History of Christianity

"Christian history" redirects here. For the magazine, see Christian History.

For a chronological guide, see Timeline of Christianity.

Funerary stele of Licinia Amias on marble, in the National Roman Museum. One of the earliest Christian inscriptions found, it comes from the early 3rd century Vatican necropolis area in Rome. It contains the text ΙΧΘΥϹ ΖΩΝΤΩΝ ("fish of the living"), a predecessor of the Ichthys symbol. Part of a series on

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The history of Christianity began with the ministry of Jesus, a Jewish teacher and healer who was crucified and died c. AD 30–33 in Jerusalem in the Roman province of Judea. Afterwards, his followers, a set of apocalyptic Jews, proclaimed him risen from the dead. Christianity began as a Jewish sect and remained so for centuries in some locations, diverging gradually from Judaism over doctrinal, social and historical differences. In spite of the persecution of Christians in the Roman Empire, the faith spread as a grassroots movement that became established by the third-century both in and outside the empire. New Testament texts were written and church government was loosely organized in its first centuries, though the biblical canon did not become official until 382.

Constantine the Great was the first Roman Emperor that converted to Christianity. In 313, he issued the Edict of Milan expressing tolerance for all religions. He did not make Christianity the state religion, but he did provide crucial support. Constantine called the first of seven ecumenical councils. Christianity was both defined and transformed in Late Antiquity in what is sometimes called the "golden age" of Patristic Christianity. By the Early Middle Ages, Eastern and Western Christianity had already begun to diverge, while missionary activities spread Christianity across Europe. Monks and nuns played a prominent role in establishing a Christendom that influenced every aspect of medieval life.

From the ninth-century into the twelfth, politicization and Christianization went hand-in-hand in developing East-Central Europe, influencing culture, language, literacy, and literature of Slavic countries and Russia. The Byzantine Empire was more prosperous than the Western Roman Empire, and Eastern Orthodoxy was influential, however, centuries of Islamic aggression and the Crusades negatively impacted Eastern Christianity. During the High Middle Ages, Eastern and Western Christianity had grown far enough apart that differences led to the East–West Schism of 1054. Temporary reunion was not achieved until the year before the fall of Constantinople in 1453. The fall of the Byzantine Empire put an end to the institutional Christian Church in the East as established under Constantine, though it survived in altered form.

Various catastrophic circumstances, combined with a growing criticism of the Catholic Church in the 1300–1500s, led to the Protestant Reformation and its related reform movements. Reform, and the Catholic Counter-Reformation, were followed by the European wars of religion, the development of modern political concepts of tolerance, and the Age of Enlightenment. Christianity also influenced the New World through its connection to colonialism, its part in the American Revolution, the dissolution of slavery in the west, and the long-term impact of Protestant missions.

In the twenty-first century, traditional Christianity has declined in the West, while new forms have developed and expanded throughout the world. Today, there are more than two billion Christians worldwide and Christianity has become the world's largest, and most widespread religion.[1][2] Within the last century, the centre of growth has shifted from West to East and from the North to the Global South becoming a global religion in the twenty-first century.[3][4][5][6]

## Early Christianity

[edit]

Main article: Early Christianity

1866 wood engraving by Gustave Doré - Crucifixion of Jesus

Early Christianity begins with the ministry of Jesus (c. 27–30)[7] Virtually all scholars of antiquity accept that Jesus was a historical figure.[8][9] According to Frances Young, "The crucifixion is the best-attested fact concerning Jesus."[10] He was a complex figure, which many see as a sage, a holy man, a prophet, a seer, or a visionary.[11] His followers believed that he was the Son of God, the Christ, a title in Greek for the Hebrew term mashiach (Messiah) meaning “the anointed one", who had been raised from the dead and exalted by God heralding the present and coming Kingdom of God.[12][13]

The dual perspective on Jesus as both human and divine is at the heart of Christianity as a religion and its many conflicts and disagreements. As Young says, "The incarnation is what turns Jesus into the foundation of Christianity".[14] The church established these as its founding doctrines, with baptism and the celebration of the Eucharist (Jesus' Last Supper) as its two primary rituals.[15]

### Jewish–Hellenistic background

[edit]

The Roman province of Judea in the 1st century AD

Christianity emerged in the Roman province of Judea during the first-century as an Apocalyptic sect within Second Temple Judaism.[12] The religious, social, and political climate was extremely diverse and characterized by socio-political turmoil. Judaism of this period was not 'monolithic'. Instead, it included numerous Judaic movements that were both religious and political.[12][16][17]

Jewish messianism had its roots in the apocalyptic literature produced between the second-century BC and the first-century BC.[18] promising a future "anointed" leader (messiah or king) from the Davidic line to resurrect the Israelite Kingdom of God, in place of the foreign rulers of the time.[12]

Jewish Christianity remained influential in Palestine, Syria, and Asia Minor into the second and third centuries.[19][20] Judaism and Christianity eventually diverged over disagreements about Jewish law, Jewish insurrections against Rome which Christians did not support, and the development of Rabbinic Judaism by the Pharisees, the sect which had rejected Jesus while he was alive.[21]

In the Empire, Christianity was largely tolerated, but some saw it as a threat to "Romanness" which produced localized persecution by mobs and governors.[22][23] The first reference to persecution by a Roman Emperor is under Nero, probably in 64 AD, in the city of Rome. Scholars conjecture that the Apostles Peter and Paul were killed then.[24]

### Apostolic Age (c. 30–100)

[edit]

The Oxford and Cambridge Acts of the Apostles – Paul the Apostle's missionary journeys

Early Christian groups were predominantly Jewish.[25] Some of the early Christian communities attracted God-fearers, Gentiles who visited Jewish synagogues.[26][27] Saul of Tarsus, a pharisee who became Paul the Apostle, persecuted the early Jewish Christians, then converted.[26] Paul made missionary journeys and wrote letters of instruction and admonishment to the churches saying faith in Christ is sufficient for salvation, but that faith must be demonstrated.[26][28][29]

#### Developing church structure

[edit]

According to Gerd Theissen, institutionalization began very early when itinerant preaching first transformed into resident leadership in the first-century.[30] Edwin Judge argues that there must have been an organized church before 325, since so many bishops were established enough to participate in the Nicaean council.[31] Clement, a first-century bishop of Rome, refers to the leaders of the Corinthian church in his epistle to Corinthians as bishops and presbyters interchangeably. The New Testament writers also use the terms overseer and elders interchangeably and as synonyms.[32]

#### Early growth

[edit]

Beginning with less than 1000 people, Christianity had grown to around one hundred small household churches consisting of an average of seventy members each, by the year 100.[33] It achieved critical mass in the years between 150 and 250 when it moved from fewer than 50,000 adherents to over a million. This provided enough adopters for its growth rate to be self-sustaining.[34][35]

### Ante-Nicene period (100–312)

[edit]

A more formal Church structure began to grow from the early communities, and various Christian doctrines developed. Christianity grew apart from Judaism in this period. The Ante-Nicene period saw the rise of Christian sects, cults, and movements. This period was diverse in terms of beliefs and practices, and experienced frequent change that sometimes resulted in internecine conflicts and syncretic adoption.[36] According to Carrington, the hierarchy of the post-Apostolic church developed at different times in different locations, with the overseers of urban Christian populations eventually assuming the social function of bishops.[32]

#### Scripture

[edit]

The Hellenized Greek-speaking Jews of Alexandria had produced the Septuagint, a Greek translation of the Hebrew Bible, between the third and first centuries BC.[37] This was the translation of the Hebrew Bible primarily used by first-century Christian authors.[38]

A folio from Papyrus 46, an early third-century collection of Pauline epistles

First-century Christian writings in Koine Greek, including Gospels containing accounts of Jesus's ministry, letters of Paul, and letters attributed to other early Christian leaders, had considerable authority even in the formative period.[39][40] The letters of the Apostle Paul sent to the early Christian communities in Rome, Greece, and Asia Minor were circulating in collected form by the end of the first-century.[41] By the early third-century, there existed a set of early Christian writings similar to the current New Testament,[42] though there were still disputes over the canonicity of texts such as the Epistle to the Hebrews, the Epistle of James, the First and Second Epistle of Peter, the First Epistle of John, and the Book of Revelation.[43][44]

By the fourth-century, there existed unanimity in the Latin Church concerning the canonical texts included in the New Testament canon.[45] A list of accepted books was established by the Council of Rome in 382, followed by those of Hippo in 393 and Carthage in 397.[46] For Christians, these became the New Testament, and the Hebrew Scriptures became the Old Testament.[47] By the fifth-century, the Eastern Churches, with a few exceptions, had come to accept the Book of Revelation—and thus had come into harmony with the canon.[48]

The Gospels and other New Testament writings contain early creeds and hymns, as well as accounts of the Passion, the empty tomb, and Resurrection appearances.[49]

#### Early Christian art

[edit]

Virgin and Child. Wall painting from the early Roman catacombs, fourth-century

The early church fathers rejected the making of images.[50] This rejection, along with the necessity to hide Christian practice from persecution, left behind few written records.[51] Despite this, some tombs displayed Christian symbols and subjects in the second-century.[52] Pagans and Jews had been decorating their burial chambers for a long time, so Christians did as well. What is most likely the oldest Christian art emerged on sarcophagi and in burial chambers in frescoes and statues.[50][53] This art is symbolic, rising out of a reinterpretation of Jewish and pagan symbolism, and much of it is a fusion of Graeco-Roman tradition with Christian symbolism.[54][55] The image of Jesus as the good shepherd was the most popular among Christians of this period.[52]

#### Persecutions and legalization

[edit]

St. Erasmus flogged in the presence of Emperor Diocletian. Byzantine artwork, from the crypt of the church of Santa Maria in Via Lata in Rome

In 250, the emperor Decius made it a capital offence to refuse to make sacrifices to Roman gods, resulting in widespread persecution of Christians.[56][57] Valerian pursued similar policies later that decade. The last and most severe official persecution, the Diocletianic Persecution, took place in 303–311.[58] There was periodic persecution of Christians by Persian Sassanian authorities, and the term Hellene became equated with pagan during this period.[59]

The Edict of Serdica was issued in 311 by the Roman Emperor Galerius, officially ending the persecution of Christians in the East. With the promulgation of the Edict of Milan in 313, in which co-emperors Constantine and Licinius legalized all religions, persecution of Christians by the Roman state ceased.[60]

The Kingdom of Armenia became the first country in the world to establish Christianity as its state religion] when, in an event traditionally dated to 301, Gregory the Illuminator convinced Tiridates III, the King of Armenia, to convert to Christianity.

### Spread of Christianity to c. 300 AD

[edit]

See also: Christianization of the Roman Empire as diffusion of innovation

Distribution of Christian congregations in Roman territories during each of the first three centuries AD[61]

The first Christian communities began in Judea, a province of the Roman Empire, in the second quarter of the first-century. Christianity spread throughout the Jewish diaspora[62][63] along the trade and travel routes followed by merchants, soldiers, and migrating tribes.[64][34][35] It spread to pockets of believers among Aramaic-speaking peoples along the Mediterranean coast and also to the inland parts of the Roman Empire and beyond, into the Parthian Empire and the later Sasanian Empire including Mesopotamia.[65][66]

Driven by a universalist logic, Christianity has been, from its beginnings, a missionary faith with global aspirations, leading it to become a part of the history of a great many civilizations.[67][68] In the first-century, Christianity spread into Asia Minor, (Athens, Corinth, Ephesus, and Pergamum).[69] Egyptian Christianity probably began in the first-century in Alexandria.[70] As it spread, Coptic Christianity, which survives into the modern era, developed.[71][72] Christianity in Antioch is mentioned in Paul's epistles.[73]

The Eastern Mediterranean region in the time of Paul the Apostle

Early Christianity was in Gaul, North Africa, and the city of Rome.[74][75][76] It spread (in its Arian form) in the Germanic world during the latter part of the third-century, and probably reached Roman Britain by the third-century at the latest.[77][77]

From the earliest days, there was a Christian presence in Edessa (modern Turkey). It developed in Adiabene in the Parthian Empire in Persia (modern Iran). It developed in Georgia by the Black Sea, in Ethiopia, India, Nubia, South Arabia, Soqotra, Central Asia and China.

By the sixth-century, there is evidence of Christian communities in Sri Lanka and Tibet.[64][78]

#### Inclusivity, women and exclusivity

[edit]

Early Christianity was open to both men and women, rich and poor, slave and free (Galatians 3:28). Lack of uniformity among its members characterized groups formed by Paul.[79] Baptism was free, and there were no fees, which made Christianity a substantially cheaper form of worship compared with the costly aristocratic models of patronage, temple building, and cult observances common in Greek and Roman religions.[80][81] Twenty-first century thinking in sociology suggests Christianity's "new ideas" first spread among non-elites.[82][83] Early Christianity's teachings on morality have been cited as a major factor in its growth.[84][85]

Significant numbers of women were among Christianity's earliest members.[86] Traditional social expectations of women in the Roman Empire did not encourage them to engage in the same activities as men of the same social class.[87] However, women were sometimes able to attain, through religious activities, a freedom otherwise denied to them.[88] The Pauline epistles in the New Testament provide some of the earliest documentary sources of women as true missionary partners in the early Jesus movement.[89][90][note 1]

Much of the vociferous anti-Christian criticism of the early church was linked to "female initiative" which was seen as akin to sorcery.[87] These reactions indicate women were playing a significant role.[96] In the early Christian literary tradition, women are largely invisible, whereas female figures in early Christian art are ubiquitous.[97] In the church rolls from the second-century, there is conclusive evidence of groups of women "exercising the office of widow".[98][99] Judith Lieu affirms that influential women were attracted to Christianity.[100]

A key characteristic of these inclusive communities was their unique type of exclusivity.[101] Believing was the crucial and defining characteristic of membership, and correct belief was also used to construct identity and social boundaries. Such belief set a "high boundary" that strongly excluded the "unbeliever" who was seen as still "in bondage to the Evil One".(2 Corinthians 6:1–18; 1 John 2: 15–18; Revelation 18: 4)[102][103][104] The exclusivity of Christian monotheism formed an important part of its success by enabling it to maintain its independence in a society that syncretized religion.[104] In Daniel Praet's view, exclusivity gave Christianity the powerful psychological attraction of elitism.[105]

Christian charity, 19th century work by Bertel Thorvaldsen

#### Care for the poor

[edit]

Christians showed the poor great generosity, and according to professor of religion Steven C. Muir, this "was a significant factor" in the movement's early growth.[106] Christian and non-Christian witnesses testify to the zealousness of Christian communities for almsgiving and charity.[107][note 2]

Before Christianity, the wealthy elite of Rome mostly donated to civic programs designed to elevate their status, though personal acts of kindness to the poor were not unheard of.[110][111][112] Salzman writes that the Roman practice of civic euergetism ("philanthropy publicly directed toward one's city or fellow citizens") influenced Christian charity.[113]

Early Christianity redefined family through their approach to death and burial by expanding the audience to include the extended Christian community.[114][115] Christians had no sacrificial cult, and this set them apart from Judaism and the pagan world.[116]

## Late antiquity (313–476)

[edit]

During late antiquity, the Christian faith spread in Western Europe and around the Mediterranean basin. The conversion of Constantine was influential in the ongoing development of Christianity.[31] The existing network of diverse Christian communities changed into an organization that mirrored the structure of the Roman Empire.[117][118] Various doctrines developed that challenged tradition. Christian art and literature blossomed. Church fathers of this period, (such as John Chrysostom, Ambrose, Jerome, Basil, Gregory of Nazianus, Gregory of Nyssa, and the prolific Augustine of Hippo), wrote a great many works of theology, philosophy, and apologetics.[119][120][121]

### Conversion of Constantine

[edit]

Constantine the Great in Oria (Retouched)

Main article: Religious policies of Constantine the Great

Constantine the Great became emperor in the West, declared himself a Christian, and in 313, just two years after the close of Diocletian's persecution, issued the Edict of Milan expressing tolerance for all religions.[122] The Edict was a pluralist policy, and throughout the Roman Empire of the fourth to sixth centuries, people shifted between a variety of religious groups in a kind of "religious marketplace".[123][124]

The conversion of Constantine allied a monotheistic religion with a global power, both with ambitions of universality.[59] Yet, until the Byzantine Emperor Justinian I (527–565), there was no Roman "Christian empire".[125] Law, literature, rituals, and institutions indicate that converting the empire to Christianity was a complex, long-term, slow-paced, and uneven process with no single moment or event to mark Christianity becoming the official "state religion" before the sixth-century.[126][127][128][note 3]

Even so, Constantine took important steps that supported and protected Christianity.[131] He gave bishops judicial power and established equal footing for Christian clergy by granting them the same immunities polytheistic priests had long enjoyed.[132] By intervening in church disputes, he initiated a precedent for ecclesiastical councils.[133][134] Constantine devoted personal and public funds to building multiple churches, endowed his churches with wealth and lands, and provided revenue for their clergy and upkeep.[135] By the late fourth-century, there were churches in essentially all Roman cities.[136]

#### Limiting the state

[edit]

Bronze coin with image of Justinian the Great, 6th century

After the restrictions on Christianity were removed, emperor and bishop began to share responsibility for maintaining relations with the divine.[137] Constantine and his successors, attempted to fit the Church into their political program.[138] Western church leaders resisted by making a case for a sphere of religious authority separate from state authority.[139] Their objection forms the first clearly articulated limitation on the scope of a ruler’s power.[139]

#### Christianity and polytheism

[edit]

Twenty-first-century scholarship has largely turned away from the idea of an epic “conflict between pagans and Christians” in Late Antiquity.[140][141][142] Traditional cults continued to flourish in some areas, for enough years, that scholars have no agreed upon date, or even decade, to say "when paganism ended".[143][note 4]

Still, Constantine did write laws against sacrifice using language that Peter Brown describes as "uniformly vehement" with "frequently horrifying" penalties, evidencing the intent of "terrorizing" the populace into accepting its removal.[148] Under Julian, the Christian populace tore down sacrificial altars.[149][note 5] Sacrifice, a central rite of virtually all religious groups in the pre-Christian Mediterranean, largely disappeared before the end of the fourth-century.[153][154][155]

Christians of the fourth-century believed Constantine's conversion was evidence the Christian God had conquered the Hellenist gods in Heaven.[156][157][158] This "triumph of Christianity" became the primary Christian narrative in writings of the late antique age despite Christians representing only ten to fifteen percent of the empire's population in 313. As a minority, triumph did not, generally, involve an increase in violence aimed at the polytheistic majority.[159][160]

Constantine's policy toward non-Christians was, in general, "toleration with limits", and conflict between these groups was more rhetorical than actual, with a few exceptions.[161][162][163][note 6] Constantine was vigorous in reclaiming church properties that had previously been confiscated by the state, and he used reclamation to justify the destruction of some Greco-Roman temples such as Aphrodite's temple in Jerusalem.[168][169][170]

There was no legislation forcing the conversion of pagans until the sixth-century, during the reign of the Eastern emperor Justinian I.[171][172][173][174]

### Augustine's ethic toward Jews

[edit]

Augustine of Hippo by Sandro Botticelli, c. 1480

Significant Jewish communities existed throughout the Late Roman Empire.[175] Jews and Christians were both religious minorities, claiming the same inheritance, competing in a direct and sometimes violent clash.[175] Sporadic attacks against Jews by mobs, local leaders, and lower-level clergy occured but did not have the support of church leaders due to a general acceptance of Augustine's ethic.[176][177]

From the fourth-century, Augustine's ethic regarding the Jews rejected those who argued they should be killed or forcibly converted. Instead, Jews should be allowed to live in Christian societies and practice Judaism without interference because they preserved the teachings of the Old Testament and were "living witnesses" of the New.[176] According to Anna Sapir Abulafia, scholars agree that "with the marked exception of Visigothic Spain in the seventh-century, Jews in Latin Christendom lived relatively peacefully with their Christian neighbors" until the 1200s.[178][179]

Sometime before the fifth-century, the theology of supersessionism emerged, claiming that Christianity had displaced Judaism as God's chosen people.[180] Supersessionism was never official or universally held, but replacement theology has been part of Christian thought through much of history.[181][182] Many attribute the emergence of antisemitism to this doctrine, while others make a distinction between supersessionism and modern antisemitism.[183][184]

### Developing orthodoxy and heresy

[edit]

Icon depicting the Emperor Constantine (centre) and the bishops of the First Council of Nicaea (325) holding the Niceno–Constantinopolitan Creed of 381

Late Antique Christianity was dominated by its many conflicts defining and dealing with heresy and orthodoxy.[185][186][note 7] The sheer number of laws indicates heresy was a much higher priority than paganism for Christians in the fourth and fifth centuries.[189][190]

In addition to the traditionally accepted apostolic authority, the writings of church fathers and bishops such as Irenaeus and Ambrose, emerged as sources of authority on heresy and orthodoxy. They often condemned their opponents in a highly combative manner.[191] In these writings, heresy describes degrees of separation - "falling away", "estrangement", "alienation" - from the "true church".[188] Late antique communities defined their borders and secured their identities by confronting 'heresy' and 'heretics'.[192][193]

While there had been earlier disagreements with the Judaizers and the Gnostics, the first major heretical disagreement was between Arianism and orthodox trinitarianism over whether Jesus's divinity and the Father's divinity are equal.[27][194] The First Council of Nicaea (held in modern İznik, Turkey) called by Constantine in 325, and the First Council of Constantinople called by Theodosius I in 381, produced an affirmation of orthodoxy in the form of the Nicene Creed.[195][196][note 8]

### Church of the East

[edit]

The Church of Late Antiquity was seen by its supporters as a universal church.[198][199] However, Patriarchs in the East frequently looked to the bishop of Rome to resolve disagreements for them resulting in an extension of papal power and influence.[119] Yet, the tendency for East and West to grow apart was already becoming evident.[200]

The western church used Latin, while Eastern church leaders spoke and wrote in Greek and Syrian and other languages which did not always include Latin. Theological differences were already becoming evident.[201][202][203] The manner in which western and eastern churches related to the State differed. In the Roman west, the church condemned Roman culture as sinful, kept itself as separate as possible, and struggled to resist State control. This is in pointed contrast with Eastern Christianity which acclaimed harmony with Greek culture, and whose emperors and Patriarchs upheld unanimity between church and state.[204][205] One particular bone of contention was Consantinople's claims of equal precedence with Rome.[199] Pentarchy, which shared government of the church between the Patriarchs of Constantinople, Alexandria, Antioch, Jerusalem, and the Pope of Rome, was advocated by the legislation of the emperor Justinian, and was later confirmed by the Council in Trullo (692), but the West opposed it, advocating instead for the papal supremacy of Rome.[206][207]

Ongoing theological controversies over Jesus' human and divine natures as either one (or two) separate (or unified) natures led to the Third (431), Fourth (451), Fifth (583) and Sixth ecumenical councils (680–681).[208] Schisms broke out after the Council of Chalcedon (451) wrote the Chalcedonian Definition that two separate natures of Christ form one ontological entity.[209][210] Disagreement led the Armenian, Assyrian, and Egyptian churches to withdraw from Catholicism, and instead, combine into what is today known as Oriental Orthodoxy, one of three major branches of Eastern Christianity, along with the Church of the East in Persia and Eastern Orthodoxy in Byzantium.[211][212][213]

### Hospitals

[edit]

Saint Basil the Great. Line engraving.

In Caesarea, monastics developed an unprecedented health care system that allowed the sick to be cared for in a special building at the monastery by those dedicated to their care. This gave the sick benefits which destigmatized illness, transformed health care, and led to the founding of a public hospital by Basil the Great in Caesarea in 369, the first of its kind, which became a model for hospitals thereafter.[214][note 9]

### Art and literature

[edit]

One of the oldest representations of Jesus as the Good Shepherd from the catacombs of Rome, made around 300 AD

Classical and Christian culture coexisted into the seventh-century, however in the fourth-century, Constantine's sponsorship produced an exuberant burst of Christian art and architecture, frescoes, mosaics, and hieroglyphic type drawings.[218]

A hybrid form of poetry written in traditional classic forms with Latin style and Christian concepts emerged. The Christian innovation of mixing genrés demonstrated the synthesis taking place in the broader culture, while new Christian methods of interpreting and explaining history began.[219][220][221]

The codex (the ancestor of modern books) was consistently used by Christians as early as the first-century. The church in Egypt had most likely invented the papyrus codex by the second-century.[222]

### Spread and growth of Christianity

[edit]

#### Christianity in the Roman Africa province

[edit]

Augustine and donatists debating

Main article: Christianity in the Roman Africa province

In North Africa during the reign of Constantine, Donatism, a Christian sect, developed. They refused - sometimes violently - to accept back into the Church those Catholics who had recanted their faith under persecution. After many appeals, the empire responded with force, and in 408 in his Letter 93, Augustine defended the government's action.[223][224] Augustine's authority on coercion was undisputed for over a millennium in Western Christianity, and according to Peter Brown, "it provided the theological foundation for the justification of medieval persecution".[225]

#### German Europe

[edit]

In Late Antiquity, King Clovis I united the Franks and converted to Catholicism.[226][227] The conversion of the Irish began in the early fifth-century through missionary activity and without coercion.[228] Christianity had become an established minority faith in some parts of Britain in the second-century.[229] Anglo-Saxon forms of Germanic paganism were syncretized with Christianity in fifth-century south-eastern Britain.[230] Irish missionaries went to Iona (563) and converted many Picts.[231] The Gregorian mission in 597 led to the conversion of the first Anglo-Saxon king Æthelberht around 600.[232]

#### Asia

[edit]

There is no consensus on the origins of Christianity beyond Byzantium in Asia or East Africa. Though it is scattered throughout these areas by the fourth-century, there is little documentation and no complete record.[233] Asian and African Christians did not have access to structures of power, and their institutions developed without state support.[234] Practicing the Christian faith in these regions sometimes brought opposition and persecution. Asian Christianity never developed the social, intellectual, and political power of Byzantium or the Latin West.[64]

In 301, Armenia became the first country to adopt Christianity as its state religion. In an environment where the religious group was without cultural or political power, the merging of church and state is thought to represent ethnic identity.[235] In the fourth-century, Asia Minor, and Georgia forged national identities by adopting Christianity as their state religion, as did Ethiopia and Eritrea. In 314, King Urnayr of Albania adopted Christianity as the state religion.[236][237][238][239][72]

## Early Middle Ages (476–842)

[edit]

Painted panel 4: The Apostle's Creed

The Early Middle Ages were diverse, yet the concept of Christendom was also pervasive and unifying.[240][note 10] Medieval writers and ordinary folk used the term to identify themselves, their religious culture, and even their civilization. Mixed within and at the edges of this largely Christian world, barbarian invasion, deportation, and neglect also produced large “unchurched” populations.[242][243][244] In these areas, Christianity was one religion among many and could mutate with local types of paganism.[245][246] Early medieval religious culture included "worldliness and devotion, prayer and superstition", but its inner dynamic sprang from a commitment to Christendom.[240]

### Justinian I

[edit]

Until the time of Justinian, the Byzantine emperors practiced a policy of tolerance toward all religions.[247] Under Justinian I (482 – 14 November 565), subjects were left without doubt that they lived in a Christian state.[248] Justinian's religious policies reflected his conviction that the unity of the Empire presupposed unity of faith. He persecuted pagans and religious minorities and purged the governmental bureaucracy of those who disagreed with him.[249][248] He regulated everything in religion, and in law, even interfering in papal elections.[250]

Justinian also integrated many Christian social concepts with Roman law.[251] The Code of Justinian became an essential part of the Corpus Juris Civilis which remains the basis of civil law in many modern states.[252] Justinian made donations to the church, established foundations, and watched over church property. He supported the rights of bishops, priests and abbots, and monastic life. Justinian rebuilt the Hagia Sophia (which cost 20,000 pounds of gold) and Byzantine culture blossomed during his reign.[253]

### Education

[edit]

A nineteenth century depiction of a Passion play

The means and methods of teaching a mostly illiterate populace included mystery plays (which had developed out of the mass), wall paintings, vernacular sermons and treatises, and saints' lives in epic form.[240] Christian motifs could function in non-Christian ways, while practices of non-Christian origin became endowed with Christian meaning.[254] From the sixth to the eighth centuries most schools were monastery based.[255]

### Law

[edit]

Throughout this period, a symbiotic relationship existed between ecclesiastical institutions and civil governments. Churches were dependent upon lay rulers, and it was those rulers - not the Pope - who determined who received what ecclesiastical job on their lands.[203][256][257] Canon law and secular law were connected and often overlapped.[258]

Canon law enabled the church to sustain itself as an institution, and wield social authority with the laity.[259] In the East, Roman law remained the tradition. After Empire fell, the West was a world of relatively weak states, endowed aristocracies and peasant communities which could no longer use law from a "fallen" empire to uphold church hierarchy.[260] Instead, the church adopted a feudalistic oath of loyalty, which became a condition of consecration affecting the hierarchy of church relations at every level.[199]

The church developed an oath of loyalty between men and their king to create a new model of consecrated kingship.[261] Janet Nelson writes that:

> This rite has a continuous history in both Anglo-Saxon England and Francia from the eighth-century onward, with further refinements in the ninth and tenth. It is, among other things, a remarkable application of law by early medieval churchmen in the West, to which the East offers no parallel.[261]

Canon laws were created by councils, kings and bishops, and by lay assemblies. Law was not state-sponsored, systematized, professionalized, or university-taught in this period.[259]

### Monasticism

[edit]

Main article: Christian monasticism

In 600, there was great diversity in monastic life in both East and West even though the basic characteristics of monastic spirituality - asceticism, the goal of spiritual perfection, a life of wandering or physical toil, radical poverty, preaching, and prayer - had become established. Monasteries became more and more organized from 600 to 1100.[262] The formation of these organized bodies of believers gradually carved out social spaces with authority separate from political and familial authority, thereby revolutionizing social history.[263][note 11] Medical practice was highly important, and medieval monasteries are best known for their contributions to medical care.[276] For the majority of the faithful in the early Middle Ages of both East and West, the saint was first and foremost the monk.[277]

### Papal supremacy

[edit]

painting by Jacopo Vignali - Saint Gregory the Great - from Walters museum collection

Popes led the sixth-century response to the invasion of northern Italy by the Lombards (569) producing an increase in papal autonomy and prestige.[278] By the time Pope Gregory I succeeded to the papacy in 590, the claim of Rome's supremacy over the rest of the church as stemming from Peter himself was well established.[279] Gregory held that papal supremacy concerned doctrine and discipline within the church, but large sections of both the Western and Eastern church remained unconvinced they should be submissive to the Roman See.[280][281]

In the century or so after Gregory the Great, the Pope's ability to lay down the law remained limited.[199] Papal supremacy did not imply legal authority.[199] From the ninth to the eleventh-century, western Christendom encompassed a loose federation of churches across the European continent under the spiritual headship of the Pope who exercised power like that of an aristocrat, while still having no clearly established authority over the churches, and giving little general direction.[282][283][284][282]

It was in this same period that change began as competition led more and more people to Rome to resolve disagreements.[199] The growing presence and involvement of the aristocracy in the papal bureaucracy, an increase in papal land-holdings from the second half of the sixth into the seventh-century, and changes in their administration that brought an increase in wealth, gradually shifted popes from being beneficiaries of patronage to becoming patrons themselves.[285] William IX, Duke of Aquitaine, and other powerful lay founders of monasteries, placed their institutions under the protection of the papacy in the tenth-century thereby facilitating another rise in papal power.[286][287][281]

### Spread and growth of Christianity

[edit]

Spread of Christianity to 325

Spread of Christianity to AD 600

Christianity in the 600s was well established in the western kingdoms of the Franks in Gaul, and the Visigoths in Iberia, along the Rhine river in what would become Germany, out to the edge of Central Asia, as far as Zerang and Qandahar in modern Afghanistan, and into the Sassanian Persian Empire, with Christian churches concentrated in northern Iraq, the foothills of the Zagros, and in the trading posts of the Persian Gulf.[288][289] Ethiopia and Himyar (the Hadramawt in modern Yemen) were long-settled civilizations that were literate and even monotheist, and Christians and Jews competed for their conversion.[290] With the rise of Islam, the Nestorian church moved east to China.[291]

Towards the end of the sixth-century, two main kinds of Christian communities had formed in Syria, Egypt, Persia, and Armenia: urban churches which upheld the Council of Chalcedon (451 CE), and Nestorian churches which came from the desert monasteries.[292] After these regions came under Islamic rule, persecution of non-Muslims was devastating to the Chalcedonian churches in the cities. The monastic background of the Nestorians made their churches more remote, so they often escaped direct attention making them the most able to survive and cultivate new traditions.[293][note 12]

The Church of the East during the Middle Ages

In southeastern Britain and Ireland, Nordic forms of paganism were introduced by Scandinavian settlers causing Christianity to adopt some aspects.[245][246] Suppression of paganism is first recorded in England in the mid 7th-century.[302][303][304]

In the 720s, the Byzantine Emperor Leo banned the pictorial representation of Christ, saints, and biblical scenes, destroying much of early art history. The West condemned Leo's iconoclasm.[305] By the tenth and early eleventh centuries, Byzantine culture began to recover.[306][307]

Charlemagne began the first Medieval Renaissance, the Carolingian Renaissance, a period of intellectual and cultural revival, in the Frankish kingdom in the 800s.[308][309][310] In Italy, Gregorian Reform (1050–1080) reached into the church and outward into society setting new standards for marriage and divorce.[311][312]

St. Cyril and St. Methodius monument on Mt. Radhošť

Beginning under emperor Basil I (r. 867–886), Byzantine Christianity was instrumental in forming what would become Eastern Europe.[313][314] Serbia, Alania (modern Iran), Russia and Armenia were nascent Christian states by the early eleventh-century.[315][316][317] Romania,[318] Bulgaria,[319] Poland,[320] Hungary[321][322] and Croatia soon followed.[323] Saints Cyril and Methodius translated the Bible, developing the first Slavic written script and the Cyrillic alphabet in the process. This became the educational foundation for all Slavic nations and influenced the spiritual, religious, literary and cultural development of the entire region for generations.[324][325][326]

## High Middle Ages (842–1299)

[edit]

In this era, Christian history is characterized by tremendous religious devotion and reform, monastic technological advancement, the intellectual revolution of High Scholasticism, and the Renaissance of the twelfth-century.[327][310][328] Following the rise of secular governments and increasing papal power in the eleventh to the thirteenth centuries, intolerance also became one of the defining features of the High and Late Middle Ages.[329][330]

The Middle Ages held characteristics that led to modern civilization. Bureaucratic clerics, along with Mendicant monks and the elite from the international universities, became central to developing early-modern concepts of power, authority and orthodoxy.[331][332][333] Unlike modernity, the Middle Ages were also dominated by the presuppositions of religion.[334]

The church of 1000 - 1300 became a more imposing institution with a more formal theology.[335][330][296][336][note 13] With Pope Gregory VII (1073–1085), the scope of canon law extended.[340] Spiritual services were increasingly manifested as legal services, and over it all watched an increasingly centralized and proactive church government.[340] Popes from 1159 to 1303 were predominantly lawyers not theologians.[341] Early and Late Antique Christianity had been both inclusive and exclusive with no canon law in its first five centuries; in the Middle Ages, canon law became a large and highly complex system of laws which omitted early principles of inclusivity.[251][342]

The educated leaders of the church were advisors and estate managers for the church, kings, and nobles, often acting as judges and negotiating treaties.[343] The clergy, and the laity, became "more literate, more worldly, and more self-assertive" and they did not always agree with the hierarchy.[344] The village parish emerged as one of the fundamental institutions of medieval Europe.[337][345][344]

### East–West Schism (1054)

[edit]

Main article: East–West Schism

Many cultural, geographical, geopolitical, and linguistic differences between East and West had existed for centuries along with a general lack of charity and respect on both sides. This led to the East–West Schism, also known as the "Great Schism" of 1054, which separated the Church into Western Catholicism and Eastern Orthodoxy.[346][347][348]

### Devotion and reform

[edit]

See also: History of European universities

The spread of Cistercians from their original sites in Western-Central Europe during the Middle Ages

The Abbey of Cluny became the leading centre of reform in Western monasticism into the early twelfth-century. The Cistercian movement, a second wave of reform after 1098, also became a primary force of technological advancement and its spread in medieval Europe. Between the eleventh and the thirteenth centuries, the church built cathedrals using Gothic architecture which developed innovations (such as flying buttresses) that impacted building techniques thereafter. Technological advancements contributed to economic growth.[349][350][351]

Beginning in the twelfth-century, Mendicant orders (Franciscans and Dominicans) presented a significant and impactful change in understanding a monk's calling. Instead of prayer and contemplation, they saw their vocation as a charge to go out and actively reform the world.[352][353]

#### Scholasticism, Renaissance and science

[edit]

Studying astronomy and geometry. Early fifteenth-century painting, France.

Between 1150 and 1200, intrepid monks travelled to formerly Muslim locations in Sicily and Spain.[354] Fleeing Muslims had abandoned their libraries, and among the treasure trove of books, the searchers found the works of Aristotle, Euclid and more. Reconciling Aristotelian logical reasoning with Christian faith created a revolution in method of thinking called scholasticism, (a departure from Augustinian thinking which had dominated the church for centuries). This process elevated reason and reconciled it with faith.[355] The writings of Thomas Aquinas contained ideas that provided the foundation of much modern law and politics. Renaissance also included the revival of the scientific study of natural phenomena.[309][310][356][357] Historians of science see this as the beginning of what led to modern science and the scientific revolution in the West.[358][359][360]

#### Universities

[edit]

From the 1100's, western universities, the first institutions of higher education since the sixth-century, were formed into self-governing corporations chartered by popes and kings.[361][362][363] Bologna, Oxford and Paris were among the earliest (c. 1150). Divided into faculties which specialized in law, medicine, theology or liberal arts, each held quodlibeta (free-for-all) theological debates amongst faculty and students and awarded degrees.[364][365] With this, both canon and civil law began to be professionalized.[340]

### Investiture controversy

[edit]

1882 depiction of Holy Roman Emperor Henry IV at the gate of Canossa Castle during the Investiture controversy

The church appointed its bishops and abbots, but it was the nobles who owned the land and had control over who got "invested" into a paying job on their land.[203][256][283] Under Gregory VII, the Roman Catholic Church was determined to end this duality. This produced the Investiture controversy which began in the Holy Roman Empire in 1078.[366] Specifically, the dispute was between the Holy Roman Emperor Henry IV, and Pope Gregory VII, over who had the right to invest a bishop or abbot, but more generally, it was over control of the church and its revenues.[367][368][369][370][note 14]

In this controversy, papal supremacy took a political turn. Gregory recorded a series of statements asserting that the church must be the higher of the two powers of church and state, and that the church must no longer be treated as a servant to the state.[287][372][373] Disobedience to the Pope became equated with heresy.[374]

The Dictatus Papae of 1075 declared the pope alone could invest bishops.[366] Henry IV rejected the decree. This led to his excommunication, which contributed to a ducal revolt, that led to a civil war: the Great Saxon Revolt. Eventually, Henry received absolution. The conflict of investiture lasted five decades with a disputed outcome.[375][376][377] A similar controversy occurred in England.[378]

### Islamisation and Crusades

[edit]

See also: Crusading movement

#### Crusades

[edit]

The Kingdom of Jerusalem and the Crusader states with their strongholds in the Holy Land at their height, between the First and the Second Crusade (1135)

When Eastern Emperor Alexius I asked for aid from the western Pope Urban II, Urban responded (1095) with an appeal to European Christians to "go to the aid of their brethren in the Holy Land".[379][380][381] Urban's message had tremendous popular appeal, and there was much enthusiasm supporting it. It was new and novel and tapped into powerful aspects of folk religion. Voluntary poverty and its renunciation of self-will, along with a longing for the genuine "apostolic life," flourished in the late eleventh and twelfth centuries connecting pilgrimage, charity, remission of sins, and a willingness to fight.[382][383][note 15]

Crusading involved the church in certain paradoxes: Gregorian reform was grounded in distancing spirituality from the secular and the political, while crusade made the church dependent upon financing from aristocrats and kings for the most political of all activities: war.[385]

Crusades led to the development of national identities in European nations, increased division with the East, and produced cultural change.[386][note 16] Hotly debated by historians, the single most important contribution of the crusades to Christian history was, possibly, the invention of the indulgence.[388]

#### Capture of Constantinople (1204)

[edit]

Latin Empire after 1204

For most of its existence, the Byzantine Empire was the largest and most prosperous polity of the Christian world.[317] The wealth and safety of its capital Constantinople, were seen, even by distant outsiders, as resulting directly from the religious devotion of its inhabitants.[307] After suffering many losses to Islam, the eleventh-century began a period of relative peace and prosperity that lasted until April of 1204, when western crusaders in the Fourth Crusade stormed, captured, and looted Constantinople.[395][396][397] It was a severe blow.[398] Byzantine territories were divided among the Crusaders establishing the Latin Empire and the Latin takeover of the Eastern church.[399][400] By 1261, the Byzantines recaptured a much weakened and poorer Constantinople.[401][402]

#### Islamisation of Mesopotamia and Egypt

[edit]

Hagia Sophia was the religious and spiritual centre of the Eastern Orthodox Church for nearly one thousand years. The Hagia Sophia and the Parthenon were converted into mosques. Violent persecutions of Christians were common and reached their climax in the Armenian, Assyrian, and Greek genocides.[403][404]

Between the eleventh and fourteenth centuries, the Christian churches in Egypt, Syria and Iraq became subject to fervently Muslim militaristic regimes.[405] Christians were dhimma. This cultural status guaranteed Christians rights of protection, but discriminated against them through legal inferiority.[406] Various Christian communities adopted different strategies for preserving their identity while accommodating their rulers.[405] Some withdrew from interaction, others converted, while some sought outside help.[405] By the end of the eleventh-century, Christianity was in full retreat in Mesopotamia and inner Iran. Some Christian communities further to the east continued to exist.[295][407]

### Western crusades

[edit]

#### Northern crusades

[edit]

Baltic Tribes c 1200

When the Second Crusade was called after Edessa fell, the nobles in Eastern Europe refused to go.[408] The Balts, the last major polytheistic population in Europe, had been raiding surrounding countries for several centuries, and subduing them was what mattered most to the Eastern-European nobles.[409] (These rulers saw crusade as a tool for territorial expansion, alliance building, and the empowerment of their own nascent church and state.[410]) In 1147, Eugenius' Divina dispensatione gave eastern nobility indulgences for the first of the Baltic wars (1147–1316).[408][411][412] The Northern Crusades followed intermittently, with and without papal support, from 1147 to 1316.[413][414][415] Priests and clerics developed a pragmatic acceptance of the forced conversions perpetrated by the nobles, despite the continued theological emphasis on voluntary conversion.[416]

#### Albigensian Crusade

[edit]

Main article: Albigensian Crusade

Pope Innocent III and the king of France, Philip Augustus, joined in 1209 in a military campaign that was promulgated as necessary for eliminating the Albigensian heresy also known as Catharism.[417][418] Once begun, the Albigensian Crusade (1209–1229) quickly took a political turn.[419] The king's army seized and occupied strategic lands of nobles who had not supported the heretics, but had been in the good graces of the Church. Throughout the campaign, Innocent vacillated, sometimes taking the side favouring crusade, then siding against it and calling for its end.[420] It did not end until 1229. The campaign no longer had crusade status. The entire region was brought under the rule of the French king, thereby creating southern France. Catharism continued for another hundred years (until 1350).[421][422]

### Medieval Inquisition

[edit]

Moral misbehavior and heresy, by the folk and clerics, were prosecuted by inquisitorial courts that were composed of both church and civil authorities.[423] The Medieval Inquisition includes the Episcopal Inquisition (1184–1230) and the Papal Inquisition (1230s–1240s), though these courts had no actual joint leadership or organization.[424][425][426] Created as needed, they were not permanent institutions but were limited to specific times and places.[427][428][429][note 17]

Medieval inquisitors did not possess absolute power, nor were they universally supported.[423][note 18] Riots and public opposition formed as inquisition became stridently contested both in and outside the Church.[427][434][435] The universities of Oxford and Prague produced some of the church's greatest inquisitorial experts as well as some of its most bitter foes.[336]

### Persecution of Jews

[edit]

A turning point in Jewish-Christian relations took place in June 1239 when the Talmud was put "on trial", by Gregory IX (1237–1241) in a French court, over contents that mocked the central figures of Christianity.[436][437] This resulted in Talmudic Judaism being seen as so different from biblical Judaism that old Augustinian obligations to leave the Jews alone no longer applied.[438] As townfolk gained a measure of political power around 1300, they became one of Jewry's greatest enemies charging Jews with blood libel, deicide, ritual murder, poisoning wells and causing the plague, and various other crimes.[439][440] Although subordinate to religious, economic and social themes, racial concepts also reinforced hostility.[441]

Jews had often acted as financial agents for the lords providing them loans with interest while being exempt from taxes and other financial laws themselves. This attracted jealousy and resentment.[442] Emicho of Leiningen massacred Jews in Germany in search of supplies, loot, and protection money. The York massacre of 1190 also appears to have had its origins in a conspiracy by local leaders to liquidate their debts along with their creditors.[443]

### Spread and growth of Christianity

[edit]

#### Scandinavia

[edit]

Christianization of Scandinavia (Sweden, Norway and Denmark) occurred in two stages.[444] In the first stage, missionaries arrived on their own, without secular support, in the ninth-century.[445] Next, a secular ruler would take charge of Christianization in their territory. This stage ended once a defined and organized ecclesiastical network was established.[446] By 1350, Scandinavia was an integral part of Western Christendom.[447]

#### Russia

[edit]

The Baptism of Kievans, by Klavdiy Lebedev Saint Sophia Cathedral, Kyiv

From the 950s to the 980s, polytheism among the Kievan Rus declined, while many social and economic changes fostered the spread of the new religious ideology known as Christianity.[324] The event associated with the conversion of the Rus' has traditionally been the baptism of Vladimir of Kiev in 989.[448]

The new Christian religious structure was imposed by the state's rulers.[449] The Rus' dukes maintained control of the church which was financially dependent upon them.[450][note 19] While monasticism was the dominant form of piety, Christianity permeated daily life, for both peasants and elites, who identified themselves as Christian while keeping many pre-Christian practices.[452]

In a defining moment in 1380, a coalition of Russian polities headed by the Grand Prince Dmitrii of Moscow faced the army of the Golden Horde on Kulikovo Field near the Don River, there defeating the Mongols. This began the fusing of state power and religious mission that eventually transformed the Kievan Rus into the Russian state (1547).[453]

## Late Middle Ages and early Renaissance (c. 1300–1520)

[edit]

The many calamities of the "long fourteenth-century" - plague, famine, war, social unrest, urban riots, peasant revolts and renegade feudal armies - led folk to believe the end of the world was imminent.[454][455][456] This sentiment ran throughout society and became intertwined with anticlerical and anti-papal sentiments.[457][note 20] The combination of catastrophic events, inside and outside the church, undermined its moral authority and constitutional legitimacy opening it to local fights of authority and control. Diarmaid MacCulloch writes that, "Even before Luther, challenges were being posed".[459][460][461][note 21]

Throughout this period, the church faced powerful challenges and vigorous political confrontations.[467][327] Between 1300 and 1500, papal power stopped increasing, while kings continued to substantively gain and consolidate power for themselves.[468][469]

### Avignon Papacy and the Western Schism

[edit]

17th century depiction of Pope John XXII (1316–1334) (by Giuseppe Franchi) who was referred to as "the banker of Avignon"

In 1309, Pope Clement V moved to Avignon in southern France in search of relief from Rome's factional politics. Seven popes resided there in the Avignon Papacy, but the move away from the "seat of Peter" caused great indignation and cost popes prestige and power.[461][471]

Pope Gregory XI returned to Rome in 1377.[472][473][455] After Gregory's death, the papal conclave met in 1378, in Rome, and elected an Italian Urban VI to succeed Gregory. The French cardinals did not approve, so they held a second conclave electing Robert of Geneva instead, giving the church two popes. This began the Western Schism.[474]

For the next thirty years the Church had two popes, then in 1409, the Pisan council called for the resignation of both popes, electing a third to replace them. Both Popes refused to resign, leaving the Church with three popes. Five years later, Sigismund the Holy Roman Emperor (1368-1437) pressed Pope John XXIII to call the Council of Constance (1414–1418) and depose all three popes. In 1417, the council elected Pope Martin V in their place.[475][476]

### Criticism and reform

[edit]

Attitudes and behaviours against the clergy identify the period from around 1100 to 1349 as an era of “anticlerical revolution".[477][note 22] Multiple strands of criticism of the clergy between 1100 and 1520 were voiced by clerics themselves. Such criticism condemned abuses and sought a more spiritual, less worldly, clergy.[479] However, there is a constancy of complaint in the historical record that indicates most attempts at reform between 1300 and 1500 failed.[480][481]

During the Late Middle Ages, groups of laymen and non-ordained secular clerics sought a more sincere spiritual life.[482] A vernacular religious culture for the laity arose.[383] The new devotion worked toward the ideal of a pious society of ordinary non-ordained people.[483] Inside and outside the church, women were central to these movements.[383]

### Art and music

[edit]

Michelangelo's Pietà (1498–99) in St. Peter's Basilica, Vatican City

During the European Renaissance of the 15th and 16th centuries, the Church was a leading patron of art and architecture, directly commissioning many individual works and supporting many artists such as Michelangelo, Brunelleschi, Bramante, Raphael, Fra Angelico, Donatello, and Leonardo da Vinci.[484][485]

Catholic monks developed the first forms of Western musical notation leading to the development of classical music and its derivatives, up to and including modern music.[486] Scholars revealed the Donation of Constantine as a forgery.[487]

### Byzantium and the Fall of Constantinople

[edit]

In 1439, a reunion agreement between the Eastern and Western church was made. However, there was popular resistance in the East, so it wasn't until 1452 that the decree of union was officially published in Constantinople. It was overthrown the very next year by the Fall of Constantinople to the Ottoman Turks in 1453.[488][489][note 23]

Compulsory resettlement returned many Greek Orthodox to Constantinople.[491] While Islamic law did not recognize the Patriarch as a "juristic person", nor acknowledge the Orthodox Church as an institution, it did identify the Orthodox Church with the Greek community, and concern for stability allowed it to exist.[492][493] The monastery at Mt. Athos prospered from the fourteenth to the sixteenth centuries.[494] Ottomans were largely tolerant, and wealthy Byzantines who entered monastic life there were allowed to keep some control over their property until 1568.[494]

Leaders of the church were recognized by the Islamic state as administrative agents charged with supervising its Christian subjects and collecting their taxes.[495] Compulsory taxes, higher and higher payments to the sultan in hopes of receiving his appointment to the Patriarchate, and other financial gifts, corrupted the process and impoverished Christians.[496][493] Conversion became an attractive solution.[497][note 24]

### Modern Inquisition

[edit]

Between 1478 and 1542, the modern Roman, Spanish and Portuguese inquisitions were created with a much broader reach than previous inquisitions.[499][500][501]

The infamous Spanish Inquisition was responsible to the crown and was used to consolidate state interests.[502] Authorized by the Pope in 1478, it was begun in answer to Ferdinand and Isabella's fears that Jewish converts (known as Conversos or Marranos) were spying and conspiring with Muslims to sabotage the new state.[503][504] Of those condemned by the Inquisition of Valencia before 1530, ninety-two percent were Jews.[505]

Initially, the Spanish Inquisition was so severe that the Pope attempted to shut it down. King Ferdinand is said to have threatened the Pope to prevent that.[506][507][508] Five years later, in October 1483, a papal bull conceded control of the Spanish Inquisition to the Spanish crown.[509][508] It became the first national, unified, centralized institution of the nascent Spanish state.[510][502]

The Portuguese Inquisition was controlled by a state-level board of directors sponsored by the king who, during this period, was generally more concerned with ethnic ancestry than religion. According to Giuseppe Marcocci, there is a connection between the growth of the inquisition and the statutes of blood purity.[500] Anti-Judaism became part of the Inquisition in Portugal before the end of the fifteenth-century, and forced conversion led many Jewish converts to Portuguese colonies in India where they suffered as targets of the Goa Inquisition.[511]

The Roman Inquisition operated to serve the papacy's long-standing political aims in Italy.[512] The Roman Inquisition was bureaucratic, intellectual, and academic.[513] It is probably best known for its condemnation of Galileo.[514]

### Expulsion of Jews

[edit]

Expulsions of Jews in Europe from 1100 to 1600

While the medieval Catholic church never advocated the full expulsion of all the Jews from Christendom, nor did the Church ever repudiate Augustine's doctrine of Jewish witness, canon law supported discrimination as secular rulers repeatedly confiscated Jewish property and evicted Jews from their lands.[515][516][517]

In 1215, the Fourth Lateran Council met and accepted 70 canon laws.[518] The last three canons required Jews to distinguish themselves from Christians in their dress, prohibited them from holding public office, and prohibited Jewish converts from continuing to practice Jewish rituals.[519] In 1283, the Archbishop of Canterbury spearheaded a petition demanding restitution of usury and urging the Jewish expulsion in 1290.[520][521]

Frankfurt's Jews flourished between 1453 and 1613 despite harsh discrimination. They were restricted to one street, subject to strict rules if they wished to leave this territory, and forced to wear a yellow patch as a sign of their identity, but within their community they were allowed to maintain some self-governance. They had their own laws, leaders and a well-known Rabbinical school that also functioned as a religious and cultural centre.[516]

## Early modernity (1500–1750)

[edit]

### Reformation and response in Western Europe (1517–1700)

[edit]

In 1517, Martin Luther initiated the Reformation with his Ninety-five Theses.

Powerful and pervasive ecclesiastical reform developed from medieval critiques of the church, but the institutional unity of the church was shattered.[522] Church critics of the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries had challenged papal authority. Kings and councils asserting their own power had also created challenges to church authority, while vernacular gospels created problems for the church amongst the laity.[331][332]

#### Protestant Reformation

[edit]

Though there was no actual schism until 1521, the Protestant Reformation (1517–1648) has been described (since the nineteenth-century) as beginning when Martin Luther, a Catholic monk advocating church reform, nailed his Ninety-five Theses to the church door in Wittenberg in 1517.[523]

Luther's theses challenged the church's selling of indulgences, the authority of the Pope, and various teachings of the late medieval Catholic church. This act of defiance and its social, moral, and theological criticisms brought Western Christianity to a new understanding of salvation, tradition, the individual, and personal experience in relationship with God.[524] Edicts handed down by the Diet of Worms condemned Luther and officially banned citizens of the Holy Roman Empire from defending or propagating his ideas.[525][526]

The three primary traditions to emerge directly from the Reformation were the Lutheran, Reformed, and the Anglican traditions.[527] At the same time, a collection of loosely related groups that included Anabaptists, Spiritualists, and Evangelical Rationalists, began the Radical Reformation in Germany and Switzerland.[528] Beginning in 1519, Huldrych Zwingli spread these teachings in Switzerland leading to the Swiss Reformation.[529]

#### Counter-Reformation

[edit]

The Index Librorum Prohibitorum listed books forbidden by the Catholic Church.

The Roman Catholic Church addressed the Evangelical challenge in what is called the Counter-Reformation or Catholic Reformation, spearheaded by a series of 10 reforming popes from 1534 to 1605, beginning with Pope Paul III (1534–1549).[530] The Counter-Reformation rebuked much of the Protestant perspective while addressing perceived deficiencies in previous Catholic praxis and doctrine. A list of books detrimental to faith or morals was established, the Index Librorum Prohibitorum, which included the writings of Protestants and those condemned as obscene.[531]

New monastic orders were formed within the church, including the Society of Jesus,[532] also known as the "Jesuits"—who adopted military discipline and a vow of loyalty to the Pope, leading them to be called "the shock troops of the papacy". Jesuits soon became the Church's chief weapon against Protestantism.[532] The Council of Trent (1545–1563) denied each Protestant claim, and laid the foundation of Roman Catholic policies up to the twenty-first-century.[532] Monastic reform also led to developments within orthodox spirituality, such as that of the Spanish mystics and the French school of spirituality.[533] The Counter-Reformation also created the Uniate church which used Eastern liturgy but recognized Rome.[534]

#### Wars of religion

[edit]

The quarreling royal houses, already involved in dynastic disagreements, became polarized into the two religious camps as religion became entangled with local politics.[535] Warfare initially broke out in the Holy Roman Empire with the minor Knights' War in 1522, then intensified in the First Schmalkaldic War (1546–1547) and the Second Schmalkaldic War (1552–1555).[536][537] In 1562, France became the centre of religious warfare.[538] The largest and most disastrous of the wars of religion was the Thirty Years' War (1618–1648), which severely strained the continent's political system.[539]

Theorists such as John Kelsay and James Turner Johnson argue that these religious wars were varieties of the just war tradition for liberty and freedom.[540] William T. Cavanaugh identifies a view shared by many historians that the wars were not primarily religious, but were more about state-building, nationalism, and economics.[541][542][538] If they had been primarily motivated by religion, Catholics and Protestants would fight each other, writes Cavenaugh, but Catholics often formed alliances with Protestants to fight other Catholics and vice versa. Historian Barbara Diefendorf argues that religious motives were always mixed with other motives, but the simple fact of Catholics fighting Catholics and Protestants fighting Protestants is not sufficient to prove the absence of religious motives.[543] According to Marxist theorist Henry Heller, there was "a rising tide of commoner hostility to noble oppression and growing perception of collusion between Protestant and Catholic nobles".[544]

#### Witch trials

[edit]

See also: Witch trials in the early modern period

Until the 1300s, the official position of the Roman Catholic Church was that witches did not exist.[545] While historians have been unable to pinpoint a single cause of what became known as the "witch frenzy", scholars have noted that, without changing church doctrine, a new but common stream of thought developed at every level of society that witches were both real and malevolent.[546] Records show the belief in magic had remained so widespread among the rural people, it has convinced some historians that Christianization had not been as successful as previously supposed.[547] The main pressure to prosecute witches came from the common people, and trials were mostly civil trials.[548][549] There is broad agreement that approximately 100,000 people were prosecuted, of which 80% were women, and that 40,000 to 50,000 people were executed between 1561 and 1670.[550][546]

#### Modern concepts of tolerance

[edit]

Since the 1400's, those who became Protestant had steadfastly sought toleration for heresy, blasphemy, Catholicism, non-Christian religions, and even atheism.[551] Anglicans and other Christian moderates also wrote and argued for toleration.[552] In the 1690s, many humanists were rethinking on a political level all of the State's reasons for persecution. This third group also began advocating for religious toleration.[553][554] Over the next two and a half centuries, many treaties and political declarations of tolerance followed, until concepts of freedom of religion, freedom of speech and freedom of thought became established in most western countries.[555][556][557]

### Eastern-Orthodox Churches

[edit]

The conquest of 1453 had effectively destroyed the Eastern Orthodox Church as an institution of the Christian empire inaugurated by Constantine, sealing off Greek-speaking Orthodoxy from the West for almost a century and a half.[558][559] However, the Seljuq sultans and the Ottoman sultans were relatively tolerant, recognizing fellow "people of the book".[560] This allowed the spiritual and cultural influence of the Eastern church, Constantinople, and Mount Athos the monastic peninsula to continue among Orthodox nations.[559] By the time of Süleyman the Magnificent (1520 – 1566), the patriarchate had become a part of the Ottoman system, and continued to have great influence in the Orthodox world.[498][493] Throughout all of this, Constantinople remained conservative and suspicious of Rome.[561]

Elizabeth Zachariadou writes that "The personality of Jeremias II dominates the history of the patriarchate during the second half of the sixteenth century".[561] Jeremias (1536 - 1595) established contact with the new Protestant Lutherans. Nothing much resulted beyond Western Europeans becoming more aware of the problems of the church in captivity.[561] Jeremias was the first Eastern patriarch to visit north-eastern Europe. Ending his visit in Moscow, he founded the Orthodox Patriarchate of Russia.[561][493]

A generation after Constantinople fell to the Turks Ivan III of Muscovy adopted the style of the ancient Byzantine imperial court. This gained Ivan support among the late fifteenth and early sixteenth-century Rus elite who saw themselves as the New Israel and Moscow as the new Jerusalem.[562] The Church reform of Peter I in the early eighteenth-century placed the Orthodox authorities under the control of the tsar. An ober-procurator appointed by the tsar ran the committee that governed the Church after 1721 until 1918: the Most Holy Synod. The Church became involved in the various campaigns of russification and contributed to antisemitism.[563][564]

### The Age of Enlightenment and the start of secularisation (17th-18th c.)

[edit]

Main article: Age of Enlightenment

The era of absolutist states followed the breakdown of Christian universalism.[565] Abuses from political absolutism, practiced by kings who were supported by Catholicism, gave rise to a virulent anti-clerical, anti-Catholic, and anti-Christian sentiment that emerged in the 1680s.[566] Critique of Christianity began among the more extreme Protestant reformers who were enraged by fear, tyranny and persecution.[567][568] Thereafter, every level of European society began to embrace secularisation.[569]

### Colonialism and missions

[edit]

Colonialism opened the door for Christian mission in many new regions.[570][571][572] According to Sheridan Gilley "Catholic Christianity became a global religion through the Spanish and Portuguese colonial empires in the sixteenth-century and French missionaries in the seventeenth and eighteenth."[571]

Christian missionaries and colonial empires had separate agendas which were often in direct opposition to each other.[573] Most missionaries avoided politics, yet they also generally identified themselves with the indigenous people amongst whom they worked and lived.[574] On the one hand, vocal missionaries challenged colonial oppression and defended human rights, even opposing their own governments in matters of social justice for 500 years.[574] On the other hand, there are an equal number of examples of missionaries cooperating with colonial governments.[575]

#### Asia

[edit]

The sixteenth-century success of Christianity in Japan was followed by one of the greatest persecutions in Christian history. Sixteenth-century missions to China were undertaken primarily by the Jesuits.[296][576] Sheridan Gilley writes that "The cruel martyrdom of Catholics in China, Indochina, Japan and Korea, another heroic missionary country, was connected to local fears of European invasion and conquest, which in some cases were not unjustified."[577]

## Late modernity (1750–1945)

[edit]

The historical watershed of 1760 to 1830 saw the beginnings of the Industrial Revolution, the American Revolution and the French Revolution.[578] The American Revolution (1776) and its aftermath included legal assurances of the separation of church and state and a general turn to religious plurality in the new country.[579][580][581] In the decades following the American revolution, France also experienced revolution, and by 1794, radical revolutionaries attempted to violently ‘de-Christianize’ France in what some scholars have termed a "deliberate genocidal policy of extermination" in the Vendée region.[582] When Napoleon came to power, he acknowledged Catholicism as the majority view and tried to make it dependent upon the state.[583] The French Revolution resulted in Eastern Orthodox church leaders rejecting Enlightenment ideas as too dangerous to embrace.[493]

Scholars have identified a positive correlation between the rise of Protestantism and human capital formation,[584] the Protestant work ethic,[585] economic development,[586] and the development of the state system.[587] Max Weber says Protestantism contributed to the development of banking across Northern Europe and gave birth to Capitalism.[588][note 25] However, the urbanisation and industrialisation that was hand in hand with capitalism had created a plethora of new social problems.[590][591] In Europe and North America, both Protestants and Catholics provided massive aid to the poor, supporting family welfare, medicine and education.[592]

In many cases, throughout this period, Christianity was weakened by social and political change.[591] By the Nineteenth and Twentieth centuries, the influence of anticlerical socialism and communism produced secession and disruption in many locations.[593]

### Biblical criticism, liberalism, fundamentalism

[edit]

After the Scientific Revolution (1600–1750), an upsurge in skepticism subjected everything in western culture to systematic doubt including religious beliefs.[594] Biblical criticism emerged (c. 1650 – c. 1800), pioneered by Protestants, using historicism and human reason to make study of the Bible more scholarly, secular, and democratic.[595][596][597] Depending upon how radical the individual scholar was, this produced different and often conflicting views, but it posed particular problems for the literal Bible interpretation which had emerged in the 1820s.[598][599][600]

Before the Enlightenment of the eighteenth-century, liberalism was synonymous with Christian Idealism in that it imagined a liberal State that embraced political and cultural tolerance and freedom.[599] Later liberalism embraced seventeenth-century rationalism, which was attempting to "wean" Christianity from its "irrational cultic" roots.[601] This liberalism lost touch with the necessity of faith and ritual in maintaining Christianity which led to liberalism's decline and the birth of fundamentalism.[602]

Fundamentalist Christianity arose in the late nineteenth and early twentieth-century as a reaction against modern rationalism.[600] The Roman Catholic Church became increasingly centralized, conservative, and focused on loyalty to the Pope.[597] Early in the twentieth-century, the Pope required Catholic Bible scholars who used biblical criticism to take an anti-modernist oath.[597][603]

In 1925, supporters of a relatively new, loosely organized, and undisciplined fundamentalism participated in the Scopes trial. By 1930, the movement appeared to be dying.[604][605] Later in the 1930s, Neo-orthodoxy, a theology against liberalism with a reevaluation of Reformation teachings, began uniting moderates of both sides.[606] In the 1940s, "new-evangelicalism" established itself as separate from fundamentalism.[607]

### American religious revivals (1730–1850)

[edit]

Great revivalists of the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries.

Religious revival, known as the First Great Awakening, swept through the American colonies between the 1730s and the 1770s.[note 26] Verbal battles over the movement raged at both the congregational and denominational levels causing division into political 'Parties', which eventually led to critical support for the American Revolution.[612]

In places like Connecticut and Massachusetts, where one denomination received state funding, churches now began to lobby local legislatures to end that inequity.[613] In 1791, the United States became the first Christian nation to mandate the separation of church and state. Theological pluralism became the new norm.[580][581]

The Second Great Awakening (1800–1830s) extolled moral reform as the Christian alternative to armed revolution. These reformers established nation-wide societies, separate from any individual church, to begin social movements concerning abolition, women's rights, temperance and literacy.[614] Developing nation-wide organizations was pioneering, and many businesses adopted the practice leading to the consolidations and mergers that reshaped the American economy of the nineteenth-century.[615] The second awakening produced the Latter Day Saint movement, the Restoration Movement and the Holiness movement.[616]

American anti-slavery tract, 1853

The Third Great Awakening began from 1857 and was most notable for taking awakening throughout the world, especially in English speaking countries.[616] Restorationists were prevalent in America. They have not described themselves as a reform movement but have, instead, described themselves as restoring the Church to its original form as found in the book of Acts. Restorationism gave rise to the Stone-Campbell Restoration Movement, Adventism, and the Jehovah's Witnesses.[617][618]

### Western slavery

[edit]

Born into slavery, Sojourner Truth escaped and became an advocate for abolitionism, racial equality, women's rights, and alcohol temperance. Pictured c. 1870

For over 300 years, many Christians in Europe and North America participated in the Trans-Atlantic slave trade which began in the sixteenth-century.[619] Moral objections had arisen immediately but had small impact.[620] By the eighteenth-century, the Religious Society of Friends (Quakers), followed by Methodists, Presbyterians and Baptists, began to campaign, write, and spread pamphlets against the trade and slavery itself.[621] In the years after the American Revolution, black congregations led by black preachers provided an institutional base for keeping abolitionism alive.[622] By the early nineteenth-century, American Protestants had organized the first anti-slavery societies.[623] Christian reformers in both England and America, African Americans themselves, and the new American republic eventually produced the "gradual but comprehensive abolition of slavery" in the West.[624]

### Protestant missions

[edit]

Protestant missionaries had a significant role in shaping multiple nations, cultures and societies as well as in making Christianity a global religion.[577][68][625] Women made major contributions.[592] A missionary's first job was to get to know the indigenous people and work with them to translate the Bible into their local language. Approximately 90% were completed. Often, the process also generated a written grammar, a lexicon of native traditions, and a dictionary of the local language. These were used to teach in missionary schools resulting in the spread of literacy.[626][627][628] Many native cultures responded to Protestant missions with "movements of indigenization and cultural liberation" that generated many beneficial long-term effects.[629][630][626]

#### Native American boarding schools

[edit]

In 1819, the U.S., and in 1831 the Canadian federal governments began boarding school systems (about 50 years before public school systems) for the education and assimilation of Native Tribal peoples. Funded by the federal government, schools were run by Catholics, Quakers, Methodists, Presbyterians, Episcopalians, and government representatives from the Indian Office, then the Indian Bureau, then the Bureau of Indian Affairs.[631]

The majority of native children did not attend boarding school. Of those that did, many did so in response to requests for education sent by native families to the Federal government. Many others were forcibly taken from their homes. For Indigenous populations in Canada and the U.S., the history of boarding schools shows a continuum of experiences ranging from happiness and refuge to suffering, forced assimilation, mistreatment, and abuse. Some even died. Most survived and later prospered from having an education. Over time, missionaries came to respect the virtues of native culture and spoke against national policies.[632][633][634]

### Russian Orthodoxy

[edit]

Demolition of the Cathedral of Christ the Saviour in Moscow on the orders of Joseph Stalin, 5 December 1931, consistent with the doctrine of state atheism in the USSR

The Bolsheviks and other Russian revolutionaries saw the Church, like the tsarist state, as an enemy of the people. Criticism of atheism was strictly forbidden and sometimes led to imprisonment.[636][637] Some actions against Orthodox priests and believers included torture, being sent to prison camps, labour camps or mental hospitals, and execution.[638][639]

Historian Scott Kenworthy describes the persecution of the Russian Orthodox Church under communism as "unparalleled by any in Christian history".[640] In the first five years after the October Revolution, one journalist reported that 28 bishops and 1,200 priests were executed.[641] Others report that 8,000 people were killed in 1922.[642] The League of Militant Atheists adopted a five-year plan in 1932 "aimed at the total eradication of religion by 1937".[643][note 27]

Despite oppression and martyrdom under hostile rule, the Orthodox churches of the twentieth-century continued to contribute to theology, spirituality, liturgy, music, and art. Kenworthy adds that "Important movements within the church have been the revival of a Eucharistic ecclesiology, of traditional iconography, of monastic life and spiritual traditions such as Hesychasm, and the rediscovery of the Greek Church Fathers".[647]

### Christianity and Nazism

[edit]

Pope Pius XI

In the early twentieth-century, European states were advocating the separation of church and state, while also establishing authoritarian governments and state-supported churches. Such consanguinity would, after 1945, implicate the church in abuses of power.[648]

Pope Pius XI declared in Mit brennender Sorge (English: "With rising anxiety") that fascist governments had hidden "pagan intentions" and expressed the irreconcilability of the Catholic position with totalitarian fascist state worship which placed the nation above God, fundamental human rights, and dignity.[649]

In Poland, Catholic priests were arrested and Polish priests and nuns were executed en masse.[650]

Most leaders and members of the largest Protestant church in Germany, the German Evangelical Church, which had a long tradition of nationalism and support of the state, supported the Nazis when they came to power.[651] A smaller contingent, about a third of German Protestants, formed the Confessing Church which opposed Nazism.[note 28]

Nazis interfered in The Confessing Church's affairs, harassed its members, executed mass arrests and targeted well known pastors like Martin Niemöller and Dietrich Bonhoeffer.[653][654][note 29] Bonhoeffer, a pacifist, was arrested, found guilty in the conspiracy to assassinate Hitler and executed.[656]

## After 1945

[edit]

After World War II, Christianity became a global religion, but also faced major challenges.[657] Christian history during this period can be characterised by the breakdown of denominational boundaries, the impact of war, and the provision of aid to the oppressed.[658] In these areas, the papacy, ecumenical movement, missionary movement, Pentecostal movement, and Independent movement have had international significance.[659]

### A global religion

[edit]

Countries by percentage of Protestants, 1938 Christian distribution globally based on PEW research in 2011[660]

The world's largest religion has been Christianity since the eighteenth-century.[571] Before 1945, about a third of the people in the world were Christians (with about half of those Roman Catholic), and about 80% of all Christians lived in Europe, Russia and the Americas.[661] After 1945, Christianity grew and expanded in the Third World and in Eastern Europe (after the collapse of communism). By 2000, the percentage of Christians in the West dropped to around 40 percent, while the proportion living in Asia and Africa rose to 32 percent.[661] Christianity's population center shifted east and south, making it a truly global religion.[571][580]

In the first quarter of the twenty-first-century the majority of Christians live outside North America and Western Europe. White Christians are a global minority, and slightly over half of worldwide Christians are female.[662][663] It remains the world's largest religion into the twenty-first-century with roughly 2.4 billion followers comprising around 31.2% of the world population.[571][580][664]

#### Africa (19th–21st centuries)

[edit]

Laying on of hands during a service in a neo-charismatic church in Ghana

In 1900, under colonial rule, there were just under 9 million Christians in Africa. By 1960, and the end of colonialism, there were about 60 million. By 2005, African Christians had increased to 393 million, about half of the continent's total population at that time.[627] Population in Africa has continued to grow with the percentage of Christians remaining at about half in 2022.[660] This expansion has been labeled a "fourth great age of Christian expansion".[665][note 30]

#### Asia

[edit]

Christianity is growing rapidly in China, and the rest of Southeast Asia, especially Korea, where it grew faster after colonialism than before it.[670][671][672] A rapid expansion of charismatic Christianity began in the 1980s, leading Asia to rival Latin America in the population of Charismatic and Pentecostal Christians.[673][674] Increasing numbers of young people in China are becoming Christians. Council on Foreign Relations data shows a 10% yearly growth in Chinese Christian populations since 1979.[675][676]

### Challenges

[edit]

Traditional Christianity has faced multiple challenges in the twentieth-century.[677] In the U.S., Pew has reported that, "As recently as the early 1990s, about 90% of U.S. adults identified as Christians. But today, about two-thirds of adults are Christians".[678][679] Secularism, the changing moral climate in the West, and various types of political opposition have led to a decline in church attendance.[680][573] Hugh McLeod writes that,

> The most powerful and effective criticism of Christianity in the twentieth-century has been the charge that it has been too closely identified with the rich and powerful, and too ready to legitimate the status quo. These political criticisms have had a far wider impact than those deriving from scientific or philosophical objections to religion.[681]

Highly authoritarian and totalitarian governments have brought about crises and decline in churches in many areas.[677][573][682] From 1945 into the 1980's, the world's first Marxist super-power, along with the many other communist governments, pursued anti-religious policies that were often violent.[648] In 2013, 17 Muslim majority states reported 28 of the 29 types of religious discrimination against 45 of the 47 religious minorities in their countries, including Christianity.[683] Anti-Christian persecution has become a consistent human rights concern.[684]

The challenges of secularism, and the changing moral climate of the 1960's and 1970's, caused controversy within the churches concerning sexual ethics, gender, and exclusivity.[680] A growing demand for greater individual freedom led to new forms of religion which embrace the sacred as a deeper understanding of the self.[685] This "New Age" spirituality is private and individualistic, and differs radically from Christian tradition, dogma and ritual.[686][687]

The Prosperity gospel formed as an adaptation of Pentecostalism. It challenges traditional Christianity because it has moved away from the Reformation view of biblical authority to the authority of personal charisma.[688] Begun in the twentieth-century's last decades, it has become a trans-national movement.[689][note 31] In 2000, approximately one quarter of all Christians worldwide were part of Pentecostalism and its associated movements.[691] By 2025, Pentecostals are expected to constitute one-third of the nearly three billion Christians worldwide making it the largest branch of Protestantism and the fastest growing religious movement in global Christianity.[692][693]

### Diversity and commonality

[edit]

Pope Francis

The common threat of secularisation and a recognition of the destructive potential of religious hatred has encouraged co-operation between churches.[694] Collaboration between Protestants and Catholics made little progress until 11 October 1962, when Pope John XXIII opened the Second Vatican Council, the 21st ecumenical council of the Catholic Church.[695][696] On 21 November 1964, the Second Vatican Council published Unitatis Redintegratio, stating that Roman Catholic ecumenical goals are to establish full communion amongst all the various Christian churches including Protestants.[697][698] Amongst Evangelicals, there is no agreed upon definition, strategy or goal for ecumenism.[699] Different theologies on the nature of the Church have produced some hostility toward it instead.[700][701]

While sentiment is widespread that ecumenism at the upper levels of leadership has stalled, the trend at the local level has been toward discussion and prayer meetings, pulpit exchanges, and shared social action.[702][696] In the U.S. there has been an increase in inter-marriage. Almost 40% of couples married since 2010, compared to 19% before 1960, have married someone outside of their faith, according to Pew Research Center.[703]

Christianity is still diverse, and Christians still disagree, but the grounds have changed to topics that engage the deepest and most controversial issues of the twenty-first-century - "race, gender, colonialism, and liberation" - bringing these to the forefront of the larger more traditional Christian agenda.[704][705] In Hugh MacLeod's view, "A liberal Catholic is likely to have a lot in common with a liberal Methodist", and this commonality is only likely to increase with the influence of the internet.[705]

### War

[edit]

Twentieth-century history with its multiple wars has brought questions of theodicy to the forefront.[706] Wars have had contradictory effects on the church, sometimes producing a loss of faith in human solutions to human suffering, an upsurge in religiosity and patriotism, or an alienation from Christianity.[706] For the first time since the pre-Constantian era, Christian pacifism became an advocated Christian option in the twentieth-century.[681]

The nineteenth-century revolutions that established Orthodoxy in the Serbian, Greek, Romanian, and Bulgarian nations were changed in the twentieth-century from a universal church into a series of national churches that became subordinate to nationalism and the state.[493]

### Particularizng Emancipation

[edit]

By using the "kingdom ideals" from Jesus' Sermon on the Mount, the Social Gospel and liberation theology redefined social justice, and focused on the community's sins, in an effort to expose institutionalized sin and redeem the institutions of society.[707][708][709] Liberation theology has been especially active in aiding Latin American poor.[710]

Originating in America in 1966, Black theology developed a combined social gospel and liberation theology that mixes Christianity with questions of civil rights, aspects of the Black Power movement, and responses to black Muslims claiming Christianity was a "White man's" religion.[711] Spreading to the United Kingdom, then parts of Africa, confronting apartheid in South Africa, Black theology explains Christianity as liberation for this life not just the next.[711][712][note 32]

The feminist movement of the mid to late twentieth-century began with an anti-Christian ethos, but soon developed a significant and influential Feminist theology dedicated to transforming the churches and society.[715][716] In the last years of the twentieth-century, the re-examination of old religious texts through diversity, otherness, and difference developed womanist theology of African-American women, the "mujerista" theology of Hispanic women, and insights from Asian feminist theology.[717]

#### Missions

[edit]

After World War II, Christian missionaries played a transformative role for many colonial societies, moving them toward independence through decolonization.[718][719] In the mid to late 1990s, postcolonial theology emerged globally from multiple sources.[720] It analyzes structures of power and ideology in order to recover what colonialism erased or suppressed in indigenous cultures.[721]

According to historian Lammin Sanneh, Protestant missionaries began the "largest, most diverse and most vigorous movement of cultural renewal in [the] history" of Africa.[722][723][573]

The missionary movement of the twenty-first-century has transformed into a multi-cultural, multi-faceted global network of NGO's, short term amateur volunteers, and traditional long-term bilingual, bicultural professionals who focus on evangelism and local development and not on 'civilizing' native people.[724][725]

## See also

[edit]

* Bible portal
* Christianity portal
* History portal
* Religion portal
* Saints portal

* Catholic Church and Nazi Germany
* Celtic Christianity
* Christianization of Kievan Rus'
* Christianity and Judaism
* Christianity in Asia
* Christianity in Egypt
* Christianity in Syria
* Chronicle of Arbela
* Chronology of early Christian monasticism
* Chronology of Jesus
* Cluniac Reforms
* Criticism of Christianity
* Donation of Pepin
* Dutch Reformed Church
* English Benedictine Reform
* Frankish Papacy
* Germanic Christianity
* Hellenistic Judaism
* Historical background of the New Testament
* Historical Jesus
* Historiography of Christianization of the Roman Empire
* History of Calvinism
* History of Christianity of the Late Modern era
* History of Christian universalism
* History of the Eastern Orthodox Church
* History of Oriental Orthodoxy
* History of Protestantism
* History of the Catholic Church
* History of the Eastern Orthodox Church under the Ottoman Empire
* Pope Pius XII and the Holocaust
* Positive Christianity
* Religion in the Soviet Union
* Religious policies of Constantius II
* Rise of Christianity during the Fall of Rome
* Timeline of Christian missions
* Timeline of the Roman Catholic Church

Christian history

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C11 | C12 | C13 | C14 | C15 | C16 | C17 | C18 | C19 | C20 | C21

## Notes

[edit]

1. ^ Ross Kraemer theorizes that the ascetic life was probably attractive to large numbers of women.[91] It offered an escape from marriage and motherhood, and an intellectual life, with access to social and economic power that would otherwise have eluded them.[92][93] Some of the Pauline comments upon marriage can be interpreted as being highly subversive. For example, the counsel provided to women married to non-believers in I Cor. 7:12–16 and 1 Pet. 3:1–6, far from enforcing the [Roman] status quo, advises a radical course of action at direct odds with the ideal wife of the Greco-Roman household.[94][95]
2. ^ David Bentley Hart writes that the emperor Julian, who was hostile to Christianity, is recorded as saying: "It is [the Christians'] philanthropy towards strangers, the care they take of the graves of the dead, and the affected sanctity with which they conduct their lives that have done most to spread their atheism."[108][109]
3. ^ Substantial growth in the third and fourth centuries made Christianity the Empire's majority religion by the mid-fourth-century. All Roman emperors after Constantine, except Julian, were Christian. Christian emperors wanted the empire to become a Christian empire, and they used empirical law to make it easier to be Christian and harder to be pagan.[129]

Many previous scholars have seen such laws as implying the establishment of Christianity as the state religion forcing the conversion of non-believers. However, twenty-first-century scholarship has brought this older view into question.[130]
4. ^ Much of the decline of paganism in the late empire can be tied to economics.[144] The economic crisis of the third-century produced a decline of urbanism and prosperity. Further economic disruption in the fourth and fifth centuries occurred when various Germanic peoples sacked Rome, invaded Britain, Gaul, and Iberia, and seized land.[145] Such disruption made fewer public funds and private donations available to support expensive pagan festivals and temples.[146][147]
5. ^ While Eusebius also credited Constantine with the temple's destruction and the end of sacrifice, sources conflict. For example, the ancient chronicler Malalas wrote that Constantine destroyed all the temples, that Theodosius destroyed them all, and that Constantine converted all the temples to churches.[150] Temple destruction is attested to in 43 written sources, but only 4 are confirmed by archaeology.[151][152]
6. ^ Emperor Theodosius' prefect Maternus Cynegius is believed to have commissioned the destruction of temples in the territory around Constantinople.[164] According to Peter Brown, this inspired Theophilus of Alexandria to stage a procession in 392 ridiculing statues of pagan gods, which turned into a riot which destroyed the Serapium in Alexandria, Egypt. Twentieth-century scholars have traditionally seen this as evidence of a tide of violent Christian iconoclasm that continued throughout the 390s and into the 400s.[165] Archaeological research during the twenty-first-century has found limited evidence for the violent destruction of temples between the fourth and sixth centuries, attested at only a small number of sites.[152] The Serapeum was the only Graeco-Roman temple violently destroyed in this period leaving Roman temples in Egypt "among the best preserved in the ancient world".[166][167]
7. ^ Justin Martyr (100–165 AD) is generally attributed with inventing the concept of heresy in the second-century.[187] His Dialogue with Trypho (Dial. 62.3) describes his branch of Christianity as a Jewish heresy.[188]
8. ^ Manichaeism rose in southern Mesopotamia in the third-century and expanded as a form of Christianity from the fourth to sixth centuries in almost all parts of the Roman Empire, especially Syria, Mesopotamia, Egypt, North Africa and Italy.[197] Pope Leo I (440–461) was the only pope to openly oppose the sect, but the severe persecution instigated by emperor Justinian I marked their end.[186]
9. ^ Christian monasticism had emerged in the third-century, and by the fifth-century, it had become a dominant force in all areas of late antique culture. During the sixth-century, it flourished nearly everywhere Christianity existed.[215][216][217]
10. ^ Membership in Christendom began with baptism at birth. Members were required to have a rudimentary knowledge of the Apostles' Creed and the Lord's Prayer. From peasant to pope, all were required to rest on Sunday and feast days, attend mass, fast at specified times, take communion at Easter, pay various fees, tithes and alms for the needy, and receive last rites at death.[241]
11. ^ Medieval monasteries provided orphanages, hostels (inns) for travelers, distributed food during famine, and regularly provided food to the poor.[264][265][266] They supported literacy, ran schools, and copied and preserved ancient texts in their scriptoria and libraries. They practiced classical craft and artistic skills, while maintaining an intellectual and spiritual culture that developed and taught new skills and technologies.[267][268][269][270][271][272] In the early sixth-century, Benedict of Nursia wrote the Rule of Saint Benedict which would become the most common monastic rule, the starting point for others, and would impact politics and law throughout the Middle Ages.[273][274][275]
12. ^ Intense missionary activity between the fifth and eighth centuries led to eastern Iran, Arabia, central Asia, China, and the coasts of India and Indonesia adopting Nestorian Christianity. Syrian Nestorians had settled in the Persian Empire which spread over modern Iraq, Iran, and parts of Central Asia.[294][295] A vibrant Asian Christianity with nineteen metropolitans (and eighty-five bishops), centred on Seleucia (just south of Baghdad), flourished in the eighth-century.[296][297] The rural areas of Upper Egypt were all Nestorian. Coptic missionaries spread the faith up the Nile to Nubia, Eritrea, and Ethiopia.[298] From the early 600s, a series of Arab military campaigns conquered Syria, Mesopotamia, Egypt and Persia.[299][300] By 635, upper-class Christian refugees had moved further east to China at Hsian-fu.[301]
13. ^ Many Roman Catholic fundamentals - "the meaning of the sacraments, the just price and reward for labour, the terms of Christian marriage, the nature of clerical celibacy and the appropriate lifestyle for priests" - were conceived in the twelfth-century.[337] Purgatory became an official doctrine, and in 1215, confession became required for all.[338][339]
14. ^ Bishoprics were lifetime appointments, so a king could better control their powers and revenues than those of hereditary noblemen. Even better, he could leave the post vacant and collect the revenues himself, theoretically in trust for the new bishop, or give a bishopric to compensate a helpful noble. For the church, ending this would better separate church from state, help with reform, and provide better pastoral care, but ending lay investiture would also reduce the power of the Holy Roman Emperor and the European nobility.[371]
15. ^ Crusading gave ordinary Christians a tangible means of expressing brotherhood with the East and promoted the sense of a "joined-up Christendom". It had spiritual merit for those who went as a direct result of the "dangers, the time, the cost, and the sheer physical and mental effort" that crusading took. Being a part of crusading also carried a sense of historical responsibility.[384]
16. ^ Modern style preaching began through the call for crusade.[387] Affective piety emerged, (empathy with the human Christ and his suffering), producing compassion toward others. The opening of the Holy Land helped spread veneration of the Virgin Mary.[388][389][390] Christian mysticism increased and spread.[391] New monastic military orders such as the Military Order of the Teutonic Knights developed.[392] The cult of chivalry evolved between the thirteenth and fifteenth centuries and became a true cultural force that influenced art, literature and philosophy.[393][394]
17. ^ The Medieval Inquisition brought somewhere between 8,000 and 40,000 people to interrogation and sentence.[427] Death sentences were a relatively rare occurrence.[430] The penalty imposed most often by Medieval Inquisitorial courts was an act of penance which could include public confession.[431]
18. ^ In 1215, the Fourth Lateran Council allowed inquisitors to search out moral and religious "crimes" even when there was no accuser, and in theory, this granted them extraordinary powers.[432] In practice, without local secular support, their task became so overwhelmingly difficult that inquisitors themselves became endangered. In the worst cases, some inquisitors were murdered.[433]
19. ^ The prince appointed the clergy to positions in government service, satisfied their material needs, determined who would fill the higher ecclesiastical positions, and directed the synods of bishops in the Kievan metropolitanate.[451]
20. ^ Some claimed the clergy did little to help the suffering, although the high mortality rate amongst clerics indicates many continued to care for the sick.[458] Other medieval folk claimed it was the "corrupted" and "vice-ridden" clergy that had caused the many calamities that people believed were punishments from God.[458]
21. ^ John Wycliffe (1320–1384), an English scholastic philosopher and theologian, attended the Council of Constance and urged the Church to give up its property (which produced much of the Church's wealth), and to once again embrace poverty and simplicity, to stop being subservient to the state and its politics, and to deny papal authority.[462][463] He was accused of heresy, convicted and sentenced to death, but died before implementation. The Lollards followed his teachings, played a role in the English Reformation, and were persecuted for heresy after Wycliffe's death.[463][464]

Jan Hus (1369–1415), a Czech based in Prague, was influenced by Wycliffe and spoke out against the abuses and corruption he saw in the Catholic Church there.[465] He was also accused of heresy and condemned to death.[464][465][463] After his death, Hus became a powerful symbol of Czech nationalism and the impetus for the Bohemian (aka the Czech) Reformation.[466][465][463]

22. ^ Scholars have generally referred to "anticlericalism" even though the term is considered biased, and there is a lack of consensus on its elements and form in pre-Reformation Europe.[478]
23. ^ The flight of Eastern Christians from Constantinople, and the manuscripts they carried with them, were important factors in generating literary renaissance in the West.[490]
24. ^ The oldest Ottoman document lists 57 bishoprics in Constantinople of 1483. By 1525, bishoprics had decreased to fifty, and only forty are recorded from 1641–1651.[498][493]
25. ^ In opposition to Weber, historians such as Fernand Braudel and Hugh Trevor-Roper assert that capitalism developed in pre-Reformation Catholic communities. Joseph Schumpeter, an economist of the twentieth-century, has referred to the Scholastics as "they who come nearer than does any other group to having been the 'founders' of scientific economics".[589]
26. ^ It had roots in German Pietism and British Evangelicalism, and was a response to the extreme rationalism of biblical criticism, the anti-Christian tenets of the Enlightenment and its threat of assimilation by the modern state.[608][609][610] Beginning among the Presbyterians, revival quickly spread to Congregationalists (Puritans) and Baptists, creating American Evangelicalism and Wesleyan Methodism.[611]
27. ^ Soviet authorities used "persecution, arrests and trials, imprisonment in psychiatric hospitals, house raids and searches, confiscations of Bibles and New Testaments and other Christian literature, disruption of worship services by the militia and KGB, slander campaigns against Christians in magazines and newspapers, on TV and radio" to eradicate religion.[644] The Russian Orthodox Church suffered unprecedented persecution.[645] From 1927 on, the League of Militant Atheists published anti-religious literature in large quantities. During the 1930s, violence was used. Bishops, priests, and lay believers were arrested, shot, and sent to labour camps. Churches were closed, destroyed, and converted to other uses.[646]
28. ^ In a study of sermon content, William Skiles says "Confessing Church pastors opposed the Nazi regime on three fronts... first, they expressed harsh criticism of Nazi persecution of Christians and the German churches; second, they condemned National Socialism as a false ideology that worships false gods; and third, they challenged Nazi anti-Semitic ideology by supporting Jews as the chosen people of God and Judaism as a historic foundation of Christianity".[652]
29. ^ By October 1944, 45% of all pastors and 98% of non-ordained vicars and candidates had been drafted into military service; 117 German pastors of Jewish descent served at this time, and yet at least 43% fled Nazi Germany because it became impossible for them to continue in their ministries.[655]
30. ^ Examples include Simon Kimbangu's movement, the Kimbanguist church, which had a radical reputation in its early days in the Congo, was suppressed for forty years, and has now become the largest independent church in Africa with upwards of 3 million members.[666] In 2019, 65% of Melillans in Northern Africa across from Spain identified themselves as Roman Catholic.[667] In the early twenty-first-century, Kenya has the largest yearly meeting of Quakers outside the United States. In Uganda, more Anglicans attend church than do so in England. Ahafo, Ghana is recognized as more vigorously Christian than any place in the United Kingdom.[668] There is revival in East Africa, and vigorous women's movements called Rukwadzano in Zimbabwe and Manyano in South Africa. The Apostles of John Maranke, which began in Rhodesia, now have branches in seven countries.[669]
31. ^ Prosperity ideas have diffused in countries such as Brazil and other parts of South America, Nigeria, South Africa, Ghana and other parts of West Africa, China, India, South Korea, and the Philippines.[690] It has suffered from accusations of financial fraud and sex scandals around the world, but it is most heavily challenged by Christian evangelicals who question its theology.[688]
32. ^ Historian of race and religion, Paul Harvey, says that, in 1960s America, "The religious power of the civil rights movement transformed the American conception of race."[713] Then the social power of the religious right responded in the 1970s by recasting evangelical concepts in political terms that included racial separation.[713] In the twenty-first-century, the Prosperity Gospel promotes racial reconciliation and has become a powerful force in American religious life.[714]

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## External links

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The following links give an overview of the history of Christianity:

* Historical Christianity: The Ancient Communal Faith: Print, ebook, and audiobook
* MacCulloch (2010). A History of Christianity (Television production). BBC Four. Retrieved 7 April 2022.
* History of Christianity Reading Room: Archived 28 August 2019 at the Wayback Machine Extensive online resources for the study of global church history (Tyndale Seminary).
* Dictionary of the History of Ideas: Christianity in History
* Dictionary of the History of Ideas: Church as an Institution
* Sketches of Church History From AD 33 to the Reformation by Rev. J. C Robertson, M.A., Canon of Canterbury
* "Church History" . Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 6 (11th ed.). 1911. pp. 330–45.
* A History of Christianity in 15 Objects online series in association with Faculty of Theology, Uni. of Oxford from September 2011

Wikimedia Commons has media related to History of Christianity.

The following links provide quantitative data related to Christianity and other major religions, including rates of adherence at different points in time:

* American Religion Data Archive
* Historical Christianity, A timeline with references to the descendants of the early church.
* Reformation Timeline, A short timeline of the Protestant Reformation.
* Fourth-Century Christianity

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* 6th
* 7th
* 8th
* 9th
* 10th
* 11th
* 12th
* 13th
* 14th
* 15th
* 16th
* 17th
* 18th
* 19th
* 20th
* 21st

Origins and
Apostolic Age|

* Background
* Life of Jesus
* Baptism
* Ministry
* Crucifixion
* Resurrection
* Great Commission
* Holy Spirit
* Apostles in the New Testament
* Jewish Christians
* Paul the Apostle
* Council of Jerusalem
* Gospels
* Acts
* Pauline epistles
* General epistles
* Revelation

Ante-Nicene
period|

* Diversity
* Adoptionism
* Arianism
* Docetism
* Donatism
* Gnosticism
* Marcionism
* Montanism
* Canon development
* Persecution
* Apostolic / Church Fathers
* Clement of Rome
* Polycarp
* Ignatius
* Irenaeus
* Justin Martyr
* Tertullian
* Origen
* Early African

Late antiquity
(Great Church)|

* Constantine
* Constantinian shift
* Roman state religion
* Monasticism
* Councils
* Nicaea I
* Creed
* Christianity
* Athanasius
* Jerome
* Augustine
* Constantinople I
* Ephesus I
* Chalcedon
* Chalcedonian / Non-Chalcedonian
* Biblical canon

Catholicism|

* Papacy
* Development of primacy
* Eastern Orthodox opposition
* Crusading movement
* Lateran IV
* Art patronage of Julius II
* Leo X
* Counter-Reformation
* Trent
* Art
* Catholic Reformation
* Jesuits
* Xavier
* Thomas More
* Monastery dissolution
* Wars
* Mass rocks and priest holes
* Guadalupe
* Jansenists
* Molinists
* Neo-Scholasticism
* Teresa
* Modernism
* Independent Catholics
* Vatican I and Vatican II
* Ecclesial community
* Timeline

Eastern
Christianity|

* Eastern Orthodoxy
* Oriental Orthodoxy
* Church of the East
* Chrysostom
* Nestorianism
* Icons
* Iconodulism
* Iconoclasm
* Great Schism
* Fall of Constantinople
* Armenia
* Georgia
* Greece
* Egypt
* Syriac
* Serbian
* Ethiopia
* Ottoman Empire
* Russia
* North America

Middle Ages|

* Pelagianism
* Gregory I
* Celtic
* Germanic
* Anglo-Saxon
* Franks
* Gothic
* Scandinavian
* Iceland
* Slavs
* Bohemia
* Bulgaria
* Kievan Rus'
* Moravia
* Poland
* Pomerania
* Investiture
* Anselm
* Abelard
* Bernard
* Bogomils
* Bosnian
* Cathars
* Apostolic Brethren
* Dulcinian
* Crusades
* Waldensians
* Inquisition
* Early Scholasticism
* Christian mysticism
* Dominic
* Francis
* Bonaventure
* Aquinas
* Five Ways
* Wycliffe
* Avignon
* Papal Schism
* Bohemian Reformation
* Hus
* Conciliarism
* Synods

Reformation
and
Protestantism|

* Erasmus
* Eucharist
* Calvinist–Arminian debate
* Arminianism
* Wars
* Resistance theories
* Separation of church and state
* Nicodemites
* Hymnody of continental Europe
* Formal and material principles
* Law and Gospel
* Literature
* Protestant work ethic

| Lutheranism|

* Luther
* Ninety-five Theses
* Diet of Worms
* Theology
* Bible
* Melanchthon
* Book of Concord
* Orthodoxy
* Eucharist
* Art

|

Calvinism|

* Zwingli
* Calvin
* Huguenots
* Presbyterianism
* Scotland
* Knox
* TULIP
* Baptism
* Dort
* Three Forms of Unity
* Westminster
* Orthodoxy
* Metrical psalters

Anglicanism|

* Timeline
* Henry VIII
* Cranmer
* Elizabethan
* 39 Articles
* Puritans
* Civil War
* Church music
* Book of Common Prayer
* King James Version

Anabaptism|

* Theology
* Radical Reformation
* Grebel
* Swiss Brethren
* Müntzer
* Martyrs' Synod
* Menno Simons
* Smyth
* Martyrs Mirror
* Ausbund

1640–1789|

* Revivalism
* Missionaries
* Baptists
* Separation of church and state
* Edicts of toleration
* Congregationalism
* First Great Awakening
* Methodism
* Millerism
* Pietism
* Fostering of early experimental science
* Neo- and Old Lutherans

1789–present|

* Camp meeting
* Holiness movement
* Second Great Awakening
* Restorationists
* Jehovah's Witnesses
* Mormonism
* Seventh-day Adventist
* Adventism
* Oxford Movement
* Laestadianism
* Finnish Awakening
* Christian existentialism
* Third Great Awakening
* Azusa Revival
* Gospel music
* Fundamentalist – Modernist controversy
* Pacifism
* Ecumenism
* Five solae
* Jesus movement
* Pentecostalism
* Charismatics
* Liberation theology
* Reformed epistemology
* Fourth Great Awakening
* Evangelical and Mainline Protestants
* Christian right and left
* Political influence of Evangelicalism in Latin America

* Timeline
* Missions
* Martyrs
* Theology
* Eastern Orthodoxy
* Oriental Orthodoxy
* Protestantism
* Catholicism

* v
* t
* e

Christianity

* Index
* Outline
* Glossary
* Prophets
* People
* Lists of Christians
* By country

Bible
(Scriptures)|

* Canon
* Old Testament
* New Testament

Foundations|

* Church
* Creed
* Gospel
* New Covenant
* Christian tradition
* Worship

History
(timeline)
(spread)|

| Early
Christianity|

* Jesus
* in Christianity
* Nativity
* Baptism
* Ministry
* Sermon on the Mount
* Parables
* Miracles
* Great Commandment
* Crucifixion
* Resurrection
* Great Commission
* Apostles
* Church fathers
* Apostolic fathers

|

Great Church|

* Ante-Nicene period
* Late antiquity
* Constantine
* First seven ecumenical councils
* Nicaea I
* Chalcedon
* State church of the Roman Empire
* Christian biblical canon

Middle Ages|

* Monasticism
* Papal States
* East–West Schism
* Investiture Controversy
* Crusades
* Age of Discovery

Modern era|

* Protestant Reformation
* Catholic Reformation
* Thirty Years' War
* Enlightenment
* French Revolution
* Relations with Islam
* Influences

Denominations
(list, members)|

| Western|

* Catholic
* Old Catholic
* Independent Catholic
* Protestant
* Adventist
* Anabaptist
* Anglican
* Baptist
* Charismatic
* Evangelical
* Holiness
* Lutheran
* Methodist
* Pentecostal
* Quakers
* Reformed
* Western Rite Orthodoxy

|

Eastern|

* Eastern Orthodox
* Church
* Oriental Orthodox (Miaphysite)
* Church of the East (Nestorian)
* Eastern Catholic

Restorationist|

* Jehovah's Witnesses
* Latter Day Saint movement
* Iglesia ni Cristo

Theology|

* God
* Trinity
* Father
* Son
* Holy Spirit
* Christology
* Nicene Creed
* Tradition
* Original sin
* Salvation
* Born again
* Liturgy
* Catholic
* Eastern Catholic
* Eastern Orthodox
* Protestant
* Worship
* Mariology
* Theotokos
* Saints
* Angel
* Ecclesiology
* Four marks
* Body of Christ
* One true church
* People of God
* Canon law
* Sacraments
* Baptism
* Eucharist
* Marriage
* Confirmation
* Penance
* Anointing of the Sick
* Holy orders
* Mission
* Ablution
* Hygiene

Philosophy|

* Natural law
* Ethics
* Science
* Evolution
* Politics
* Views on poverty and wealth

Other
features|

| Culture|

* Architecture
* Architecture of cathedrals and great churches
* Art
* Jesus
* Mary
* Trinity
* God the Father
* Holy Spirit
* Education
* Catechism
* Flag
* Literature
* Music
* Mythology
* Pilgrimage
* Popular piety
* Church buildings
* Cathedrals
* Role in civilization

|

Movements|

* Crusading movement
* Anarchism
* Charismatic
* Democracy
* Environmentalism
* Existentialism
* Fundamentalism
* Liberation
* Left/Right
* Mysticism
* Pacifism
* Prosperity
* Traditionalist Catholicism

Cooperation|

* Christendom
* Ecumenism
* Charta Oecumenica
* World Council of Churches
* World Evangelical Alliance
* Nondenominationalism

Related|

* Anti-Christian sentiment
* Christian universalism
* Criticism
* Cultural Christians
* Persecution
* Relations with other religions
* Unlimited atonement

* Christianity portal
* Category

* v
* t
* e

History of religions

* Timeline of religion
* List of religions and spiritual traditions

Major groups|

| Abrahamic|

* Baháʼí
* Christianity
* Islam
* Judaism
* Rastafari

|

Amerindian|

* Aztec
* Mayan
* Inca

East Asian|

* Confucianism
* Taoism
* Shinto

Indian|

* Buddhism
* Hinduism
* Jainism
* Sikhism

Iranian|

* Mithraism
* Zoroastrianism
* Manichaeanism

Modern|

* Neopaganism
* Wicca
* New Thought
* Kardecist spiritism

Historical|

| Prehistoric|

* Paleolithic

|

Near East|

* Egyptian
* Semitic
* Mesopotamian

Indo-European|

* Baltic
* Celtic
* Germanic
* Greek
* Gnosticism
* Neoplatonism
* Illyro-thracian
* Roman
* Slavic
* Vedic Hinduism

Related topics|

* Evolution of morality
* Evolutionary origin of religions
* Evolutionary psychology of religion
* History of atheism
* History of theology (Greco-Abrahamic)
* Humanism
* Irreligion
* Roman School
* Secularism

* v
* t
* e

History of Europe

Prehistory|

* Paleolithic Europe
* Neolithic Europe
* Bronze Age Europe
* Iron Age Europe

Classical antiquity|

* Classical Greece
* Roman Republic
* Hellenistic period
* Roman Empire
* Early Christianity
* Christianity in late antiquity
* Crisis of the Third Century
* Fall of the Western Roman Empire
* Late antiquity

Middle Ages|

* Early Middle Ages
* Migration Period
* Christianity in the Middle Ages
* Christianization
* Francia
* Anglo-Saxon England
* Byzantine Empire
* Papal States
* Bulgarian Empire
* First
* Second
* Maritime republics
* Venice
* Genoa
* Pisa
* Amalfi
* Viking Age
* Kievan Rus'
* Crown of Aragon (Aragon, Catalonia, Valencia, Majorca)
* Holy Roman Empire
* High Middle Ages
* Republic of Florence
* Feudalism
* Crusades
* Mongol invasion
* Serbian Empire
* Late Middle Ages
* Black Death
* Hundred Years' War
* Kalmar Union

Modern period|

* Renaissance
* Early modern
* Christianity in the modern era
* Reformation
* Age of Discovery
* Baroque
* Grand Duchy of Tuscany
* Thirty Years' War
* Absolute monarchy
* Ottoman Empire
* Portuguese Empire
* Spanish Empire
* Early modern France
* Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth
* Cossack Hetmanate
* Swedish Empire
* Dutch Republic
* British Empire
* Habsburg monarchy
* Russian Empire
* Age of Enlightenment
* Great Divergence
* Industrial Revolution
* French Revolution
* Napoleonic Wars
* Nationalism
* Revolutions of 1848
* World War I
* Russian Revolution
* Interwar period
* World War II
* Cold War
* European integration
* European debt crisis
* COVID-19 pandemic
* Russian invasion of Ukraine

See also|

* Art of Europe
* Bibliography of European history
* Genetic history of Europe
* History of Christianity
* History of the Mediterranean region
* History of the European Union
* History of Western civilization
* Maritime history of Europe
* Military history of Europe
* Crusading movement

Authority control databases: National |

* Germany
* United States
* Czech Republic
* 2
* Spain
* Latvia
* Israel

|

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