History of Bangladesh (1971–present)

Post-independence history of Bangladesh

This article is about the history of the modern sovereign state Bangladesh established after 1971 War of Independence. For the pre-establishment era of the state, see History of Bangladesh.

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History of Bangladesh

* Etymology
* Timeline
* Traditional
* Urheimat

Ancient

|  Neolithic|  7600 - 3300 BCE

|

Bronze Age|  3300 – 1200 BCE
Pundra kingdom|  c.1280 – c. 300 BCE
Iron Age|  1200 – 200 BCE
Vanga kingdom|  c.1100 – c. 340 BCE
House of Vijaya|  543 BCE - 66 CE
Northern Culture|  700 – 200 BCE
Gangaridai|  c. 350 – c. 300 BCE
Nanda Dynasty|  c. 345 BCE– c. 322 BCE
Mauryan Empire|  325 – 185 BCE
Samatata kingdom|  c. 232 BCE – 800 AD
Shunga and Kushan|  c. 185 BCE – c. 75 CE
Southwestern Silk Road|  c. 114 BCE – c. 1450 CE
Indo-Roman trade relations|  c. 30 BCE – c. 600 CE
Gupta Empire|  240 – 550 CE
Kamarupa kingdom|  350 – 1140 CE

Medieval

|  Jaintia Kingdom|  500 – 1835 CE

|

Gauda Kingdom|  590 – 626 CE
Laur kingdom|  600 - 1565 CE
Harikela kingdom|  600 - 650 CE
Gour Kingdom|  600 – 1303 CE
Khadga dynasty|  650 – 750 CE
Bhadra dynasty|  c. 700s CE
Pala Empire|  750 – 1100 CE
Chandra dynasty|  900 – 1050 CE
Sena dynasty|  1070 – 1320 CE
Deva dynasty|  1100 – 1250 CE
Ghurid Conquest|  1202 CE
Khaljis of Bengal|  1204 - 1231 CE
Taraf Kingdom|  c. 1200s – c. 1600s CE
Bhulua Kingdom|  1203 – 1600s CE
Delhi Sultanate|  1204 – 1338 CE
Mamluk Dynasty|  1206 – 1290 CE
Khalji Dynasty|  1290 – 1320 CE
Tugluq Dynasty|  1320 – 1338,1342 CE
City State Sultanates|
Sonargaon|  1338 – 1352 CE
Lakhnauti/Gauda|  1342 – 1352 CE
Satagon/Saptagram|  1342 – 1352 CE
Twipra Kingdom|  c. 1400 – 1949 CE
Bengal Sultanate|  1352 – 1576 CE
Ilyas Shahi dynasty|  1342 – 1487 CE
House of Ganesha|  1414 – 1436 CE
Habshi dynasty|  1487 – 1494 CE
Hussein Shahi|  1494 – 1538 CE
Suri Interruption|  1539 – 1554 CE
Muhammad Shahi|  1554 – 1564 CE
Karrani dynasty|  1564 – 1576 CE
Pratapgarh Kingdom|  1489 – 1700s CE

Early Modern

|  Koch Kingdom|  1515 – 1956 CE

|

Suri Dynasty|  1540 – 1556 CE
Twelve Bhuyans|  1550 – 1620 CE
Porto Grande de Bengala|  1528 – 1666 CE
Kingdom of Mrauk U|  1530 – 1666 CE
Mughal Empire|  1576 – 1717 CE
Bengal Subah|  1576 – 1717 CE
Rajshahi Raj|  c. 1700s - 1950 CE
Zamindars|  1700s - 1900s CE
Pratapaditya Kingdom|  1602 – 1611 CE
Sitaram Ray Kingdom|  1688 – 1714 CE
Nawabs of Bengal|  1717 – 1757 CE
Maratha Invasions|  1742 - 1751 CE
Afghan insurrections|  1745 - 1750 CE
Siege of Calcutta|  1756 CE
Shamsher Gazi's Kingdom|  1748 – 1760 CE
Company Raj|  1757 – 1858 CE
Bengal famine of 1770|  1770 CE
Bengal Renaissance|  1772 - 1913 CE
Faraizi movement|  1818 – 1884 CE
The Great Rebellion|  1857 – 1858 CE
Tariqah-i-Muhammadiya|  1830 – 1831 CE
Titumir's rebellion|  1830s CE
British Raj|  1858 – 1947 CE
Partition of Bengal|  1905 CE
Bengal and Assam|  1905 - 1912 CE
Bengal Famine|  1943 CE
Bengali Prime Minister|  1937 - 1947 CE
Noakhali riots|  1946 CE

Modern

|  East Bengal|  1947 – 1955 CE

|

Partition of Bengal (1947)|  1947 CE
East Bengali refugees|  1947 CE
Bengali language movement|  1948 – 1956 CE
East Pakistan|  1955 – 1971 CE
1964 East Pakistan riots|  1964 CE
Indo-Pakistani war of 1965|  1965 CE
Six Point movement|  1966 CE
East Pakistan Uprising|  1969 CE
Pakistani general election|  1970 CE
Non-cooperation |  1971 CE
Bangladesh Liberation War|  1971 CE
Independence Declaration|  1971 CE
Provisional Government|  1971 – 1972 CE
Bangladesh genocide|  1971 CE
Surrender of Pakistan|  1971 CE

Contemporary

|  Bangladesh famine|  1974 CE

|

Bangladesh Krishak Sramik Awami League|  1975 CE
Assassination of Sheikh Mujibur Rahman|  1975 CE
Jail Killing Day|  1975 CE
Military rule|  1975 – 1990 CE
Military coups in Bangladesh|  1975 - 2011 CE
Chittagong Hill Tracts conflict|  1977 - 1997 CE
Mass Uprising|  1990 CE
Transition to democracy|  1991 – 2008 CE
Caretaker government of Bangladesh|  1996 CE
Chittagong Hill Tracts Peace Accord|  1997 CE
Bangladeshi political crisis|  2006–2008 CE
Hasina era|  2009–2024 CE
Vision 2021 and Digital Bangladesh|  2008 CE
Bangladesh Rifles revolt|  2009 CE
Shapla Square protests|  2013 CE
Bangladesh quota reform movement|  2013 CE
International Crimes Tribunal|  2009 CE
2015 Bangladeshi political crisis|  2015 CE
2018 Bangladesh road-safety protests|  2018 CE
2018 Bangladesh quota reform movement|  2018 CE
2021 Bangladesh Communal Violence|  2021 CE
Smart Bangladesh|
Bangladesh protests (2022–2024)|  2022- 2024 CE
July Revolution|  2024 CE
Aftermath of July Revolution|  2024–present CE
Yunus ministry|

Related articles

* Timeline of Bangladeshi history
* Bangladeshi art
* Bengali literature

Bangladesh portal

* v
* t
* e

The history of Bangladesh (1971–present) refers to the period after the independence of Bangladesh from Pakistan.

## 1972–80: Post-independence era

[edit]

### Sheikh Mujibur Rahman administration

[edit]

Bangladesh's founding leader Sheikh Mujibur Rahman, as prime minister, with US President Gerald Ford at the Oval Office in 1974

Upon his release on 10 January 1972, Sheikh Mujibur Rahman briefly assumed the provisional presidency and later took office as the prime minister, heading all organs of government and decision-making. The politicians elected in 1970 formed the provisional parliament of the new state. The Mukti Bahini and other militias amalgamated to form a new Bangladeshi army to which Indian forces transferred control on 17 March. The government faced serious challenges, which including the rehabilitation of millions of people displaced in 1971, organising the supply of food, health aids and other necessities. The effects of the 1970 cyclone had not worn off, and the state's economy had immensely deteriorated by the conflict.

Mujib helped Bangladesh enter into the United Nations and the Non-Aligned Movement. He travelled to the United States, the United Kingdom and other European nations to obtain humanitarian and developmental assistance for the nation. He signed a treaty of friendship with India, which pledged extensive economic and humanitarian assistance and began training Bangladesh's security forces and government personnel.[1] Mujib forged a close friendship with Indira Gandhi,[2] strongly praising India's decision to intercede, and professed admiration and friendship for India. Major efforts were launched to rehabilitate an estimated 10 million refugees. The economy began recovering and a famine was prevented. A constitution was proclaimed in 1972 and elections were held, which resulted in Mujib and his party gaining power with an absolute majority. He further outlined state programmes to expand primary education, sanitation, food, healthcare, water and electric supply across the country. A five-year plan released in 1973 focused state investments into agriculture, rural infrastructure and cottage industries.[3]

From March 1974 to December 1974, one of the deadliest famines of the 20th century occurred in Bangladesh, when it is estimated that anywhere between 27,000 and 1,500,000 people perished from starvation. The first widespread reports of this famine started to emerge in the March of 1974 and the price of rice climbed significantly, the Rangpur District of Bangladesh experienced the first signs of this famine.[4]

### Left wing insurgency

[edit]

At the height of Sheikh Mujib's power, left wing insurgents, organised by Jatiyo Samajtantrik Dal's armed wing Gonobahini fought against the government of Sheikh Mujibur Rahman, to establish a Marxist government.[5][6]

The government responded by forming the Jatiya Rakkhi Bahini[7] which began a campaign of brutal human rights abuses against the general populace, including the force became involved in numerous charges of human rights abuse including political killings,[8][9][10] shooting by death squads,[11] and rape.[10] Members of Jatiya Rakkhi Bahini were granted immunity from prosecution and other legal proceedings.[12][13]

### Bangladesh Krishak Sramik Awami League (BAKSAL)

[edit]

According to Abdur Razzaq, the 1974 famine profoundly affected Mujib's views on governance,[14] while political unrest gave rise to increasing violence. During the famine, 70,000 people were reported as dead (Note: Reports vary). In response, he began increasing his powers. On 25 January 1975, Mujib declared a state of emergency and his political supporters approved a constitutional amendment banning all opposition political parties. Mujib assumed presidency and was given extraordinary powers.[2][12] His political supporters amalgamated to form the only legalised political party, the Bangladesh Krishak Sramik Awami League, commonly known by its initials—BAKSAL. The party identified itself with the rural masses, farmers and labourers and took control of government machinery. It also launched major socialist programmes. Using government forces and a militia of supporters called the Jatiya Rakkhi Bahini, Mujib clamped down on any opposition to him.[12][13] The militia known as Rakkhi Bahini and police were accused of torturing suspects and political killings. While retaining support from many segments of the population, Mujib evoked anger among veterans of the 1971 war for what was seen as a betrayal of the causes of democracy and civil rights.

### Assassination of Sheikh Mujibur Rahman and aftermath

[edit]

On 15 August 1975, a group of junior army officers invaded the presidential residence with tanks and killed Mujib, his family and personal staff.[2] Only his daughters, Sheikh Hasina Wajed and Sheikh Rehana, who were in West Germany, escaped. They were temporarily banned from returning to Bangladesh.[15] The coup was planned by disgruntled Awami League colleagues and military officers, which included Mujib's colleague and former confidanté Khondaker Mostaq Ahmad, who became his immediate successor. There was intense speculation in the media accusing the US Central Intelligence Agency of having instigated the plot.[16] Lawrence Lifschultz has alleged that the CIA was involved in the coup and assassination, basing his assumption on the then US ambassador in Dhaka Eugene Booster.[17]

Mujib's death plunged the nation into many years of political turmoil. The coup leaders were soon overthrown and a series of counter-coups and political assassinations paralysed the country.[12] Order was largely restored after a coup in 1977 gave control to the army chief Ziaur Rahman. Declaring himself President in 1978, Ziaur Rahman signed the Indemnity Ordinance, giving immunity from prosecution to the men who plotted[18] Mujib's assassination and overthrow.

### Military-Civil administration under Ziaur Rahman, 1975–81

[edit]

Main article: Presidency of Ziaur Rahman

Successive military coups resulted in the emergence of Army Chief of Staff General Ziaur Rahman ("Zia") as strongman. He pledged the army's support to the civilian government headed by President Chief Justice Sayem. Acting at Zia's behest, Sayem dissolved Parliament, promising fresh elections in 1977, and instituted martial law.[19]

Acting behind the scenes of the Martial Law Administration (MLA), Zia sought to invigorate government policy and administration. While continuing the ban on political parties, he sought to revitalise the demoralised bureaucracy, to begin new economic development programs, and to emphasise family planning. In November 1976, Zia became Chief Martial Law Administrator (CMLA) and assumed the presidency upon Sayem's retirement five months later, promising national elections in 1978.[19]

As President, Zia announced a 19-point program of economic reform and began dismantling the MLA. Keeping his promise to hold elections, Zia won a five-year term in June 1978 elections, with 76% of the vote. In November 1978, his government removed the remaining restrictions on political party activities in time for parliamentary elections in February 1979. These elections, which were contested by more than 30 parties, marked the culmination of Zia's transformation of Bangladesh's government from the MLA to a democratically elected, constitutional one. The AL and the Bangladesh Nationalist Party (BNP), founded by Zia, emerged as the two major parties.[19]

In May 1981, Zia was assassinated in Chittagong by dissident elements of the military. The attempted coup never spread beyond that city, and the major conspirators were either taken into custody or killed. In accordance with the constitution, Vice-President Justice Abdul Sattar was sworn in as acting president. He declared a new national emergency and called for election of a new president within six months—an election Sattar won as the BNP's candidate. President Sattar sought to follow the policies of his predecessor and retained essentially the same cabinet, but the army stepped in once again.[19]

## 1980s

[edit]

### Administration of Hussain Muhammad Ershad, 1982–90

[edit]

Presidential Oath Ceremony after 1986 election, with the Chief Justice and Military Secretary (1984–1989) Brigadier ABM Elias

Army Chief of Staff Lieutenant General Hussain Muhammad Ershad assumed power in a bloodless coup on 24 March 1982, citing the "grave political, economic, and societal crisis" that the nation was in. This move was not unanticipated, as Ershad had previously expressed distaste with the ageing Sattar (who was past his 75th birthday) and his handling of national affairs, in addition to his refusal to allow the army more participation in politics. Like his predecessors, Ershad suspended the constitution and—citing pervasive corruption, ineffectual government, and economic mismanagement—declared martial law. Among his first actions were to privatise the largely state-owned economy (up to 70% of industry was in public ownership) and encourage private investment in heavy industries along with light manufacturing, raw materials, and newspapers. Foreign companies were invited to invest in Bangladeshi industry as well, and stiff protectionist measures were put in place to safeguard manufacturing. All political parties and trade unions were banned for the time being, with the death penalty to be administered for corruption and political agitation. Ershad's takeover was initially viewed as a positive development, as Bangladesh was in a state of serious economic difficulty after Zia's death and political turmoil.

Two weeks before the coup in March, Prime Minister Shah Azizur Rahman announced that the country was facing significant food shortages. The government also faced a severe budget deficit to the tune of 4 billion takas, and the IMF declared that it would not provide any more loans until Bangladesh paid down some of its existing debts. The following year, Ershad assumed the presidency, retaining his positions as army chief and CMLA. During most of 1984, Ershad sought the opposition parties' participation in local elections under martial law. The opposition's refusal to participate, however, forced Ershad to abandon these plans. Ershad sought public support for his regime in a national referendum on his leadership in March 1985. He won overwhelmingly, although turnout was small. Two months later, Ershad held elections for local council chairmen. Pro-government candidates won a majority of the posts, setting in motion the President's ambitious decentralisation program. Political life was further liberalised in early 1986, and additional political rights, including the right to hold large public rallies, were restored. At the same time, the Jatiya (National) Party, designed as Ershad's political vehicle for the transition from martial law, was established.[19]

Despite a boycott by the BNP, led by President Zia's widow, Begum Khaleda Zia, parliamentary elections were held on schedule in May 1986. The Jatiya Party won a modest majority of the 300 elected seats in the National Assembly. The participation of the Awami League—led by the late President Mujib's daughter, Sheikh Hasina Wajed—lent the elections some credibility, despite widespread charges of voting irregularities.[19]

Ershad resigned as Army Chief of Staff and retired from military service in preparation for the presidential elections, scheduled for October. Protesting that martial law was still in effect, both the BNP and the AL refused to put up opposing candidates. Ershad easily outdistanced the remaining candidates, taking 84% of the vote. Although Ershad's government claimed a turnout of more than 50%, opposition leaders, and much of the foreign press, estimated a far lower percentage and alleged voting irregularities.

Ershad continued his stated commitment to lift martial law. In November 1986, his government mustered the necessary two-thirds majority in the National Assembly to amend the constitution and confirm the previous actions of the martial law regime. The President then lifted martial law, and the opposition parties took their elected seats in the National Assembly.[19]

Bangladeshi pro-democracy activist Noor Hossain photographed by Dinu Alam before he was killed, protesting the autocratic rule of Hussain Muhammad Ershad.

But in July 1987, after the government hastily pushed through a controversial legislative bill to include military representation on local administrative councils, the opposition walked out of Parliament. Passage of the bill helped spark an opposition movement that quickly gathered momentum, uniting Bangladesh's opposition parties for the first time. The government began to arrest scores of opposition activists under the country's Special Powers Act of 1974. Despite these arrests, opposition parties continued to organise protest marches and nationwide strikes. After declaring a state of emergency, Ershad dissolved Parliament and scheduled fresh elections for March 1988.[19]

All major opposition parties refused government overtures to participate in these polls, maintaining that the government was incapable of holding free and fair elections. Despite the opposition boycott, the government proceeded. The ruling Jatiya Party won 251 of the 300 seats. The Parliament, while still regarded by the opposition as an illegitimate body, held its sessions as scheduled, and passed numerous bills, including, in June 1988, a controversial constitutional amendment making Islam Bangladesh's state religion and provision for setting up High Court benches in major cities outside of Dhaka. While Islam remains the state religion, the provision for decentralising the High Court division has been struck down by the Supreme Court.[19]

By 1989, the domestic political situation in the country seemed to have quieted down. The local council elections were generally considered by international observers to have been less violent and more free and fair than previous elections. However, opposition to Ershad's rule began to regain momentum, escalating by the end of 1990 in frequent general strikes, increased campus protests, public rallies, and a general disintegration of law and order.[19]

### Devolution and Local government Act

[edit]

To improve rural and local administration, Ershad introduced the upazila and Zila Parishad system. He held the 'first democratic elections for these village councils' in 1985.

## 1990s

[edit]

### Transition to democracy

[edit]

A wide umbrella of political parties united against Ershad. Ziaur Rahman's widow, Khaleda Zia, led the Bangladesh Nationalist Party, which allied with the Bangladesh Awami League, led by Sheikh Mujibur Rahman's daughter Sheikh Hasina. Jamaat-e-Islami Bangladesh and other Islamic parties and alliances joined the opposition ranks. They called for strikes and protests that paralysed the state and its economy. Although the parliament was dissolved, fresh elections were boycotted by the opposition, including Awami League and Jamaat. Students launched an intensifying opposition campaign, which ultimately forced Ershad to step down. On 6 December 1990, Ershad offered his resignation.[20] On 27 February 1991, after two months of widespread civil unrest, an interim government headed by Acting President Chief Justice Shahabuddin Ahmed oversaw what most observers believed to be the nation's most free and fair elections to that date.[19]

### First Khaleda administration, 1991–96

[edit]

The centre-right Bangladesh Nationalist Party won a plurality of seats and formed a government with support from the Islamic party Jamaat-I-Islami, with Khaleda Zia, widow of Ziaur Rahman, obtaining the post of prime minister. Only four parties had more than 10 members elected to the 1991 Parliament: The BNP, led by Prime Minister Begum Khaleda Zia; the AL, led by Sheikh Hasina; the Jamaat-I-Islami (JI), led by Ghulam Azam; and the Jatiya Party (JP), led by acting chairman Mizanur Rahman Choudhury while its founder, former President Ershad, served out a prison sentence on corruption charges. The electorate approved still more changes to the constitution, formally re-creating a parliamentary system and returning governing power to the office of the prime minister, as in Bangladesh's original 1972 constitution. In October 1991, members of Parliament elected a new head of state, President Abdur Rahman Biswas.[19]

In March 1994 controversy over a parliamentary by-election, which the opposition claimed the government had rigged, led to an indefinite boycott of Parliament by the entire opposition. The opposition also began a program of repeated general strikes to press its demand that Khaleda Zia's government resign and a caretaker government supervise a general election. Efforts to mediate the dispute, under the auspices of the Commonwealth Secretariat, failed. After another attempt at a negotiated settlement failed narrowly in late December 1994, the opposition resigned en masse from Parliament. The opposition then continued a campaign of marches, demonstrations, and strikes in an effort to force the government to resign. The opposition, including the Bangladesh Awami League, led by Sheikh Hasina, pledged to boycott national elections scheduled for 15 February 1996.[19]

In February Khaleda Zia was re-elected by a landslide in voting boycotted and denounced as unfair by the three main opposition parties. In March 1996, following escalating political turmoil, the sitting Parliament enacted a constitutional amendment to allow a neutral caretaker government to assume power and conduct new parliamentary elections; former chief justice Muhammad Habibur Rahman was named chief adviser (a position equivalent to Prime Minister) in the interim government. New parliamentary elections were held in June 1996 and the Awami League won plurality and formed the government with support from the Jatiya Party led by deposed president Hussain Muhammad Ershad; party leader Sheikh Hasina became Prime Minister of Bangladesh.[19]

### First Hasina administration, 1996–2001

[edit]

See also: Cabinet Hasina I

Prime Minister Sheikh Hasina inspects the ceremonial honour guard during a full honour arrival ceremony at the Pentagon on 17 October 2000.

Sheikh Hasina formed what she called a "Government of National Consensus" in June 1996, which included one minister from the Jatiya Party and another from the Jatiya Samajtantrik Dal. The Jatiya Party never entered into a formal coalition arrangement, and party president Hussain Muhammad Ershad withdrew his support from the government in September 1997. Only three parties had more than 10 members elected to the 1996 Parliament: the Awami League, BNP, and Jatiya Party. Jatiya Party president, Ershad, was released from prison on bail in January 1997.[19]

International and domestic election observers found the June 1996 election free and fair, and ultimately, the Bangladesh Nationalist Party decided to join the new Parliament. The BNP soon charged that police and Bangladesh Awami League activists were engaged in large-scale harassment and jailing of opposition activists. At the end of 1996, the Bangladesh Nationalist Party staged a parliamentary walkout over this and other grievances but returned in January 1997 under a four-point agreement with the ruling party. The Bangladesh Nationalist Party asserted that this agreement was never implemented and later staged another walkout in August 1997. The Bangladesh Nationalist Party returned to Parliament under another agreement in March 1998.[19]

In June 1999, the Bangladesh Nationalist Party and other opposition parties again began to abstain from attending Parliament. Opposition parties staged an increasing number of nationwide general strikes, rising from six days of general strikes in 1997 to 27 days in 1999. A four-party opposition alliance formed at the beginning of 1999 announced that it would boycott parliamentary by-elections and local government elections unless the government took steps demanded by the opposition to ensure electoral fairness. The government did not take these steps, and the opposition subsequently boycotted all elections, including municipal council elections in February 1999, several parliamentary by-elections, and the Chittagong city corporation elections in January 2000.[19]

In July 2001 the Bangladesh Awami League government stepped down to allow a caretaker government to preside over parliamentary elections. Political violence that had increased during the Bangladesh Awami League government's tenure continued to increase through the summer in the run up to the election. In August, Khaleda Zia and Sheikh Hasina agreed during a visit of former President Jimmy Carter to respect the results of the election, join Parliament win or lose, forswear the use of hartals (violently enforced strikes) as political tools, and if successful in forming a government allow for a more meaningful role for the opposition in Parliament. The caretaker government was successful in containing the violence, which allowed a parliamentary general election to be successfully held on 1 October 2001.[19]

## 2000s

[edit]

### Second Khaleda administration, 2001–2006

[edit]

The Four Party Alliance led by the Bangladesh Nationalist Party won over a two-thirds majority in Parliament. Begum Khaleda Zia was sworn in on 10 October 2001, as prime minister for the third time (first in 1991, second after the 15 February 1996 elections).[19]

Despite her August 2001 pledge and all election monitoring groups declaring the election free and fair, Sheikh Hasina condemned the election, rejected the results, and boycotted Parliament. In 2002, however, she led her party legislators back to Parliament, but the Bangladesh Awami League again walked out in June 2003 to protest derogatory remarks about Hasina by a State Minister and the allegedly partisan role of the Parliamentary Speaker. In June 2004, the AL returned to Parliament without having any of their demands met. They then attended Parliament irregularly before announcing a boycott of the entire June 2005 budget session.[19]

On 17 August 2005 near-synchronized blasts of improvised explosive devices in 63 out of 64 administrative districts targeted mainly government buildings and killed two people. An extremist Islamist group named Jamaat-ul-Mujahideen Bangladesh (JMB) claimed responsibility for the blasts, which aimed to press home JMB's demand for a replacement of the secular legal system with Islamic sharia courts. Subsequent attacks on the courts in several districts killed 28 people, including judges, lawyers, and police personnel guarding the courts. A government campaign against the Islamic extremists led to the arrest of hundreds of senior and mid-level JMB leaders. Six top JMB leaders were tried and sentenced to death for their role in the murder of two judges; another leader was tried and sentenced to death in absentia in the same case.[19]

In February 2006 the AL returned to Parliament, demanded early elections and requested significant changes in the electoral and caretaker government systems to stop alleged moves by the ruling coalition to rig the next election. The AL blamed the BNP for several high-profile attacks on opposition leaders and asserted the BNP was bent on eliminating Sheikh Hasina and the Awami League as a viable force. The BNP and its allies accused the AL of maligning Bangladesh at home and abroad out of jealousy over the government's performance on development and economic issues. Dialogue between the Secretaries General of the main ruling and opposition parties failed to sort out the electoral reform issues.[19]

### Political crisis and Caretaker government, 2006–2008

[edit]

Main articles: Caretaker government of Bangladesh and 2006–08 Bangladeshi political crisis

Hamid Karzai, Pervez Musharraf, and Fakhruddin Ahmed at the Annual Meeting 2008 of the World Economic Forum in Davos, Switzerland

The months preceding the planned 22 January 2007, elections were filled with political unrest and controversy.[21] Following the end of Khaleda Zia's government in late October 2006, there were protests and strikes, during which 40 people were killed in the following month, over uncertainty about who would head the caretaker government. The caretaker government had difficulty bringing the all parties to the table. Awami League and its allies protested and alleged that the caretaker government favoured the BNP.[22]

The interim period was marked by violence and strikes.[23][24] Presidential Advisor Mukhlesur Rahman Chowdhury negotiated with Sheikh Hasina and Khaleda Zia and brought all the parties to the planned 22 January 2007 parliamentary elections. Later Hussain Muhammad Ershad's nomination was cancelled; as a result, the Grand Alliance withdrew its candidates en masse on the last day possible. They demanded to have voters' lists published.[citation needed]

Later in the month, the president Iajuddin Ahmed imposed a state of emergency. Iajuddin Ahmed resigned from the post of chief adviser, under the pressure of Bangladesh Army, and appointed Fakhruddin Ahmed, the new chief adviser. Political activity was prohibited.[25] The military-backed government worked to develop graft and corruption cases against leaders and members of both major parties. In March 2007, Khaleda Zia's two sons, who both had positions in Bangladesh Nationalist Party, were charged with corruption. Hasina was charged with graft and extortion in April 2007, and a day later, Khaleda Zia was charged with graft as well.[26][27][28] There was attempts by Bangladesh Army chief Moeen U Ahmed, the head of Anti-Terrorism division of the Directorate General of Forces Intelligence Brigadier General ATM Amin, and Director of Directorate General of Forces Intelligence Brigadier General Chowdhury Fazlul Bari to remove Sheikh Hasina and Khaleda Zia from politics.[29] Former Army Chief, General Hasan Mashhud Chowdhury, was made the head of Bangladesh Anti Corruption Commission. The Anti Corruption Commission and the Bangladesh Election Commission were strengthened by the caretaker government.[30] On 27 August 2007, violence broke out in the University of Dhaka campus between students and soldiers of Bangladesh Army. Students called strikes and burned effigies of the army chief. Police attacked the students and physically assaulted Acting Vice-chancellor Prof AFM Yusuf Haider and other faculty members of the University of Dhaka.[31] Students were joined in demonstration by street vendors and slum residents who were evicted by the government. Bangladesh Army agreed to the demands of the protesters and removed the Army camp from University of Dhaka campus. Students and teachers expressed the continued state of emergency in Bangladesh.[32]

### Second Hasina administration

[edit]

See also: Cabinet Hasina II

Sheikh Hasina with Vladimir Putin in Moscow

The Awami league won national election on 29 December 2008 as part of a larger electoral alliance that also included the Jatiya Party led by former military ruler General Hussain Muhammad Ershad as well as some leftist parties. According to the Official Results,[33] Bangladesh Awami League won 230 out of 299 constituencies, and together with its allies, had a total of 262 parliamentary seats.[34] The Awami League and its allies received 57% of the total votes cast. The AL alone got 48%, compared to 36% of the other major alliance led by the BNP which by itself got 33% of the votes. Sheikh Hasina, as party head, is the new Prime Minister. Her term of office began on 7 January 2009 after Fakhruddin Ahmed.[35][36] The new cabinet had several new faces, including three women in prominent positions: Dr Dipu Moni (Foreign Minister), Matia Chowdhury (Agriculture Minister) and Sahara Khatun (Home Minister). Younger MPs with a link to assassinated members of the 1972–1975 AL government are Syed Ashraful Islam, son of Syed Nazrul Islam, Sheikh Fazle Noor Taposh, son of Sheikh Fazlul Huq Moni, and Tanjim Ahmad Sohel Taj, son of Tajuddin Ahmad.

Since 2009, the Awami League government faced several major political challenges, including BDR mutiny,[37] power crisis,[38] unrest in garments industry[39] and stock market fluctuations.[40] Judicial achievements for the party included restoring 1972 constitution (set by the first Awami League government),[41] beginning of war crimes trials,[42] and guilty verdict in 1975 assassination trial.[43] According to the Nielsen 2-year survey, 50% felt the country was moving in the right direction, and 36% gave the government a favourable rating.[44] On 18 September 2012, Bangladesh Supreme Court declared the caretaker government led by Fakhruddin Ahmed as unconstitutional.[45]

### Vision 2021 and Digital Bangladesh

[edit]

See also: Vision 2021

Vision 2021 was the political manifesto of the Bangladesh Awami League party before winning the National Elections of 2008. It stands as a political vision of Bangladesh for the year 2021, the golden jubilee of the nation. The policy has been criticized as a policy emblematic of technological optimism in the context of Bangladesh and the state repression of media, low internet penetration, inadequate electricity generation.[46] The Vision 2021 is an articulation of where this nation needs to be in 2021 – the year which marks the 50th anniversary of Bangladesh's independence.

Digital Bangladesh implies the broad use of computers, and embodies the modern philosophy of effective and useful use of technology in terms of implementing the promises in education, health, job placement and poverty reduction. The party underscored a changing attitude, positive thinking and innovative ideas for the successes of "Digital Bangladesh".[47][48]

## 2010s

[edit]

### War crimes tribunal

[edit]

Main article: International Crimes Tribunal (Bangladesh)

2013 Shahbag protests, Protest against the war criminals in Shahbagh, Bangladesh.

During the 2008 general election, the Awami League (AL) pledged to establish the tribunals in response to long-standing calls for trying war criminals. The first indictments were issued in 2010. However, the main perpetrators of the war crimes, the Pakistan soldiers, remained out of the reach of the courts.[49]

The government set up the tribunal after the Awami League won the general election in December 2008 with a more than two-thirds majority in parliament. The War Crimes Fact Finding Committee, tasked to investigate and find evidence, completed its report in 2008, identifying 1,600 suspects. Prior to the formation of the ICT, the United Nations Development Programme offered assistance in 2009 on the tribunal's formation. In 2009, the parliament amended the 1973 act that authorised such a tribunal to update it.[50]

### Third Hasina administration, 2014–2019

[edit]

See also: Third Hasina ministry

A general election was held on 5 January 2014, in accordance with the constitutional requirement that the election must take place within the 90-day period before the expiration of the term of the parliament on 24 January 2014. The buildup to the election was marred by violence. The opposition BNP agitated for restoration of the caretaker government system, abolished in June 2011 when parliament, under Prime Minister Hasina, passed the 15th amendment of the constitution. Jamaat-e-Islami (JI), once a BNP ally, protested against the International Crimes Tribunal and its conviction and execution of JI leaders. The BNP and JI were among the 70 percent of registered parties that boycotted the election.[51]

The JP threatened to boycott the election too, but was persuaded to participate. Out of 300 seats, 233 went to the AL, the JP won 34, and the remainder were divided among minor parties and independent candidates. More than half of the seats, 153, were uncontested. According to The New York Times, voter turnout was low, at 20 percent. Hasina was sworn in to lead the next government. She included three JP members in her cabinet.[51]

### Attacks on secularists

[edit]

From 2013 a number of secularist writers, bloggers and publishers in Bangladesh have been killed or seriously injured in attacks perpetrated by extremists. The attacks have taken place at a time of growing tension between Bangladeshi secularists, who want the country to maintain its secularist tradition of separation of religion and state, and Islamists, who want an Islamic state. Tensions was also risen as a result of the country's war crimes tribunal, which convicted several members of the opposition Islamist Jamaat-e-Islami party for crimes committed during Bangladesh's bloody war of independence in 1971. Secularists have been calling for harsher penalties for the convicted, with some calling for the Jamaat-e-Islami party itself to be outlawed, drawing the ire of the party's supporters. Responsibility for the attacks on secularists which have since occurred have been claimed by a number of militant groups including Ansarullah Bangla Team, who have frequently justified their attacks on the grounds that their victims are "atheists" and enemies of Islam. Four bloggers had been killed in 2015, but only 4 people were arrested in the murder cases.[52][53]

### Student protests against VAT on education

[edit]

Private university students in Uttara, Dhaka protest VAT on tuition fees.

Main article: 2015 Bangladesh student protests against VAT on education

The 2015 Bangladesh student protests on "No VAT on Education" were protests by students of private universities in Bangladesh demanding the VAT imposed on higher education in private universities be eliminated.[54][55] The Finance Minister of the Awami League government first introduced a 10% VAT upon higher education in private universities in the draft of budget of 2015–16.[56] Following strong opposition, the VAT was reduced to 7.5%.[57] The imposed VAT was withdrawn by the finance division after a cabinet meeting on 14 September 2015.

### Quota Reform Movement

[edit]

Quota reform protesters at University of Dhaka

Main articles: 2013 Bangladesh quota reform movement and 2018 Bangladesh quota reform movement

The 2018 Bangladesh Quota Reform Movement was a movement demanding reforms in policies regarding recruitment in the Bangladesh government services. Bangladesh Sadharan Chhatra Adhikar Sangrakshan Parishad (Bangladesh General Students' Right Conservation Council) initiated movement initially began in Shahbag and on Dhaka University campus on 17 February 2018, and eventually spread country-wide by 8 April 2018.[58] The movement rapidly attained popularity among students of different universities and colleges forcing the government to announce changes in its policy.

### Road Safety Protests

[edit]

Students blocking a road in Uttara, North Dhaka, 2 August 2018

Main article: 2018 Bangladesh road-safety protests

A series of public protests in Bangladesh advocating improved road safety were held from 29 July to 8 August 2018.[59] They were sparked by the deaths of two high-school students in Dhaka struck by a bus operated by an unlicensed driver who was racing to collect passengers. The incident impelled students to demand safer roads and stricter traffic laws, and the demonstrations rapidly spread throughout Bangladesh.[60][61]

The protests were peaceful until 2 August, when police attempted to disperse the demonstrators with tear gas and people believed to be members of a pro-government youth league attacked protesters and journalists.[62][63] The government arrested several protesters and a photographer for giving an interview about the protests to international media.[64][65] Various international organisations and high-profile figures expressed solidarity with the protesters.[citation needed][66] The crack-down on the student protesters received high criticism both domestically and internationally.[67][68][69]

The third Sheikh Hasina Cabinet approved on 6 August a draft traffic act stipulating capital punishment for intentional killing and a maximum five-year prison sentence for accidental killing with a motor vehicle.[70] The protesters felt that the maximum five-year sentence was too light for accidental deaths due to reckless driving.[71] By 8 August, the situation in the city had returned to normal, most students had returned to their classes and traffic had resumed as normal, with many sources stating that the nine-day protests were over.[72][73][74]

### Fourth Hasina administration

[edit]

See also: Cabinet Hasina IV

2018 Bangladeshi general election were held on 30 December 2018.[75] The result was a landslide victory for the Awami League led by Sheikh Hasina. The elections were marred by violence and claims of vote rigging.[76] Opposition leader Kamal Hossain rejected the results, calling it "farcical" and demanding fresh elections to be held under a neutral government.

## 2020s

[edit]

### COVID-19 pandemic

[edit]

Main article: COVID-19 pandemic in Bangladesh

The COVID-19 pandemic in Bangladesh was a part of the worldwide pandemic of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) caused by severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2). The virus was confirmed to have spread to Bangladesh in March 2020. The first three known cases were reported on 8 March 2020 by the country's epidemiology institute, IEDCR. Since then, the pandemic has spread day by day over the whole nation and the number of affected people has been increasing. Bangladesh is the second most affected country in South Asia, after India.[77]

### Mujib Year and Golden jubilee

[edit]

Main article: Mujib Year

The government of Bangladesh has announced the commemoration of 2020–2021 as the Mujib Year (Bengali: মুজিব বর্ষ) on the occasion of the centennial birth anniversary of the founding leader of the country, Sheikh Mujibur Rahman .[78] This year will be celebrated from 17 March 2020 to 26 March 2021. The UN General Assembly, UNESCO, has decided to jointly celebrate the Mujib Year with Bangladesh at the UNESCO 40th General Assembly.[79][80] The decision was made in the presence of all UNESCO members on 12–27 November in Paris, held on 25 November 2019.

For 2021 the "Bangla50" initiative launched to celebrate 50 years of independence from Pakistan and is called in Bengali সুবর্ণ জয়ন্তী; Subarṇa jaẏantī, with a logo that spells "BD50". Several celebration programs will be held in countries including India, Russia, Germany, Sweden, Hungary, Poland, Nepal and Bhutan.[81]

### 2021 Bangladesh communal violence

[edit]

Main article: 2021 Bangladesh Communal Violence

From 13 to 19 October 2021 Muslim mobs instigated communal violence against Hindu communities across Bangladesh during the Durga Puja festival. More than 50 temples and makeshift worship arrangements were vandalized all over Bangladesh[82] According to ASK aka Ain o Salish Kendra (আইন ও সালিশ কেন্দ্র) – a Bangladeshi legal aid and human rights organization; With 3,679 attacks in 9 years (between January 2013 and September 2021), Bangladesh's Hindus at ‘regular threat’ of violence.[83]

The Bangladesh government deployed paramilitary Bangladesh Border Guards forces in 22 of the 64 administrative districts of Bangladesh to quell violence against the Hindu community. As of 22 October 2021, at least 11 people have been killed across the country, including 7 Hindus, in the "worst communal violence in years" as termed by The New York Times.[84][85]

### Smart Bangladesh

[edit]

Main article: Smart Bangladesh

### 2024 Bangladeshi general election

[edit]

In January 2024, Prime Minister Sheikh Hasina secured her fourth straight term in Bangladesh's controversial general election, which was boycotted by the main opposition Bangladesh Nationalist Party.[86]

### July revolution

[edit]

Main article: July Revolution (Bangladesh)

#### 2024 Bangladesh quota reform movement

[edit]

Main article: 2024 Bangladesh quota reform movement

The 2024 Bangladesh quota reform movement, also known as the July Revolution, was a series of anti-government and pro-democracy protests in Bangladesh, spearheaded primarily by university students. Initially focused on restructuring quota-based systems for government job recruitment, the movement expanded against what many perceive as an authoritarian government when they carried out the July massacre of protestors and civilians, most of whom were students.

#### Non-cooperation movement

[edit]

Main article: Non-cooperation movement (2024)

The non-cooperation movement, also known as the one-point movement, was a pro-democratic disinvestment movement and mass uprising against the Awami League-led government of Bangladesh, initiated within the framework of the 2024 Bangladesh quota reform movement. The sole demand of this movement was the resignation of Prime Minister Sheikh Hasina and her cabinet. Later Hasina was forced to resign.

#### Yunus Interim government (2024-present)

[edit]

Main articles: Interim government of Muhammad Yunus and Yunus ministry

An interim government led by the Muhammad Yunus was formed on 8 August 2024 in Bangladesh, following the resignation of Prime Minister Sheikh Hasina on 5 August 2024 amid nationwide student and public protests against the government. Following the dissolution of the 12th Jatiya Sangsad on 6 August 2024, the interim cabinet will remain in office until a new Prime Minister is appointed after a snap general election. The government, like the previous non-CtG interim administrations (in 1975 and 1990), is extra-constitutional. However, the Appellate Division of the Supreme Court of Bangladesh affirmed the legality of the stopgap government on 9 August 2024, citing the urgent need to manage state affairs and address the constitutional vacuum, as has been the case in the past too.

## See also

[edit]

* History of Bengal
* History of East Pakistan

## Footnotes

[edit]

1. ^ Frank 2002, p. 343.
2. ^ a b c Frank 2002, p. 388.
3. ^ Farid, Shah Mohammad. "IV. Integration of Poverty Alleviation and Social Sector Development into the Planning Process of Bangladesh" (PDF). UN Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific (UNESCAP). Archived from the original (PDF) on 26 March 2009. Retrieved 7 July 2006.
4. ^ Rangan, Kasturi (13 November 1974). "Bangladesh Fears Thousands May Be Dead as Famine Spreads". The New York Times. Retrieved 28 December 2021.
5. ^ "JS sees debate over role of Gono Bahini". The Daily Star. Retrieved 9 July 2015.
6. ^ "Rizvi now blasts Inu at press briefing". The Daily Star. UNB. 15 June 2016. Retrieved 12 July 2016.
7. ^ Ahamed, Emajuddin (2004). "The military and democracy in Bangladesh" (PDF). In May, Ronald James; Selochan, Viberto (eds.). The Military and Democracy in Asia and the Pacific. Sydney: Australian National University Press. pp. 108–110\. ISBN 978-1-920942-01-4.
8. ^ "Ignoring Executions and Torture : Impunity for Bangladesh's Security Forces" (PDF). Human Rights Watch. 18 March 2009. Retrieved 16 August 2013.
9. ^ রক্ষীবাহিনীর নৃশংসতা মধ্যযুগীয় বর্বরতাকেও হার মানিয়েছিল. Amar Desh (in Bengali). 16 January 2011. Archived from the original on 17 January 2011.
10. ^ a b Fair, Christine C.; Riaz, Ali (2010). Political Islam and Governance in Bangladesh. Routledge. pp. 30–31\. ISBN 978-1136926242. Retrieved 19 June 2016.
11. ^ Chowdhury, Atif (18 February 2013). "Bangladesh: Baptism By Fire". Huffington Post. Retrieved 12 July 2016.
12. ^ a b c d Maniruzzaman, Talukder (February 1976). "Bangladesh in 1975: The Fall of the Mujib Regime and Its Aftermath". Asian Survey. 16 (2): 119–29\. doi:10.2307/2643140. JSTOR 2643140.
13. ^ a b Heitzman, James; Worden, Robert, eds. (1989). "Fall of the Bangabandhu, 1972–75". Bangladesh: A Country Study. Washington, D.C.: Federal Research Division, Library of Congress. Retrieved 12 September 2006.
14. ^ Karim, S. A. (2005). Sheikh Mujib: Triumph and Tragedy. The University Press Limited. p. 345\. ISBN 984-05-1737-6. "[Sheikh Moni] was not the only man to want Mujib to be endowed with near-dictatorial power. Mansur Ali, the Home Minister was in favour of some form of authoritarian government to prevent the slide into anarchy ... Mujib would appear to have become receptive to the idea of a radical change only after the 1974 famine. According to Abdur Razzak, it was only then that he became convinced of the need for a 'breakthrough' in order to build an 'exploitation-free' society."
15. ^ Frank 2002, p. 389.
16. ^ Shahriar, Hassan (17 August 2005). "CIA involved in 1975 Bangla military coup". Deccan Herald. Archived from the original on 18 May 2006. Retrieved 7 July 2006.
17. ^ Lifschultz, Lawrence (15 August 2005). "The long shadow of the August 1975 coup". The Daily Star. Retrieved 8 June 2007.
18. ^ Ziaur Rahman informed Sheikh Mujibur Rahman earlier about coup threat Archived 5 June 2013 at the Wayback Machine
19. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v Bureau of South and Central Asian Affairs (March 2008). "Background Note: Bangladesh". U.S. Department of State. Retrieved 11 June 2008. This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain.
20. ^ "Ershad, Lt. General Hussein M". Banglapedia. Retrieved 5 February 2018.
21. ^ "Full text of CA's address to nation". The Daily Star. 13 May 2008. Retrieved 5 February 2018.
22. ^ "It's 1⁄11 amnesia". The Daily Star. 11 February 2015. Retrieved 5 February 2018.
23. ^ Rahman, Waliur (8 January 2007). "Is Bangladesh heading towards disaster?". BBC News. Retrieved 26 August 2012.
24. ^ Habib, Haroon (4 January 2007). "Polls won't be fair: Hasina". The Hindu. Archived from the original on 7 January 2007.
25. ^ "The caretaker government in the dock". The Daily Star. 11 July 2009. Retrieved 5 February 2018.
26. ^ "Tarique, Babar 'helped' bid to cover up murder". The Daily Star. 7 May 2008. Retrieved 5 February 2018.
27. ^ "Hasina's personal assistant Babul arrested again at jail gate". The Daily Star. 24 January 2008. Retrieved 5 February 2018.
28. ^ "SC to order today on HC bail to Hasina". The Daily Star. 27 August 2007. Retrieved 5 February 2018.
29. ^ "'Minus 2' met messy fate". The Daily Star. 16 September 2011. Retrieved 5 February 2018.
30. ^ "Through smooth and rough caretaker terrain ..." The Daily Star. 17 March 2013. Retrieved 5 February 2018.
31. ^ "DU erupts in violence as army men beat students". The Daily Star. 21 August 2007. Retrieved 5 February 2018.
32. ^ "High stakes in Bangladesh protests". BBC. 23 August 2007. Retrieved 5 February 2018.
33. ^ "2008 Election Results - Bloomberg.com". 30 December 2008.
34. ^ "Election Results". The Daily Star.
35. ^ "Post Election Reaction by AL". The Daily Star. 31 December 2008.
36. ^ "Many landmark laws among ordinances". The Daily Star. 7 January 2009. Retrieved 5 February 2018.
37. ^ "BDR Mutiny". The Daily Star.
38. ^ "Power Crisis to end in 2012". The Daily Star. 9 October 2010.
39. ^ "Garment sector in dire straits". The Daily Star. 23 June 2010.
40. ^ "Stock Market Crash". The Daily Star.
41. ^ "Secularism Back". The Daily Star.
42. ^ "US offers to help Bangladesh pursue war crimes trial". BBC News. 13 January 2011.
43. ^ "Bangladesh hangs killers of independence leader Mujib". BBC News. 27 January 2010.
44. ^ "Nielsen Survey, 2 Year Rating". The Daily Star. 6 January 2011. Archived from the original on 24 January 2016. Retrieved 9 December 2015.
45. ^ "Fakhruddin's govt unconstitutional". The Daily Star. 18 September 2012. Retrieved 5 February 2018.
46. ^ "Whither Digital Bangladesh?". The Khichuri. Archived from the original on 2 April 2015. Retrieved 29 January 2015.
47. ^ "Digital Bangladesh a reality now". Dhaka Tribune. 10 July 2018. Retrieved 3 January 2019.
48. ^ "Digital Bangladesh: Dreams and reality". The Daily Star. 10 March 2015. Retrieved 3 January 2019.
49. ^ "Politics and the past in Bangladesh: Dialling down". The Economist. 30 October 2014. Retrieved 25 November 2014.
50. ^ "Will ban on Islamic party heal wounds?". Deutsche Welle. 18 February 2013. Retrieved 28 February 2012.
51. ^ a b Riaz, Ali (2021). "Bangladesh: the return of religion to the political center stage". Religion and politics in South Asia (Second ed.). Routledge. pp. 81–82\. ISBN 978-0-367-37600-0.
52. ^ "Two arrested over Bangladesh blogger Niloy Neel killing". BBC News. 14 August 2015.
53. ^ "Fourth secular Bangladesh blogger hacked to death". Al Jazeera. 7 August 2015.
54. ^ "#NO Vat on Education". The Daily Star.
55. ^ "Bangladesh students protest education tax". Al Jazeera.
56. ^ Anik, Syed Samiul Basher (2 August 2015). "NBR asks private varsities to pay VAT by August 15". Dhaka Tribune. Retrieved 12 September 2015.
57. ^ "Anger as tax on private university education agreed – University World News". Retrieved 12 September 2015.
58. ^ "Protests in Bangladesh put an end to a corrupt quota system". The Economist. 21 April 2018. Retrieved 7 July 2018.
59. ^ "Students end protests on road safety in Bangladesh after nine days; education ministry to hold meet tomorrow". Firstpost. 7 August 2018. Retrieved 9 August 2018.
60. ^ "Scores injured in traffic protests in Bangladesh capital". The Washington Post. Archived from the original on 4 August 2018. Retrieved 4 August 2018.
61. ^ "Protesting Teens Bring Bangladesh's Capital to a Standstill". Time. Retrieved 4 August 2018.
62. ^ "Student protests surge in Bangladesh capital". Associated Press. 5 August 2018. Retrieved 7 August 2018.
63. ^ "Dhaka streets appear deserted". Dhaka Tribune. 5 August 2018.
64. ^ "11 arrested, 27 cases over violence during student protests". Retrieved 7 August 2018.
65. ^ "Bangladesh arrests top photographer amid student protests". Deutsche Welle. Retrieved 7 August 2018.
66. ^ "Celebrities join students for the protests". The Daily Star. 3 August 2018. Retrieved 7 August 2018.
67. ^ "Students sued, not attackers". The Daily Star. 8 August 2018.
68. ^ "How dare you hit my child!". The Daily Star. 6 August 2018.
69. ^ "Bangladesh criticised for student and media crackdown". Al Jazeera.
70. ^ "Cabinet approves Road Transport Act". Dhaka Tribune. 6 August 2018. Retrieved 7 August 2018.
71. ^ "Causing Death by Rash Driving: Maximum 5 years' jail". The Daily Star. 7 August 2018.
72. ^ Hasnat, Mahadi Al (6 August 2018). "Students' protest in Bangladesh nears end after series of violent events sees several journalists injured". Firstpost. Retrieved 10 August 2018.
73. ^ "Dhaka traffic chaos returns as campaign for safe roads peters out".
74. ^ "Bangladesh: Students Started an Enduring Movement Even as Street Protests End". 10 August 2018.
75. ^ EC reschedules election date to December 30 Dhaka Tribune, 12 November 2018
76. ^ "Bangladesh election: Opposition demands new vote". BBC News. 30 December 2018.
77. ^ Research (IEDCR), Institute of Epidemiology, Disease Control and. করোনা ইনফো (in Bengali). Archived from the original on 22 March 2020. Retrieved 3 May 2020.`{{cite web}}`: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
78. ^ ২০২০-২১ সালকে মুজিববর্ষ ঘোষণা. Somoy TV (in Bengali). Retrieved 1 January 2020.
79. ^ "Unesco to celebrate Mujib Year with Bangladesh". Dhaka Tribune. 27 November 2019. Retrieved 1 January 2020.
80. ^ "Proposals by Member States for the celebration of anniversaries in 2020–2021 with which UNESCO could be associated". Retrieved 1 January 2020.
81. ^ "Bangladesh to celebrate 50th Independence Day, Mujibur Rahman's centenary". Hindustan Times. 7 September 2019.
82. ^ "Seven dead after violence erupts during Hindu festival in Bangladesh". The Guardian. 16 October 2021. Retrieved 16 October 2021.
83. ^ "With 3,679 attacks in 9 years, Bangladesh's Hindus at 'regular threat' of violence: ASK".
84. ^ "Bangladesh Strengthens Security as Violence Targets Hindu Festival". The New York Times. 15 October 2021. Retrieved 16 October 2021.
85. ^ "Cumilla Hindu temple attack victim dies in Dhaka". 22 October 2021. Retrieved 24 October 2021.
86. ^ "Bangladesh election: PM Sheikh Hasina wins fourth term in controversial vote". 7 January 2024.

## References

[edit]

* Ahmed, Helal Uddin (2012). "History". In Islam, Sirajul; Jamal, Ahmed A. (eds.). Banglapedia: National Encyclopedia of Bangladesh (Second ed.). Asiatic Society of Bangladesh.
* CIA World Factbook (July 2005). Bangladesh
* Heitzman, James; Worden, Robert, eds. (1989). Bangladesh: A Country Study. Washington, D.C.: Federal Research Division, Library of Congress.
* Frank, Katherine (2002). Indira: The Life of Indira Nehru Gandhi. New York: Houghton Mifflin. ISBN 0-395-73097-X.

## External links

[edit]

* Rulers.org — Bangladesh List of rulers for Bangladesh

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