* San Antonio
* Utah
* Virginia
* West Virginia

Diaspora|

* Africa
* Gambia
* Ghana
* Liberia
* Sierra Leone
* America
* Canada
* Dominican Republic
* Haiti
* Mexico
* Trinidad and Tobago
* Israel
* Europe
* France

Lists|

* African Americans
* Activists
* Actors
* Astronauts
* Billionaires
* Journalists
* Jurists
* Mathematicians
* Republicans
* Singers
* Sportspeople
* Spingarn Medal winners
* US cabinet members
* US representatives
* US senators
* Visual artists
* Writers
* African-American firsts
* Mayors
* Sports firsts
* US state firsts
* Historic places
* Index of related articles
* Landmark African-American legislation
* Lynching victims
* Monuments
* Neighborhoods
* Topics related to the African diaspora

* Category
* United States portal

* v
* t
* e

State of Texas

Austin (capital)

Topics|

* Outline
* Architecture
* Climate (Climate change)
* Cuisine
* Dialects
* Geography
* Government
* Healthcare
* History
* Languages
* Law
* Literature
* Mass media
* Newspapers
* Radio
* TV
* National Historic Landmarks
* National Register of Historic Places Sites
* Recorded Texas Historic Landmarks
* Sports
* Symbols
* Texans
* Time
* Tourist attractions
* Transportation

Society|

* Abortion
* Culture
* Crime
* Demographics
* Economy
* Education
* Gambling
* Gun laws
* Homelessness
* LGBT rights
* Politics

Regions|

* Ark‑La‑Tex
* Big Bend
* Boca Chica
* Blackland Prairies
* Brazos Valley
* Central Texas
* Coastal Bend
* Concho Valley
* Cross Timbers
* East Texas
* Edwards Plateau
* Golden Triangle
* Hill Country
* Llano Estacado
* Northeast Texas
* North Texas
* Osage Plains
* Panhandle
* Permian Basin
* Piney Woods
* Rio Grande Valley
* Southeast Texas
* South Plains
* South Texas
* Texoma
* Trans-Pecos
* West Texas

Metropolitan
areas|

* Abilene
* Amarillo
* Austin–Round Rock (Greater Austin)
* Beaumont–Port Arthur
* Brownsville–Harlingen
* College Station–Bryan
* Corpus Christi
* Dallas–Fort Worth–Arlington (DFW)
* El Paso
* Houston–The Woodlands–Sugar Land (Greater Houston)
* Killeen–Temple
* Laredo
* Longview/Kilgore
* Lubbock
* McAllen–Edinburg–Mission
* Midland
* Odessa
* San Angelo
* San Antonio–New Braunfels
* Sherman–Denison
* Texarkana
* Tyler
* Victoria
* Waco
* Wagner Creek
* Wichita Falls

Counties|

See: List of counties in Texas

Texas portal
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