History of Christianity

"Christian history" redirects here. For the magazine, see Christian History.

For a chronological guide, see Timeline of Christianity.

Funerary stele of Licinia Amias on marble, in the National Roman Museum. One of the earliest Christian inscriptions found, it comes from the early third-century Vatican necropolis area in Rome. It contains the text ΙΧΘΥϹ ΖΩΝΤΩΝ ('fish of the living'), a predecessor of the Ichthys symbol. Part of a series on

History of religions

Founding figures

* Jesus (Christianity)
* Muhammad (Islam)
* Abraham (Judaism)
* Siddhartha Gautama (Buddhism)
* Guru Nanak (Sikhism)
* Mahavira (Jainism)
* Zoroaster (Zoroastrianism)
* Hamza ibn Ali (Druzism)
* Laozi (Taoism)
* Confucius (Confucianism)
* Baháʼu'lláh (Baháʼí Faith)

Religious studies

* Anthropology
* Comparative religion
* Neurotheology
* God gene
* Origins
* Psychology

Timeline

|  Prehistoric

* Ancient Near East
* Ancient Egypt
* Mesopotamia
* Semitic
* Indo-European
* Historical Vedic religion
* Ancient Greek religion
* Roman
* Celtic
* Germanic

Axial Age

* Vedanta
* Śramaṇa
* Dharma
* Tao
* Hellenism
* Monism
* Dualism
* Monotheism

Middle Ages

* Christianization
* Islamization

Early modern era

* Renaissance
* Reformation

Modern era

* Age of Reason
* New religious movements
* Great Awakening
* Fundamentalism
* New Age
* Postmodernism

Religions

* Abrahamic
* Judaism
* Christianity
* Islam
* Bahá'í Faith
* Indic
* Hinduism
* Buddhism
* Jainism
* Sikhism
* East Asian
* Taoism
* Confucianism
* Shinto
* Neopagan
* Wicca

* v
* t
* e

The history of Christianity begins with the ministry of Jesus, a Jewish teacher and healer, who was crucified and died c. AD 30–33 in Jerusalem in the Roman province of Judea. Afterwards, his followers, a set of apocalyptic Jews, proclaimed him risen from the dead. Christianity began as a Jewish sect and remained so for centuries in some locations, diverging gradually from Judaism over doctrinal, social and historical differences. Despite the persecution of Christians in the Roman Empire, the faith spread as a grassroots movement that by the third century was established both in and outside the empire. New Testament texts were written and church government was loosely organized in its first centuries, though the biblical canon did not become official until 382.

Constantine the Great was the first Roman emperor to declare himself a Christian. In 313, he issued the Edict of Milan expressing tolerance for all religions. He did not make Christianity the state religion, but he did provide it with crucial support. Constantine called the first of seven ecumenical councils. In the fourth century, Eastern and Western Christianity began to diverge. After 476, monks in the West preserved Western culture, spread Christianity across western Europe, and established the Christendom of the High Middle Ages that influenced every aspect of medieval European life.

Between 600 and 750, Christianity was in retreat in the Near and Middle East and North Africa, while constant war turned the Eastern Roman Empire into the Byzantine Empire. By the ninth and into the twelfth centuries, the Eastern church had spread further east along the Silk Road, into Tibet and China, and along all of the main trade routes of Central Asia. Christian societies prospered among the Mongols, in the Nubian kingdoms, Ethiopia, and Caucasian Armenia and Georgia. Between the ninth and twelfth centuries, politicization and Christianization formed the states of East-Central Europe. Byzantine missionaries there developed the Cyrillic script, which allowed the spread of literacy, literature, and culture in the Slavic countries and Russia. During the High Middle Ages, Eastern and Western Christianity had grown far enough apart that differences led to the East–West Schism of 1054, but this did not prevent the request for aid by the Byzantines that led to the Crusades. Temporary reunion of East and West was achieved in 1452; it lasted until Constantinople fell in 1453 and Byzantium became part of the empire of the Ottoman Turks.

During the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, various crises in Europe, coupled with growing criticism of the Catholic Church led to the sixteenth-century Reformation. The Catholic Church responded in the Counter-Reformation. Royal houses took sides precipitating the European wars of religion. This was followed by the Age of Enlightenment and modern political concepts of tolerance. In the eighteenth century, biblical criticism was created and its application challenged many of the traditional views of the Bible. Parts of Christianity influenced the American Revolution, worked for societal reforms, and formed an important part of the ideology of Abolitionism which shut down the Atlantic slave trade. Nineteenth century Protestant missionaries shaped multiple societies through literacy and indigenization.

In the twentieth century, Christianity faced many challenges and conflicts both internal and external. Traditional Christianity declined in the West, while new forms developed. The centre of growth shifted from West to East and from the North to the Global South. In the twenty-first century, it is the world's largest religion with more than two billion Christians worldwide.

## Early Christianity (c. 27 – fourth century)

[edit]

Main article: Early Christianity

### The first century

[edit]

Main article: Christianity in the first century

The sixteenth-century life-size painting Crocifissione di San Domenico by Titian, showing Jesus on the cross with Mary and John at the foot of the cross

Christianity began with the itinerant preaching of Jesus (c. 27–30), a Jewish man, who lived in the Roman province of Judea during the first century.[1][2] Jesus' existence and his crucifixion are well attested.[3][4][5] The religious, social, and political climate in Judea was extremely diverse and characterized by turmoil with numerous religious and political movements.[2][6][7] One such movement, Jewish messianism, promised a messianic redeemer descended from King David who would save Israel.[8][1] Christians saw Jesus of Nazareth as that Messiah.[9][10][11]

Jesus saw his identity and mission, and that of his followers, in light of the present and future kingdom of God and the prophetic tradition of Israel.[12] His followers believed God's spirit was incarnated (embodied) in Jesus and that after his crucifixion, he rose from the dead.[2][13] The Christian church established incarnation and resurrection as its first doctrines,[14] with baptism and the celebration of the Eucharist meal (Jesus's Last Supper) as its two primary rites and rituals.[15][16]

The first Christian communities were predominantly Jewish.[17][18] They gathered in small groups inside private homes, where the typical setting for worship was the communal meal.[19][20] Presbyters or bishops oversaw the economic requirements of the meal, alongside charitable distributions, and any ceremonial role they took was initially connected to this more prosaic role.[21][22][23]

Beginning with fewer than 1000 adherents, Christianity grew to around one hundred small household churches consisting of an average of seventy members each by the year 100.[24] It spread through the dispersed peoples[25][26] along the trade and travel routes followed by merchants, soldiers, and migrating tribes.[27][28][29] In the first century it reached ancient Greece,[30] and probably Alexandria, Egypt where Coptic Christianity developed.[31][32] Paul was one of several apostles who spread Christianity in the first century, making at least three missionary journeys and founding numerous churches in Asia Minor;[17][33][34] Christianity in Antioch is mentioned in his epistles.[35] Paul's missionary journeys spread the Christian faith east into Syria and Mesopotamia where the population spoke Aramaic, not Greek. Aramaic Christians were in Adiabene in northern Iraq by the second century.[11]

The Jews of Alexandria had produced a Greek translation of their Hebrew Bible between the third and first centuries BC which the apostles and early Christians used.[36][37] Unlike Judaism, Christianity has no sacred language.[38] In the early centuries, the languages most used to spread Christianity were Latin, Greek and Syriac.[39] Christian writings in Koine Greek, including the four gospels (the accounts of Jesus's ministry), letters of Paul, and letters attributed to other early Christian leaders, were written in the first century and had considerable authority even in the formative period.[40][41] The letters of the Apostle Paul sent to the early Christian communities were circulating in collected form by the end of the first century.[42] First century Christians put these writings in a codex, the ancestor of modern books, and the Egyptian church likely invented the papyrus codex during the next decades.[43]

At the Council of Jerusalem, (c. 49), the Jerusalem church gathered to determine if the increasing numbers of non-Jews needed to follow Jewish law.[44] The council decided to allow Gentile Christians their form of Christianity and Jews theirs.[45] The departure of Christians before the destruction of Jerusalem by the Romans in 70, alongside the development of what would become Rabbinic Judaism, disagreements about Jewish law, and insurrections against Rome, contributed to Jewish Christianity and Gentile Christianity growing apart.[46][47] Nevertheless, Jewish Christianity remained influential in Palestine, Syria, and Asia Minor into the second and third centuries.[48][49]

### Ante-Nicene period (100–312)

[edit]

Main article: Christianity in the ante-Nicene period

Christianity achieved critical mass in the years between 150 and 250, when it grew from fewer than 50,000 adherents to over a million.[28][29] By the third century, it had spread into North Africa and across the Mediterranean region, from Greece and Anatolia into the Balkans in the East and as far as Roman Britain in the northwest.[50][51] A more formal Church structure grew over the second and third centuries AD, but at different times in different locations. Bishops rose in power and influence, beginning to preside over larger areas with multiple churches.[52][53][54]

Early Christianity was open to everyone.[55][56] Baptism was free, and there were no fees, which made Christianity more affordable than traditional Roman models.[57][58] The religion's inclusivity extended to women, who made up significant numbers of Christianity's earliest members.[59] Women could attain greater freedom through religious activities than Roman customs otherwise permitted.[60][61] Women in the church were prominent in church rolls,[62][63] the Pauline epistles,[64][65] and in early Christian art,[66] while much early anti-Christian criticism was linked to "female initiative" indicating their role in the movement.[60][67][68]

Ross Kraemer theorizes that the ascetic life was attractive to large numbers of women because it granted them some control over their destinies,[69][70] offered an escape from marriage and motherhood, and an intellectual life with access to social and economic power.[71][72][69] For centuries, monastic ascetism which originated in Syria impacted the development of Christianity.[73][74]

A folio from Papyrus 46, an early third-century collection of Pauline epistles

A key characteristic of early Christianity was its unique type of exclusivity.[75] Believing was the crucial and defining characteristic of membership – believers were separated from the "unbelievers" and heretics by a strong social and theological boundary.[76][77][78] This exclusivity gave Christianity the powerful psychological attraction of elitism.[79]

The four gospels and the letters of Paul were generally regarded as authoritative, but other writings, such as the Book of Revelation and the epistles to the Hebrews, James, and I John, were assigned different degrees of authority.[80][81][82] Gnostic texts challenged the physical nature of Jesus, Montanism suggested that the apostles could be superseded, and Monarchianism emphasized the unity of God over the Trinity.[83] In the face of such diversity, unity was provided by the shared scriptures and the bishops.[84][85] In the early church, canon law did not yet exist.[86]

One of the oldest representations of Jesus as the Good Shepherd from the catacombs of Rome, made c. 300

The Ante-Nicene period included sporadic but increasing persecution from Roman authorities, and the rise of Christian sects, cults, and movements.[87] In the 250s, the emperors Decius and Valerian made it a capital offence to refuse to make sacrifices to Roman gods, resulting in widespread persecution of Christians. Official persecution reached its height under Diocletian in 303–311.[88][89][90] Authorities in the Sasanian Empire also periodically persecuted Christians.[91][92]

There are few early records of early Christian art. The oldest forms emerged in funerary environments c. 200.[93][94][95] It typically fused Graeco-Roman style and Christian symbolism: the most common image was Jesus as the good shepherd.[96][97]

## Late antiquity (313 – c. 600)

[edit]

Main article: Christianity in late antiquity

See also: Late Antiquity § Sculpture and art, and Church Fathers

Late Antiquity was an age of change as Christianity became a permitted religion, then a favored one, and transformed in every capacity.[98] In 313, the emperor Constantine, a self-declared Christian, issued the Edict of Milan expressing tolerance for all religions.[99] Thereafter, he supported Christianity, giving bishops judicial power, and legally establishing them as equal to polytheistic priests.[100] He devoted personal and public funds to building churches and endowed them with funds for maintenance and support of their clergy.[101]

There were churches in the majority of Roman cities by the end of the fourth century.[102] Even so, polytheism remained widespread for centuries, as late as the ninth century in Greece.[103][104][note 1] There was no legislation forcing the conversion of pagans before the Eastern Emperor Justinian I (r. 527–565);[108][109][110] religious violence in Late Antiquity was "mostly restricted to violent rhetoric" and was not otherwise a general phenomenon.[111][112][113][114] However, there were hostile imperial laws aimed at suppressing sacrifice and magic that contributed to one of the most significant changes of this age; blood sacrifice had been a central rite of virtually all religious groups in the pre-Christian Mediterranean, but it disappeared by the end of the fourth century.[115][116]

Virgin and Child. Wall painting from the early Roman catacombs, fourth century

Christian art, literature and architecture blossomed under Constantine.[117][118] The basilica, a type of Roman municipal court hall, became the model for Christian architecture.[119] Frescoes, mosaics, statues, and paintings blended classical and Christian styles.[120] Similarly, a hybrid form of poetry written in classical styles with Christian concepts emerged.[121][122][123]

In the late fourth century, Jerome was commissioned to translate the Greek biblical texts into the Latin language; this translation was called the Vulgate.[124] Church fathers of this period, such as Augustine of Hippo, John Chrysostom, Gregory of Nyssa, Athanasius of Alexandria, Basil of Caesarea, Gregory of Nazianzus, Cyril of Alexandria, and Ambrose of Milan, wrote vast numbers of works, contributing to a golden age of writing.[125]

Constantine and his successors attempted to fit the Church into their political program.[126] Church leaders responded by articulating the first limitations on a secular ruler's authority, arguing that religious authority must be separate from State authority.[127] For most of Late Antiquity, the popes - the successors to Saint Peter as bishop of Rome - had limited influence, and did not yet have the power needed to break free of secular interference in church affairs. However, papal power began to rise in this age as eastern patriarchs increasingly looked to the Roman Pope to resolve disagreements.[128][129][130]

In the fourth century, Augustine of Hippo argued that Jews should not be killed or forcibly converted, instead, they should be left alone because they preserved the teachings of the Old Testament and were "living witnesses" of the New Testament.[131] Most Jews and Christians, (with the exception of the Visigoths in Spain), lived peacefully alongside each other into the High Middle Ages.[132][133] The theology of supersessionism emerged claiming Christians had displaced the Jews as God's chosen people;[134] many scholars attribute antisemitism to this concept while others distinguish between them.[135][136]

Monks were vitally important to the development of Christianity.[137] Monastic communities were associated with the urban holy places in Palestine (which became a center of pilgrimage), Cappadocia, Italy, Gaul, and Roman North Africa.[138] In the 370s, Basil the Great founded the Basileias, a monastic community in Caesarea (Mazaca) that developed the first health care system for the poor which became the model of public hospitals into the modern day.[139]

After 476 and the breakup of the Western Roman Empire, there was no center of political power in the European West. The ensuing socio-political fragmentation left the church with responsibility for the folk.[140][141] Thereafter, western Europe developed in a manner distinctively different from the remaining empire in the East. For the next five centuries, Western culture and civilization were preserved and passed on primarily by monks while the Eastern Roman Empire continued to be a Roman Empire with an emperor, a civil government, and a large army.[142][143][144][145]

The religious policies of the Eastern Roman Emperor Justinian I (r. 527–565) reflected his conviction that the unity of the Empire presupposed unity of faith: he persecuted pagans and religious minorities and purged government and church bureaucracies of those who disagreed with him.[146][145] He contributed to cultural development,[147] and integrated Christian concepts with Roman law in his Corpus Juris Civilis which remains the basis of civil law in many modern states.[86][148] In Gaul, the Frankish king Clovis I converted to Catholicism; his kingdom became the dominant polity in the West in 507, gradually converting into a Christian kingdom over the next centuries.[142][143]

Papal influence rose as competition within the church increasingly led people to Rome to resolve disagreements.[149][150] Gregory the Great (590-604) gained prestige and power for the papacy by leading the response to invasion by the Lombards in 592 and 593, reforming the clergy, standardizing music in worship, sending out missionaries and founding new monasteries.[151][152]

### Geographical spread

[edit]

Further information: Christianisation of Anglo-Saxon England, Christianity in Ireland, and Christianisation of Scotland

Christianity continued to grow rapidly, both westwards and eastwards.[153][154] In the fourth century the percentage of Christians was as high in the Sasanian Empire as in the Roman Empire.[155] Even as the Huns, Ostrogoths, Visigoths, and Vandals caused havoc in the Roman Empire in the fourth and fifth centuries, many converted to Christianity.[156][157][158][159] The gospel was first brought to Central Asia and China by Syriac-speaking missionaries.[11] Christian institutions in Asia or East Africa never developed the intellectual or sociopolitical power that the European churches and Byzantium did.[160]

Armenia became the first state to adopt Christianity as its religion in 301. It was followed by others in the Caucasus, such as Albania, and Ethiopia and Eritrea in Africa.[161][162][163] Christianity, a minority faith in Britain since the second century,[164] began to be displaced by Anglo-Saxon paganism in the fifth century;[165] this process began reversing after the Gregorian mission of 597.[166] Missionaries also began to convert the Irish in the early fifth century.[167]

### Heresies, schisms and councils

[edit]

Icon depicting the Emperor Constantine (centre) and the bishops of the First Council of Nicaea (325) holding the Niceno–Constantinopolitan Creed of 381

Regional Christianities produced diverse and sometimes competing churches.[168] Ancient Christian authors identified any practice or doctrine which differed from apostolic tradition as heresy.[169][78][170] The number of laws directed at heresy indicate it was a much higher priority than paganism for Christians of this period.[171][172][note 2] For decades, Arianism embroiled the entire church, lay and clergy alike, in arguing whether Jesus' divinity was equal to the Father's.[18][176][177] The First Council of Nicaea in 325 attempted to resolve the controversy with the Nicene Creed.[178][179]

Christian scriptures were formalized as the New Testament and distinguished from the the Old Testament by the fourth century.[180][181] Despite agreement on these texts, differences between East and West were becoming evident.[182][183] Latin was the primary language of the church in the West and while the East did use Latin to a small degree, it used Greek, Syriac, and other languages more.[184][185][186] The West condemned Roman culture as sinful and resisted state control, whereas the East harmonized with Greek culture and aimed for unanimity between church and state.[187][188][189] There were also tensions surrounding the marriage of clerics which continued in the East but was forbidden in the West.[190][191] The East advocated sharing the government of the church between five church leaders, arguing that the Patriarchs of Constantinople, Alexandria, Antioch, and Jerusalem were equal to the Pope. Rome asserted papal primacy.[149][192]

Controversies over how Jesus' human and divine natures coexisted came to a head when Nestorius declared Mary as the mother of Jesus' humanity, not his divinity, thereby giving Jesus two distinct natures. This led to a series of ecumenical councils: the Council of Ephesus was the church's third council, and it condemned Nestorius. Held in 431, the church in the Persian Empire refused to recognize its authority. In 451 the fourth council was the influential Council of Chalcedon; the Fifth was in 583, and the Sixth in 680–681.[193] While most of Christianity accepted the Chalcedonian Definition which emphasizes that the Son is a single person, the church in Persia rejected it and embraced Nestorianism instead.[194][195][196] This led to the first separation between East and West in 482 when Oriental Orthodoxy formed in two general groups of Persians and Syrians. One group became the Church of the East (also known as the Assyrian, Nestorian, or Persian Church), while the majority of Christians in Syria and Mesopotamia became Syrian Orthodox (Jacobite).[197][note 3] This cut off the flourishing school of Semitic Christian theologians and writers of Syria from the rest of Christendom.[200] The Church of the East became the principal Church in Asia in the Middle Ages.[201]

## Early Middle Ages (c. 600–1000)

[edit]

Further information: Early Middle Ages

See also: Christian monasticism, Byzantine Iconoclasm, Illuminated manuscript, and Insular art

By the early 600s, Christianity had spread around the Mediterranean.[202] However, between 632 and 750, the Islamic caliphates conquered the Middle East and North Africa.[203][204] Muslim rule devastated Asian churches in the cities, but between the fifth and the eighth centuries Christianity had also been adopted in remote areas [note 4] better enabling their survival.[206][207] In the same period, war on multiple fronts turned the Eastern Roman Empire into the Byzantine Empire.[208] Germanic Europe remained largely impoverished, politically fragmented and dependent on the church.[142][143]

The Early Middle Ages was the formative period of Western "Christendom" which emerged at the end of this age.[209][210] In and around this largely Christian world, barbarian invasion, deportation, and neglect produced large "unchurched" populations for whom Christianity was one religion among many that could be fused with aspects of local paganism.[211][212] The church of this age was only indirectly influenced by the Bible.[213]

### Monasticism and art

[edit]

Until the end of the Early Middle Ages, Western culture was preserved and passed on primarily by monks known as "regular clergy" because they followed a regula: a rule.[144][130] The rule included chastity, obedience and poverty sought through prayer, memorization of scripture, celibacy, fasting, manual labour, and almsgiving.[214][215]

A page from the Book of Hours (Use of Metz) with a decorated Initial

Monasteries served as orphanages and inns for travelers, and provided food for those in need.[216][217][218] They supported literacy, practiced classical arts and crafts, and copied and preserved ancient texts in their scriptoria and libraries.[219][220] Dedicated monks created illuminated manuscripts.[221] From the sixth to the eighth centuries, most schools were connected to monasteries, but methods of teaching an illiterate populace could also include mystery plays, vernacular sermons, saints' lives in epic form, and artwork.[210][222][223]

The early Middle Ages was an age of uncertainty, and the role of relics and "holy men" able to provide "special access" to the divine became increasingly important.[224][225] Donations for the dead to receive prayers (with that special access) provided an ongoing source of wealth.[226][227] Monasteries became increasingly organized, gradually establishing their own authority as separate from political and familial authorities, thereby revolutionizing social history.[228][229] Medical practice was highly important, and medieval monasteries were best known for their public hospitals, hospices and their contributions to medicine.[230][231] The sixth-century Rule of Saint Benedict has had extensive influence.[232][233][234]

The East developed an approach to sacred art unknown in the West, adapting ancient portraiture in icons as intercessors between God and humankind.[235] In the 720s, the Byzantine Emperor Leo banned the pictorial representation of Christ, saints, and biblical scenes, and destroyed much early representational art. The West condemned Leo's iconoclasm.[236] By the tenth and early eleventh centuries, Byzantine culture began to recover its artistic heritage.[237][238]

### Regional differences

[edit]

St. Cyril and St. Methodius monument on Mt. Radhošť

Eastern Europeans had been exposed to Christianity during Roman rule, but it was the Byzantine Christianity brought by the ninth-century saints Cyril and Methodius that was influential in state development there.[239][240] They developed the Glagolitic alphabet to translate the Bible into local languages; as the ancestor of the Cyrillic script, this became the culturo-religious foundation for all Slavic nations.[241][242][243]

In Western Europe, canon law was instrumental in developing key norms concerning oaths of loyalty, homage and fidelity.[244] These norms were incorporated into civil law, where traces of them remain today.[245] Within the tenets of feudalism, the church created a new model of consecrated kingship unknown to the East, and in 800, Clovis' descendant Charlemagne became its recipient when Pope Leo III crowned him emperor.[246] Charlemagne engaged in a number of reforms which began the Carolingian Renaissance, a period of intellectual and cultural revival.[247]

The Baptism of Kievans, by Klavdiy Lebedev

The baptism of Vladimir of Kiev in 989 is traditionally associated with the conversion of the Kievan Rus'.[248] Their new religious structure included dukes maintaining control of a financially-dependent church.[249][250][note 5] Monasticism was the dominant form of piety for both peasants and elites who identified themselves as Christian while retaining many pre-Christian practices.[252]

The first traces of the "Papal States" appear at the end of the seventh century.[253] In the ninth and tenth centuries, Charlemagne and Otto the Great conceded to the popes the southeastern part of the Po Valley and a large part of central Italy.[253] In the early tenth century, the papacy was still in need of aid and protection from a secular ruler. In Rome, the papacy came under the control of the city's aristocracy.[253][254]

Viking raids in the ninth and tenth centuries destroyed many churches and monasteries, inadvertently leading to reform. Patrons competed with each other in rebuilding so that "by the mid-eleventh century, a wealthy, unified, better-organized, better-educated, more spiritually sensitive Latin Church" resulted.[255] There was another rise in papal power in the tenth century when William IX, Duke of Aquitaine, and other powerful lay founders of monasteries, placed their institutions under the protection of the papacy.[256][257][258]

A remarkable expansion of Christianity took place along the Silk Road into Tibet and China; the end of this age saw Christian communities along all the main trade routes of Asia, among the Turks of Inner Mongolia, and the Mongol people from north-western China.[259]

## High Middle Ages (c. 1000–1300)

[edit]

Further information: High Middle Ages

Membership in the Christendom of this age began with baptism at birth.[260][261][262] Every follower was supposed to have some knowledge of the Apostles' Creed and the Lord's Prayer, to rest on Sunday and feast days, attend mass, fast at specified times, take communion at Easter, pay various fees for the needy, and receive last rites at death.[263][264] The medieval papacy gained authority in every domain of European life as it gradually came to resemble the monarchies of its day.[265][266] Canon law became a huge, highly complex, system of laws that omitted Christianity's earlier principles of inclusivity.[267][268][269]

The High Middle Ages saw the formation of several fundamental Christian doctrines, such as the seven sacraments, the just reward for labour, "the terms of Christian marriage, the nature of clerical celibacy and the appropriate lifestyle for priests". Heresy was defined with new precision.[270] Purgatory became an official doctrine. In 1215, confession became required for all.[271][272] The rosary was created after veneration of Mary, mother of Jesus became a central aspect of the period.[273]

### Monks, reform, and renaissance

[edit]

Périgueux – Cathédrale Saint-Front 1047 – Romanesque architecture  Wells Cathedral, Lady Chapel, Somerset, UK – Gothic architecture

Certain monasteries adopted a Cluniac model of self-reform.[274] They used Romanesque architecture to convey a sense of awe and wonder and inspire obedience.[275][note 6] Their cultural and religious dominance began to decline in the mid-eleventh century when secular clergy, who were not members of religious orders, rose in influence.[277] Monastery schools lost influence as cathedral schools spread,[278] independent schools arose,[279] and universities formed as self-governing corporations chartered by popes and kings.[280][281] Canon and civil law became professionalized, and a new literate elite formed, further displacing monks.[267][282] Throughout this period, the clergy and the laity became "more literate, more worldly, and more self-assertive".[283][note 7]

Byzantine art exerted a powerful influence on Western art in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries.[288] Gothic architecture, intended to inspire contemplation of the divine, began in the same centuries.[289][290] The twelfth century saw a change in the ideal of a monk, from one of contemplative devotion to one of active reform.[291][292] Among these novel charismatic preachers was Saint Dominic, who founded the Dominican Order.[293][261] The Cistercian movement was a wave of monastic reform after 1098; the Cistercians later became instrumental in technological advancement in medieval Europe.[294][295][296]

Studying astronomy and geometry. Early fifteenth-century painting, France.

Between 1150 and 1200, monks gathered the works of Aristotle, Euclid and other ancient writers from the libraries of formerly Muslim locations in Sicily and Spain.[297] The rediscovery of the complete works of Aristotle led to the Renaissance of the twelfth century. It also created conflict between faith and reason, resolved by a revolution in thought called scholasticism.[298][299] The scholastic writings of Thomas Aquinas provided the foundation for much modern theology, philosophy and law.[300][301][302] The renaissance revived the scientific study of natural phenomena which led to the scientific revolution in the West.[303][304][305] There was no parallel renaissance in the East.[235]

### Centralization

[edit]

The Gregorian Reform under Pope Gregory VII (1073–1085) began "a new period in church history".[149][306] Previously, the power of kings and emperors had been at least partly founded on connection to the sacred.[307][267] Gregorian Reform intended to divest Western rulership of its sacramental character, and to establish the preeminence of the church by freeing it from state control.[308] This shift reinforced the popes' temporal power, enabling a reorganization of the administration of the Papal States which brought a substantial increase in wealth. This enabled popes to become patrons in their own right,[309][310][311] consolidated territory, centralized authority, and established a bureaucracy.[312][313][267]

State administrations were also centralizing, and competition between church and state, who claimed legal and tax jurisdiction over the same populace, created conflicts.[286][314] A major example was the Investiture Controversy in the Holy Roman Empire, a conflict between the Holy Roman Emperor Henry IV and Pope Gregory VII over the secular appointment of bishops and abbots and control of their revenues.[315][316][317][318] For the church, ending lay investiture would support independence from the state, encourage reform, and provide better pastoral care. For the kings, who could better control the powers and revenues of appointed bishops than those of hereditary noblemen, ending lay investiture meant the power of the Holy Roman Emperor and the European nobility would be reduced.[319][186][320][321]

The Dictatus Papae of 1075 declared the pope alone could invest bishops.[322] Disobedience to the Pope became equated with heresy:[323] when Henry IV rejected the decree, he was excommunicated, which contributed to a civil war.[324][325][326] A similar controversy occurred in England.[327]

### Schism, crusade, spread, and retraction

[edit]

Primary routes to Jerusalem undertaken during the First Crusade

By 1054, Western Catholicism and Byzantine Eastern Orthodoxy had schismatized. Along with geographical separation, there had long been many cultural differences, geopolitical disagreements, and a lack of respect between the two sides.[328][329] Nevertheless, the Byzantine emperor Alexios I Komnenos still asked Pope Urban II for help with the Seljuk Turks in 1081,[330] and Urban appealed in 1095 to European Christians to "go to the aid of their brethren in the Holy Land".[331][332][333]

Urban's message had great popular appeal and resulted in the First Crusade. Drawing on powerful and prevalent aspects of folk religion, crusading connected pilgrimage, charity, and remission of sin with a willingness to fight.[334][335] It gave ordinary Christians a tangible means of expressing brotherhood with the East and carried a sense of historical responsibility.[336] The Crusades contributed to the development of national identities in European nations and increased division with the East.[337] The evolving cult of chivalry of the Christian knight became a social and cultural influence before its decline during the 1400s.[338][339] One significant effect of the Crusades was the invention of the indulgence.[340]

By the end of the eleventh century, Christianity was disappearing in Mesopotamia and inner Iran, although some Christian communities continued to exist further to the east.[341] Churches in Egypt, Syria, and Iraq became subject to fervently Islamic militaristic regimes.[342] Christians were designated as dhimma, a status that guaranteed their protection but enforced their legal inferiority.[207] Different communities adopted various survival strategies: some withdrew from interaction, others converted to Islam, and others sought outside help.[342]

The Christianization of Scandinavia occurred in two stages: first, in the ninth century, missionaries operated without secular support; then a secular ruler would begin to oversee Christianization in their territory until an organized ecclesiastical network was established.[343] By 1350, Scandinavia was an integral part of Western Christendom.[344]

### Challenges and repression

[edit]

Moral misbehaviour and heresy committed by the laity and clergy were prosecuted in inquisitorial courts, composed of both church and civil authorities, and were established only when needed.[345][346][347] Though these courts had neither actual joint leadership nor joint organization, the Dominican Order held the primary responsibility for conducting inquisitions.[348][349][350] The Medieval Inquisition brought between 8,000 and 40,000 people to interrogation and sentencing; death sentences were relatively rare.[351] The penalty imposed most often was an act of penance which might include public confession.[352] Bishops were the lead inquisitors, but they did not possess absolute power, nor were they universally supported.[269][353] Inquisition became stridently contested as public opposition grew and riots against the Dominicans occurred.[354][355][356] The Fourth Lateran Council of 1215 empowered inquisitors to search out moral and religious "crimes" even when there was no accuser. In theory, this granted them extraordinary powers. In practice, without sufficient local secular support, their task became so overwhelmingly difficult that inquisitors were endangered and some were murdered.[357]

A turning point in Jewish-Christian relations occurred when the Talmud was put "on trial" in 1239 by Pope Gregory IX because of contents that mocked the central figures of Christianity.[358] Talmudic Judaism came to be seen as so different from biblical Judaism that old Augustinian obligations to leave the Jews alone no longer applied.[359][358][360] A rhetoric with elaborate stories casting Jews as enemies accused of ritual murder, the blood libel, and desecration of the Christian eucharist host grew among ordinary folk. The spread of the Black Death led to attacks on Jewish communities throughout the Holy Roman Empire by people who blamed them for the epidemic.[361][362][363] Jews often acted as financial agents for the nobility, providing them loans with interest while being exempt from certain financial obligations. This attracted jealousy and resentment.[364] Count Emicho of Leiningen massacred Jews in search of supplies and protection money, while the York massacre of 1190 also appears to have originated in a conspiracy by local leaders to liquidate their debts.[365]

Baltic tribes c. 1200

A military campaign conducted by papal and French forces to eliminate the Catharism heresy began in 1209, and continued until 1229, while Catharism itself lasted until 1350.[366][367][368] The nobility of Eastern Europe prioritized subduing the Balts, the last major polytheistic population in Europe, over crusading in the Holy Land.[369][note 8] In 1147, the Divina dispensatione gave these nobles indulgences for the first of the Northern Crusades, which intermittently continued until 1316.[371][372][373] The clergy pragmatically accepted the forced conversions the nobles perpetrated despite continued theological emphasis on voluntary conversion.[374]

## Renaissance and Reformation (c. 1300–1650)

[edit]

Further information: Renaissance

### Division in the West

[edit]

St. Peter's Basilica in Rome, the Holy See of the Catholic Church

The many calamities of the "long fourteenth century" – plague, famine, wars, and social unrest - led ordinary European people to believe the end of the world was imminent.[375][376][377] This belief ran throughout society and became intertwined with anticlerical and anti-papal sentiments.[378][261][note 9] Criticism of the church became an integral part of late medieval European life, and was expressed in writings alongside movements towards heresy or internal reform;[380][381] most attempts at reform between 1300 and 1500 failed.[382][383]

In 1309, Pope Clement V fled Rome's factional politics by moving to Avignon in southern France. This Avignon Papacy, consisting of seven successive popes, unintentionally diminished papal prestige and power.[384][385] Pope Gregory XI returned to Rome in 1377.[386][387][376] After Gregory's death the following year, the papal conclave elected Urban VI to succeed him, but the French cardinals disapproved and elected Robert of Geneva instead. This began the Western Schism, during which there was more than one pope.[388] In 1409, the Council of Pisa's attempted resolution resulted in the election of a third separate pope. The schism was finally resolved in 1417, with the election of Pope Martin V.[389][390]

Throughout the Late Middle Ages, the church faced powerful challenges and vigorous political confrontations.[391][392] The English scholastic philosopher John Wycliffe (1320–1384) urged the Church to again embrace simplicity by giving up its property and wealth, to stop being subservient to secular politics, and to deny papal authority.[393][394] Wycliffe's teachings were condemned as heresy, but he was allowed to live out the last two years of his life in his home parish.[395] Wycliffe's teachings influenced the Czech theologian Jan Hus (1369–1415) who also spoke out against what he saw as corruption in the church.[396] Hus was convicted of heresy and burned at the stake.[397] This was the impetus for the Bohemian Reformation and led to the Hussite Wars.[398][399][400] Meanwhile, a vernacular religious culture called the Devotio Moderna attempted to work toward a pious society of ordinary people.[401]

### The East and Renaissance

[edit]

A proposed reunion agreement between the Orthodox and Catholic churches was negated by the Fall of Constantinople to the Muslim Ottoman Empire in 1453, which sealed off Orthodoxy from the West for more than a century.[402][403][404] Islamic law did not acknowledge the Byzantine church as an institution, but a concern for societal stability allowed it to survive. The imposition by the state of financial handicaps on Christians impoverished them and conversion became an attractive solution.[405][406] By the time of Suleiman the Magnificent (1520–1566), the patriarchate had become a part of the Ottoman system, and it continued to influence the Orthodox world.[407][406] Ivan III of Russia adopted the style of the Byzantine imperial court to gain support among the Rus' elite.[408] Jeremias II (1536–1595), the first Orthodox patriarch to visit north-eastern Europe, founded the Orthodox Patriarchate of Russia during his journey.[409][406]

Michelangelo's Pietà (1498–1499) in St. Peter's Basilica, Vatican City

The flight of Eastern Christians from Constantinople, and the manuscripts they carried with them, were important factors in stimulating literary renaissance in the West.[410][198] The Dutch scholar Erasmus (1466–1536) taught a simplified faith accessible to any Christian.[411] Although fifteenth-century popes struggled to reestablish papal authority, the Renaissance Papacy transformed Rome by rebuilding St. Peter's Basilica and establishing the city as a prestigious centre of learning.[412] The church became a leading patron of art and architecture, commissioning many works and supporting renowned artists such as Michelangelo, Brunelleschi, Bramante, Raphael, Fra Angelico, Donatello, and Leonardo da Vinci.[413][414]

### Inquisitions and discrimination

[edit]

See also: Witch trials in the early modern period

Women in the Middle Ages were considered incapable of moral judgment and authority.[415][note 10] However, there were women who became distinguished leaders of nunneries, exercising the same powers and privileges as their male counterparts, such as Hildegard of Bingen (d. 1179), Elisabeth of Schönau (d. 1164/65), and Marie d'Oignies (d. 1213).[417][418] Although the Catholic Church had long ruled that witches did not exist, the conviction that witches were both real and malevolent developed throughout fifteenth-century European society.[419][420] No single cause of "witch frenzy" is known, although the Little Ice Age is thought to have been a factor.[421] Approximately 100,000 people, of whom 80% were women, were prosecuted between 1561 and 1670, and 40,000 to 50,000 were executed.[422][420]

Expulsions of Jews from Europe between 1100 and 1600

While the medieval church never officially repudiated Augustine's doctrine of protecting the Jews, defining them as heretical outsiders became increasingly common throughout society during the fifteenth century.[423] Local rulers repeatedly evicted Jews from their lands and confiscated Jewish property.[424][425][426]

Between 1478 and 1542, the Spanish, Portuguese, and Roman inquisitions were created with a much broader reach than previous inquisitions.[427][428][429] Authorized by Pope Sixtus IV in 1478, the Spanish Inquisition was established to combat fears that Jewish converts were conspiring with Muslims to sabotage the new state.[430][431] The Portuguese Inquisition incorporated anti-Judaism before the end of the fifteenth century and forced conversion led many Jewish converts to Portuguese colonies in India, where they suffered as targets of the Goa Inquisition.[432] The bureaucratic and intellectual Roman Inquisition, best known for its condemnation of Galileo, served the papacy's political aims in Italy.[433]

### Reformation

[edit]

In 1517, Martin Luther initiated the Reformation with his Ninety-five Theses.

The Protestant Reformation is traditionally said to have begun when the Catholic monk Martin Luther nailed his Ninety-five Theses to the church door in Wittenberg in 1517. Luther's theses challenged the church's selling of indulgences, the authority of the Pope, and other church teachings.[434] The three primary religious traditions to emerge from the Reformation were the Lutheran, the Reformed, and the Anglican traditions. At the same time, a collection of loosely related groups including Anabaptists, Spiritualists, and Evangelical Rationalists, began the Radical Reformation in Germany and Switzerland.[435]

Edicts of the Diet of Worms condemned Luther.[436][437] The Roman Catholic Church responded to his challenge in the Counter-Reformation, spearheaded by ten reforming popes between 1534 to 1605. The Council of Trent (1545–1563) denied each Protestant claim, and laid the foundation of modern Catholic policies. New monastic orders were formed, including the Society of Jesus – the "Jesuits" – who adopted military-style discipline and strict loyalty to the Pope and who have been described as having been founded to oppose Protestantism.[438][439][note 11]

Quarreling royal houses, already involved in dynastic disagreements, became polarized into the two religious camps.[442] In 1562, France became the centre of a series of wars, of which the largest and most destructive was the Thirty Years' War (1618–1648).[443][444] While some scholars argue that these wars were varieties of the just war tradition for liberty and freedom,[445] most historians argue that the wars were more about nationalistic state-building and economics, and less about religion.[446][447][444]

## Modern period (1650–1945)

[edit]

### Ideological movements

[edit]

The era of politically absolutist states followed the breakdown of Christian universalism in Europe.[448] Abuses from absolutist Catholic kings gave rise to a virulent critique of Christianity that first emerged among the more extreme Protestant reformers in the 1680s as an aspect of the Age of Enlightenment.[449][450] By the 1690s, many secular thinkers had rethought the state's reasons for persecution and begun advocating for religious toleration,[451][452] as Protestants and other Christian moderates had long argued.[453][454] Secularisation spread at every level of European society.[455] Concepts of freedom of religion, speech, and thought became established in the West.[456][457][458]

The rise of Protestantism contributed to human capital formation,[459] the development of a new work ethic,[460] economic growth,[461] the European state system,[462] and the development of modern capitalism in Northern Europe.[463] However, urbanization and industrialisation created a plethora of new social problems.[464][465] In Europe and North America, both Protestants and Catholics provided massive aid to the poor, supporting family welfare, and providing medicine and education.[466]

Pioneered by Protestants, Biblical criticism advocated historicism and rationalism to make study of the Bible more scholarly and secular in the 1700s.[467][468][469] In reaction to rationalism, Pietism began in Europe, spread to the Thirteen Colonies, and contributed to the First Great Awakening of the 1700s.[470][471][472] Beginning among the Presbyterians, this revival gave birth to American Evangelicalism and Wesleyan Methodism.[473] Divisions over the movement turned political and led to support for the American Revolution.[474][475] In 1791, the new United States became the first Christian nation to mandate a separation of church and state; theological pluralism became the norm.[476][477]

The French Revolution led to a 1794 attempt by radical revolutionaries to violently de-Christianize France.[478] As a result, the Eastern Orthodox church rejected Enlightenment ideas as too dangerous to embrace.[406]

### Colonialism and missions

[edit]

Main article: Christianity and colonialism

See also: Christianity in China, Christianity in Korea, and Christianity in Vietnam

Economic and political colonialism also opened the door for Christianity in new regions.[479][480][481] While Christian missionaries and colonial empires had separate agendas that were often in direct opposition, Catholic Christianity gained followers worldwide through missionaries from the Spanish, Portuguese, and French empires between 1500 and 1800.[480][482] Many missionaries worked alongside colonial governments, while many others challenged colonial oppression.[483][484] Sixteenth-century missions to China were undertaken primarily by the Jesuits.[485] The sixteenth-century success of Christianity in Japan was followed by one of the greatest persecutions in Christian history.[485][486]

### Nineteenth and twentieth centuries

[edit]

American anti-slavery tract, 1853

In the United States, the Second Great Awakening (1800s–1830s) - which produced the Latter Day Saint movement, the Restoration Movement and the Holiness movement - extolled moral reform,[487] focusing on women's rights, temperance, literacy and the abolition of slavery.[488] The 300-year-old trans-Atlantic slave trade, in which some Christians had participated, had always garnered moral objections: by the eighteenth century, individual Quakers, Methodists, Presbyterians and Baptists began a written campaign against it.[489] Congregations led by black preachers kept abolitionism alive into the early nineteenth century when some American Protestants organized the first anti-slavery societies.[490] This ideological opposition eventually ended the Trans-Atlantic slave trade, changing economic and human history on three continents.[491][492]

The Third Great Awakening began in 1857 and took root throughout the world, especially in English-speaking countries.[487] Restorationists were prevalent in America, giving rise to the Stone-Campbell Restoration Movement, Adventism, and the Jehovah's Witnesses.[493][494]

Protestant missionaries, many of them women, played a significant role in shaping nations and societies.[495][496][497][466] Missionaries translated the Bible into local languages, generating in the process a written grammar, a lexicon of native traditions, and a dictionary of the local language.[498] These were used to teach in missionary schools, resulting in the spread of literacy and indigenization.[499][500][501] According to historian Lamin Sanneh, Protestant missionaries thus stimulated the "largest, most diverse and most vigorous movement of cultural renewal" in African history.[502][484][503]

Liberal Christians embraced seventeenth-century rationalism, but its disregard of faith and ritual in maintaining Christianity, led to its decline and the birth of Fundamentalist Christianity,[504] which arose in the late 1800s and early 1900s as a reaction against modern rationalism.[505] The Roman Catholic Church became increasingly centralized, conservative, and focused on loyalty to the Pope.[469] By 1930, Protestant fundamentalism appeared to be dying.[506][507] However, in the second half of the 1930s, Evangelicalism, which included a theology against liberalism based on a reevaluation of Reformation teachings, began uniting moderates of both sides.[508][509]

In the early twentieth century, authoritarian European governments tended to establish state-supported churches. Such consanguinity would implicate the church in abuses of power.[510] Nevertheless, Pope Pius XI declared that fascist governments had hidden "pagan intentions" and expressed the irreconcilability of the Catholic position with totalitarian fascist states which placed the nation above God.[511] Most leaders and members of the largest Protestant church in Germany, the German Evangelical Church, supported the Nazi Party when they came to power in 1933.[512] About a third of German Protestants formed the Confessing Church which opposed Nazism; its members were harassed, arrested, and otherwise targeted. In Poland, Catholic priests were arrested and Polish priests and nuns were executed en masse.[513]

### Russian Orthodoxy

[edit]

Demolition of the Cathedral of Christ the Saviour in Moscow on the orders of Joseph Stalin, 5 December 1931, consistent with the doctrine of state atheism in the USSR

The Church reform of Peter I in the early 1700s had placed the Orthodox authorities under the control of the tsar who involved the church in various campaigns of russification which contributed to antisemitism.[515][516] The communist revolutionaries who established the Soviet Union saw the Church as an enemy of the people and part of the tsarist state.[517][518][519][520] The communist Soviet Union heavily persecuted the Russian Orthodox Church,[521] executing up to 8,000 people by 1922.[522] The League of Militant Atheists adopted a five-year plan in 1932 "aimed at the total eradication of religion by 1937".[523] Despite this, the Orthodox Church continued to contribute to theology and culture.[524] At the beginning of the fourteenth century, Gregory of Sinai had begun a mystical revival called Athonite hesychasm which was revived in the Orthodox church of the eighteenth century.[525]

## After World War II

[edit]

Main article: World Christianity

Christian distribution globally based on PEW research in 2011[526]

Before 1945, about a third of the people in the world were Christians, and about 80% of them lived in Europe, Russia, and the Americas.[527] After World War II, Christian missionaries played a transformative role in many colonial societies, moving them toward independence through decolonization.[528][529] By 2000, the percentage of Christians living in Asia and Africa had risen to 32 percent.[527][note 12] In the first quarter of the twenty-first century, most Christians live outside North America and Western Europe, white Christians are a global minority, and slightly over half of worldwide Christians are female.[544][545] It is the world's largest religion with roughly 2.4 billion followers constituting around 31.2% of the world's population.[480][476][546]

In 2000, approximately one-quarter of all Christians worldwide were part of Pentecostalism and its associated movements.[547] By 2025, Pentecostals are expected to constitute one-third of the nearly three billion Christians worldwide making it the largest branch of Protestantism and the fastest-growing religious movement in worldwide Christianity.[548][549]

Traditional Christianity faced multiple challenges in the twentieth century leading to a decline in church attendance in the West.[550][551][552] The challenges of secularism, and the changing moral climate concerning sexual ethics, gender, and exclusivity produced a demand for greater individual freedom. "New Age" spirituality formed. It is private, individualistic, embraces the sacred as a deeper understanding of the self, and differs radically from Christian tradition.[550][553][554] Hugh McLeod writes that political criticisms concerning power have had an even wider impact.[555]

Highly authoritarian and totalitarian governments have brought about crises and decline in many areas.[556][484][557] The world's first Marxist super-power, and other communist governments, pursued anti-religious policies.[510] In 2013, 17 Muslim majority states reported discrimination against religious minorities, including Christianity.[558] Anti-Christian persecution has become a consistent human rights concern.[559]

Pope Francis

Commonality and unity between Protestants and Catholics made little progress until 11 October 1962, when Pope John XXIII opened the Second Vatican Council.[560][561] Roman Catholic ecumenical goals are to establish full communion amongst all the various Christian churches, however there is no agreement amongst evangelicals.[562][563][564] Since then, the ecumenical movement has stalled, however there is also a trend at the local level toward discussion, pulpit exchanges, and shared social action.[565][561] In Hugh MacLeod's view, "A liberal Catholic is likely to have a lot in common with a liberal Methodist," and the influence of the internet will probably increase this unofficial ecumenism.[566]

### Theological revolution

[edit]

For theologians writing after 1945, theology depended on the context of those applying it.[567] The multiple wars of the twentieth century brought questions of theodicy to the forefront.[568] For the first time since the pre-Constantinian era, Christian pacifism became an alternative to war.[555] The Holocaust forced many to realize supersessionism can underlie hatred, ethnocentrism, and racism. Supersessionist texts are increasingly challenged in the twenty first century.[569]

Liberation theology combined with the social gospel to redefine social justice and expose institutionalized sin to aid Latin American poor, but it was limited by its context.[570][571][572][573][567] Different historical and socio-political situations produced black theology and Feminist theology. Combining Christianity with questions of civil rights, aspects of the Black Power movement, and responses to black Muslims produced a black theology that spread to the United Kingdom, parts of Africa, and confronted apartheid in South Africa.[574][575] The feminist movement of the mid-twentieth century began with an anti-Christian ethos but soon developed an influential feminist theology dedicated to transforming churches and society.[576][577] Feminist theology developed at the local level as womanist theology of African-American women, the "mujerista" theology of Hispanic women, and Asian feminist theology.[578]

In the mid to late 1990s, postcolonial theology emerged globally from multiple sources.[579] It analyzes structures of power and ideology to recover what colonialism erased or suppressed in indigenous cultures.[580] The missionary movement of the twenty-first century has transformed into a multi-cultural, multi-faceted global network of NGO's, short-term amateur volunteers, and traditional long-term bilingual, bicultural professionals who focus on evangelism and local development and not on 'civilizing' native people.[581][582]

## See also

[edit]

* Bible portal
* Christianity portal
* History portal
* Religion portal
* Saints portal

* Chronology of Jesus
* Historical background of the New Testament
* Historical Jesus
* Jesus in Christianity
* Life of Jesus
* Timeline of the Roman Catholic Church

Christian history

|  |  |

|
|

BC | C1 | C2 | C3 | C4 | C5 | C6 | C7 | C8 | C9 | C10
C11 | C12 | C13 | C14 | C15 | C16 | C17 | C18 | C19 | C20 | C21

## Notes

[edit]

1. ^ Popular support for the polytheistic religions had been declining since the second century BC and continued to decline throughout Late Antiquity. This is likely a result of economic factors such as the decline of urbanism and prosperity during the economic crisis of the third century. Further economic disruption occurred during the chaotic migrations of Germanic peoples in the fourth and fifth centuries. Such disruption made fewer public funds and private donations available to support expensive pagan festivals and temples.[105][106][107]
2. ^ In North Africa during the reign of Constantine, Donatism formed as a schism. Donatists refused, sometimes violently, to accept back into the Church those who had handed over sacred texts during Diocletian's persecution. After many appeals, the empire responded with force.[173] In 408 in his Letter 93, Augustine defended the government's action.[173][174] Augustine's authority on the use of coercion for conversion was undisputed for over a millennium in Western Christianity, and according to Peter Brown, "it provided the theological foundation for the justification of medieval persecution".[175]
3. ^ The second group includes the Jacobite Church (Syrian Church of Antioch), the Syrian Church in India, the Coptic Church in Egypt, the Armenian Church, and the Ethiopian Church.[198][199]
4. ^ eastern Iran, Arabia, central Asia, parts of China, and the coasts of India and Indonesia, up the Nile through Upper Egypt and into Nubia, Eritrea, and Ethiopia.[205]
5. ^ The prince appointed the clergy to positions in government service, satisfied their material needs, determined who would fill the higher ecclesiastical positions, and directed the synods of bishops in the Kievan metropolitanate.[251]
6. ^ During this same period, the monk Guido of Arezzo created the music staff of lines and spaces and named musical notes making modern music possible.[276]
7. ^ The parish emerged as one of the fundamental institutions of medieval Europe.[284][285][283] After the eleventh century, education began at home then continued in the parish of one's birth instead of in the monastery.[286][287] The parish priest (secular clergy) celebrated the liturgy, visited the sick, instructed the young, gave aid to the poor, ministered to the dying, and monitored and maintained his parish's income from land, livestock, rents and tithes.[286]
8. ^ These rulers saw crusade as a tool for territorial expansion, alliance building, and the empowerment of their own nascent church and state.[370]
9. ^ Some claimed the clergy did little to help the suffering, although the high mortality rate amongst clerics indicates many continued to care for the sick. Other medieval folk claimed it was the "corrupted" and "vice-ridden" clergy that had caused the many calamities they believed were punishments from God.[379]
10. ^ Women had no access to education within institutions associated with the church, such as cathedral schools and most universities.[415] The boundary between men and women was absolute in clerical matters. The church often used the participation of women to demonize a heretical movement.[416]
11. ^ Monastic reform also led to developments within orthodox spirituality, such as that of the Spanish mystics and the French school of spirituality.[440] The Counter-Reformation also created the Uniate church which used Eastern liturgy but recognized Rome.[441]
12. ^ In 1900, under colonial rule, there were just under 9 million Christians in Africa. By 1960, and the end of colonialism, there were about 60 million. By 2005, African Christians had increased to 393 million, about half of the continent's total population.[498] Population in Africa has continued to grow with the percentage of Christians remaining at about half in 2022.[526] This expansion has been labeled a "fourth great age of Christian expansion".[530]

Examples include Simon Kimbangu's movement, the Kimbanguist church, which had a radical reputation in its early days in the Congo, was suppressed for forty years, and has now become the largest independent church in Africa with upwards of 3 million members.[531] In 2019, 65% of Melillans in Northern Africa across from Spain identified themselves as Roman Catholic.[532] In the early twenty-first century, Kenya has the largest yearly meeting of Quakers outside the United States. In Uganda, more Anglicans attend church than do so in England. Ahafo, Ghana is recognized as more vigorously Christian than any place in the United Kingdom.[533] There is revival in East Africa, and vigorous women's movements called Rukwadzano in Zimbabwe and Manyano in South Africa. The Apostles of John Maranke, which began in Rhodesia, now have branches in seven countries.[534]

Christianity has grown rapidly in China and the rest of Southeast Asia, especially Korea, where it grew faster after colonialism ended.[535][536][537] A rapid expansion of charismatic Christianity began in the 1980s, leading Asia to rival Latin America in the population of Charismatic and Pentecostal Christians.[538][539] The Council on Foreign Relations data shows a 10% yearly growth in Chinese Christian populations since 1979. Increasingly, this includes young people more than any other group.[540][541][542]

After the collapse of communism, Christianity grew and expanded in Eastern Europe and Russia while at the same time, it spread in Africa and Asia, shifting Christianity's population center east and south.[480][543]

## References

[edit]

1. ^ a b Young 2006, pp. 1–2.
2. ^ a b c Wilken 2013, pp. 6–16.
3. ^ Young 2006, p. 24.
4. ^ Law 2011, p. 129.
5. ^ Köstenberger, Kellum & Quarles 2009, p. 114.
6. ^ Schwartz 2009, pp. 49, 91.
7. ^ Young 2006, p. 25.
8. ^ Wilken 2013, p. 8.
9. ^ Broadhead 2017, p. 124.
10. ^ Robert 2009, p. 11.
11. ^ a b c Wilken 2013, p. 26.
12. ^ Broadhead 2017, p. 123.
13. ^ Young 2006, p. 11.
14. ^ Dunn 1994, pp. 253–254, 256.
15. ^ Strout 2016, p. 479.
16. ^ Young 2006, pp. 32–34.
17. ^ a b Klutz 2002, pp. 178–190.
18. ^ a b Goodman 2007, pp. 30–32.
19. ^ Esler 2017, p. 11.
20. ^ White 2017, p. 686.
21. ^ Stewart 2014, intro..
22. ^ McGowan 2016, p. 370.
23. ^ Brown 2012, p. 64.
24. ^ Hopkins 1998, p. 202.
25. ^ Humfress 2013, pp. 3, 76, 83–88, 91.
26. ^ Bokenkotter 2007, p. 18.
27. ^ Bundy 2007, p. 118.
28. ^ a b Harnett 2017, pp. 200, 217.
29. ^ a b Hopkins 1998, pp. 192–193.
30. ^ Trevett 2006, pp. 314, 320, 324–327.
31. ^ Pearson 2006, pp. 331, 334–336.
32. ^ Casiday & Norris 2007, p. 5.
33. ^ Thiessen 2014, pp. 373–391.
34. ^ Seifrid 1992, pp. 210–211, 246–247.
35. ^ Harvey 2006, pp. 351, 353.
36. ^ Tov 2014, pp. 37–46.
37. ^ MacCulloch 2010, pp. 66–69.
38. ^ Wilken 2012, p. 2. sfn error: no target: CITEREFWilken2012 (help)
39. ^ Wilken 2012, pp. 2, 26. sfn error: no target: CITEREFWilken2012 (help)
40. ^ Barton 1998a, p. 14.
41. ^ Porter 2011, p. 198.
42. ^ Ferguson 2002, pp. 302–303.
43. ^ Roberts 1949, pp. 158–159, 160–161.
44. ^ Mathews 1909, p. 337.
45. ^ Mathews 1909, p. 341.
46. ^ Marcus 2006, pp. 87–88, 99–100.
47. ^ Neusner 1972, p. 313.
48. ^ Wylen 1995, pp. 190–193.
49. ^ Marcus 2006, pp. 96–99, 101.
50. ^ Trombley 2006, pp. 307–309.
51. ^ Schäferdiek 2007, abstract.
52. ^ Carrington 1957, pp. 375–376.
53. ^ Stewart 2014, intro.
54. ^ Siker 2017, p. 216.
55. ^ Meeks 2003, pp. 79–81.
56. ^ Dowley 2018, p. 14.
57. ^ Welch, & Pulham 2000, p. 202.
58. ^ Praet 1992, pp. 45–48.
59. ^ Lieu 1999, p. 5.
60. ^ a b Gardner 1991, p. 67.
61. ^ Pomeroy 1995, p. xv.
62. ^ MacDonald 1996, pp. 163, 167.
63. ^ Cloke 1995, pp. 5–7.
64. ^ MacDonald 1996, p. 169.
65. ^ Guy 2011, pp. 10, 75, 188.
66. ^ Tulloch 2004, p. 302.
67. ^ MacDonald 1996, pp. 126, 157, 167–168, 202, 242.
68. ^ LaFosse 2017, pp. 385–387.
69. ^ a b Stewart 2017, p. 308.
70. ^ Kraemer 1980, pp. 298, 300–301, 306–307.
71. ^ Castelli 2004, p. 251.
72. ^ Milnor 2011, abstract.
73. ^ Wilken 2013, p. 90.
74. ^ Stewart 2017, p. 309.
75. ^ Trebilco 2017, p. 85.
76. ^ Green 2010, pp. 126–127.
77. ^ Trebilco 2017, pp. 85, 218, 282.
78. ^ a b Praet 1992, pp. 68, 108.
79. ^ Praet 1992, p. 36.
80. ^ Siker 2017, p. 205.
81. ^ Noll 1997, pp. 36–37.
82. ^ De Jonge 2003, p. 315.
83. ^ Siker 2017, pp. 212–217.
84. ^ Siker 2017, pp. 216–217.
85. ^ Cullmann 2018, p. 1.
86. ^ a b Pennington 2007, p. 386.
87. ^ Siker 2017, pp. 207–212, 213–217.
88. ^ Rives 1999, p. 141.
89. ^ Croix 2006, pp. 139–140.
90. ^ Gaddis 2005, pp. 30–31.
91. ^ Siker 2017, p. 212.
92. ^ Inglebert 2015, p. 5.
93. ^ Grabar 2023, p. 7.
94. ^ Matthews & Platt 1998, pp. 148–149.
95. ^ Judith Anne Testa, p. 80.
96. ^ Goodenough 1962, p. 138.
97. ^ Matthews & Platt 1998, pp. 148–151.
98. ^ Casiday & Norris 2007, p. 1.
99. ^ Cameron 2006b, p. 542.
100. ^ Cameron 2006b, pp. 538, 544, 546.
101. ^ Cameron 2006b, pp. 546–547.
102. ^ Cameron 2006b, p. 547.
103. ^ Salzman 2002, p. 182.
104. ^ Maxwell 2015, pp. 854–855.
105. ^ Brown 1998, p. 641.
106. ^ Cameron 2015, pp. 10, 17, 42, 50.
107. ^ Harper 2015, p. 685.
108. ^ Drake 2007, pp. 418, 421.
109. ^ Southern 2015, pp. 455–457.
110. ^ Gerberding & Moran Cruz 2004, pp. 55–56.
111. ^ Inglebert 2015, pp. 4–5.
112. ^ Sághy & Schoolman 2017, p. 1.
113. ^ Brown 1998, pp. 640–641, 646–647.
114. ^ Bremmer 2020, p. 9.
115. ^ Bradbury 1995, pp. 331, 355–356.
116. ^ Thompson 2012, pp. 87, 93.
117. ^ White 2017, p. 700.
118. ^ Weitzmann 1979, p. xix.
119. ^ White 2017, p. 673.
120. ^ Weitzmann 1979, pp. xix–xx.
121. ^ Croke 2015, p. 414.
122. ^ Agosti 2015, pp. 362, 371–372.
123. ^ McGill 2015, p. 343.
124. ^ Ullmann 1965, pp. 82–83.
125. ^ Humfress 2015, p. 97, 100–101; 110.
126. ^ Rahner 2013, pp. xiii, xvii.
127. ^ Drake 2007, pp. 413–414.
128. ^ Casiday & Norris 2007, pp. 2, 3.
129. ^ Salzman 2021, p. 300.
130. ^ a b Matthews & Platt 1998, p. 199.
131. ^ Cohen 1998, pp. 78–80.
132. ^ Abulafia 2002, p. xii.
133. ^ Bachrach 1977, p. 3.
134. ^ Tapie 2017, p. 3.
135. ^ Kim 2006, pp. 2, 4, 8–9.
136. ^ Gerdmar 2009, p. 25.
137. ^ Wilken 2013, p. 2.
138. ^ Stewart 2017, pp. 315–324.
139. ^ Crislip 2005, pp. 100–106.
140. ^ Herrin 2021, p. 90.
141. ^ Williams 1987, paragraphs 1, 2, 5.
142. ^ a b c Rosenwein 2014, pp. 58, 61.
143. ^ a b c Rousseau 2017, pp. 2–3, 5.
144. ^ a b Cantor 1960, p. 47.
145. ^ a b Brown 2008, p. 8.
146. ^ Kaldellis 2012, pp. 1–3.
147. ^ Heather 2007, p. 283.
148. ^ Herrin 2009, p. 213.
149. ^ a b c Nelson 2008, p. 301.
150. ^ Thompson 2016, p. 36.
151. ^ Kolbaba 2008, p. 214.
152. ^ Matthews & Platt 1998, pp. 198–199.
153. ^ Judge 2010, p. 4.
154. ^ Rosenwein 2014, p. 6.
155. ^ Robert 2009, p. 8.
156. ^ Rousseau 2017, pp. 5–15.
157. ^ Kim 2013, pp. 2–5, 36.
158. ^ Bury 1967, pp. 55, 91, 109.
159. ^ Rosenwein 2014, pp. 24–25.
160. ^ Bundy 2007, pp. 118–120.
161. ^ Cowe 2006, pp. 404–405.
162. ^ Rapp 2007, p. 138.
163. ^ Brita 2020, p. 252.
164. ^ Thomas 1997, pp. 506–507.
165. ^ Higham & Ryan 2013, p. 70.
166. ^ Kirby 2000, pp. 35, 120–121.
167. ^ Harney 2017, pp. 103, 122.
168. ^ Casiday & Norris 2007, p. 2.
169. ^ Iricinschi & Zellentin 2008, p. 4.
170. ^ McGinn 2017, pp. 838–841.
171. ^ Brown 1998, pp. 634, 640, 651.
172. ^ Salzman 1993, p. 375.
173. ^ a b Tilley 2006, p. 389.
174. ^ Frend 2020, pp. 172, 173, 222, 241.
175. ^ Brown 1964, pp. 107–116.
176. ^ Berndt & Steinacher 2014, p. 9.
177. ^ Rankin 2017, p. 908.
178. ^ Berndt & Steinacher 2014, pp. 2, 4, 7.
179. ^ Cameron 2006b, p. 545, "In one of the most momentous precedents of his reign, during Constantine's twentieth-anniversary celebrations in 325, some 250 bishops assembled at Nicaea...".
180. ^ Westcott 2005, pp. 12–13.
181. ^ Bruce 1988, p. 215.
182. ^ Brown 2010, Intro. and ch. 1.
183. ^ Brown 1976, p. 2.
184. ^ Rahner 2013, pp. xiii, xiv.
185. ^ Eichbauer 2022, p. 1.
186. ^ a b Thompson 2016, pp. 176–177.
187. ^ Drake 2007, pp. 416, 418.
188. ^ Brown 1976, pp. 7–8.
189. ^ Mathisen 2002, p. 261.
190. ^ Shaw 2017, p. 365.
191. ^ Stewart 2017, pp. 308, 324.
192. ^ Pentarchy 2024.
193. ^ Sabo & 2018, p. vii.
194. ^ Löhr 2007, abstract.
195. ^ Cross 2001, p. 363.
196. ^ Hamilton 2003, p. 177.
197. ^ Hamilton 2003, pp. 178, 180.
198. ^ a b Ware 1993, p. 11.
199. ^ Hamilton 2003, pp. 177–178.
200. ^ Ware 1993, p. 12.
201. ^ Hamilton 2003, p. xii.
202. ^ Brown 2008, pp. 2, 6–8.
203. ^ Barton 2009, p. xvii.
204. ^ Dorfmann-Lazarev 2008, pp. 65–66.
205. ^ Dorfmann-Lazarev 2008, pp. 66–67.
206. ^ Dorfmann-Lazarev 2008, pp. 66–67, 85.
207. ^ a b Micheau 2006, p. 373.
208. ^ Rosenwein 2014, pp. 39–41, 54.
209. ^ Herrin 2021, pp. xv, 8, 13.
210. ^ a b Van Engen 1986, p. 552.
211. ^ Brown 2008, pp. 11–13.
212. ^ Abrams 2016, pp. 32–41.
213. ^ Oakley 1985, p. 171.
214. ^ Stewart 2017, pp. 308–309.
215. ^ Helvétius & Kaplan 2008, p. 277.
216. ^ Brodman 2009, pp. 66–68.
217. ^ Helvétius & Kaplan 2008, p. 295.
218. ^ Constable 2004, pp. 35–36.
219. ^ Ferzoco 2001, pp. 1–3.
220. ^ Woods & Canizares 2012, p. 5.
221. ^ Matthews & Platt 1998, pp. 202–203.
222. ^ Ferzoco 2001, p. 2.
223. ^ Herrin 2021, pp. 40, 80–81.
224. ^ Rosenwein 2014, pp. 24, 27–29.
225. ^ Markus 1990, p. 26.
226. ^ Brown 2012, pp. 514–517, 530.
227. ^ Bonser 1962, p. 236.
228. ^ Helvétius & Kaplan 2008, pp. 275–277, 281, 298.
229. ^ Haight 2004, p. 273.
230. ^ Phipps 1988, abstract.
231. ^ Crislip 2005, p. 3.
232. ^ Truran 2000, pp. 68–69.
233. ^ Butler 1919, intro..
234. ^ Dunn 2003, p. 137.
235. ^ a b Herrin 2021, p. 12.
236. ^ Halsall 2021.
237. ^ Louth 2008, p. 46.
238. ^ Shepard 2006, p. 3.
239. ^ Radić 2010, p. 232.
240. ^ Ivanič 2016, pp. 126, 129.
241. ^ Poppe 1991, p. 25.
242. ^ Schaff 1953, pp. 161–162.
243. ^ Ivanič 2016, p. 127.
244. ^ Pennington 2011, p. 106.
245. ^ Pennington 2011, p. 114.
246. ^ Nelson 2008, pp. 302, 307.
247. ^ Collins 1998, pp. 102–107.
248. ^ Poppe 1991, pp. 5–7.
249. ^ Poppe 1991, p. 12.
250. ^ Štefan 2022, p. 111.
251. ^ Poppe 1991, p. 15.
252. ^ Kenworthy 2008, pp. 173–174.
253. ^ a b c Carocci 2016, p. 66.
254. ^ Ullmann 1972, p. 71.
255. ^ Howe 2016, p. 3.
256. ^ Helvétius & Kaplan 2008, p. 287.
257. ^ Thompson 2016, pp. 177–178.
258. ^ Costambeys 2000, pp. 380, 393–394.
259. ^ Hamilton 2003, pp. 188, 189–191.
260. ^ Cantor 1960, p. 57.
261. ^ a b c Rubin & Simons 2009, p. 4.
262. ^ Dawson 2008, p. 282.
263. ^ Van Engen 1986, pp. 539, 540, 541, 546.
264. ^ Tolan 2016, p. 278.
265. ^ Rosenwein 2014, p. 185.
266. ^ Ullmann 1965, pp. 80–81.
267. ^ a b c d Nelson 2008, p. 326.
268. ^ Hastings 2000, p. 382.
269. ^ a b Rubin & Simons 2009, pp. 5–6.
270. ^ Rubin & Simons 2009, pp. 2–3, 5.
271. ^ Wood 2016, p. 11.
272. ^ Van Engen 1986, p. 543.
273. ^ Rubin & Simons 2009, pp. 1–2.
274. ^ Matthews & Platt 1998, pp. 215–216.
275. ^ Stephenson 2009, p. 7.
276. ^ Hall, Battani & Neitz 2004, p. 100.
277. ^ Cantor 1960, pp. 47, 54.
278. ^ Cantor 1960, pp. 52–53.
279. ^ Rosenwein 2014, p. 197.
280. ^ Verger 1995, p. 257.
281. ^ Den Heijer 2011, p. 65, "Many of the medieval universities in Western Europe were born under the aegis of the Catholic Church, usually as cathedral schools or by papal bull as Studia Generali".
282. ^ Cantor 1960, pp. 53–54.
283. ^ a b Matter 2008, p. 530.
284. ^ Rubin & Simons 2009, pp. 2–3.
285. ^ Van Engen 1986, p. 542.
286. ^ a b c Rubin & Simons 2009, p. 3.
287. ^ Cantor 1960, pp. 50, 52.
288. ^ Weitzmann 1966, p. 3.
289. ^ Matthews & Platt 1998, pp. 228–237.
290. ^ Stephenson 2009, p. 9.
291. ^ Fox 1987, p. 298.
292. ^ Jestice 1997, pp. 1, 5–6.
293. ^ Léglu, Rist & Taylor 2013, p. 8.
294. ^ MacCulloch 2009, pp. 376–378.
295. ^ Hunter 1978, p. 60.
296. ^ Constable 1998, pp. 4–5.
297. ^ Bauer 2013, pp. 46–47.
298. ^ Longwell 1928, pp. 210, 214, 216.
299. ^ Matthews & Platt 1998, pp. 219–220.
300. ^ Haskins 1971, pp. 4–7, 342, 345.
301. ^ Longwell 1928, p. 224.
302. ^ Seagrave 2009, p. 491.
303. ^ Noll 2009, p. 4.
304. ^ Lindberg & Numbers 1986, pp. 5, 12.
305. ^ Gilley 2006, p. 164.
306. ^ Larson 2016, p. 6.
307. ^ Cantor 1960, p. 56.
308. ^ Cantor 1960, p. 55.
309. ^ Costambeys 2000, pp. 367, 372, 376.
310. ^ Barnish 1988, p. 120.
311. ^ Carocci 2016, pp. 66, 68, 76, 79.
312. ^ Logan 2013, pp. 2–3.
313. ^ Deane 2022, pp. xxiii, 277.
314. ^ Matthews & Platt 1998, pp. 244–247.
315. ^ Garrett 1987, pp. 5–7.
316. ^ Grzymała-Busse 2023, pp. 255, 51.
317. ^ Thompson 2016, pp. 176–182.
318. ^ Dowley 2018, p. 159.
319. ^ Grzymała-Busse 2023, pp. 51–52.
320. ^ Althoff 2019b, pp. 173, 175.
321. ^ Eichbauer 2022, p. 3.
322. ^ Grzymała-Busse 2023, p. 25.
323. ^ Althoff 2019b, p. 175.
324. ^ Garrett 1987, p. 8.
325. ^ Grzymała-Busse 2023, p. 52.
326. ^ MacCulloch 2009, p. 375.
327. ^ Vaughn 1980, pp. 61–86.
328. ^ Kolbaba 2008, pp. 214, 223.
329. ^ Meyendorff 1979, intro.
330. ^ Rosenwein 2014, pp. 173–174.
331. ^ Folda 1995, pp. 36, 141.
332. ^ Tyerman 1992, pp. 15–16.
333. ^ Bull 2009, pp. 346–347.
334. ^ Bull 2009, pp. 346–349.
335. ^ Van Engen 1986, p. 523.
336. ^ Bull 2009, pp. 340–342, 346, 349–350, 352.
337. ^ Kostick 2010, pp. 2–6.
338. ^ Bull 2009, pp. 346–348.
339. ^ Matthews & Platt 1998, p. 208.
340. ^ Bull 2009, p. 351.
341. ^ Micheau 2006, pp. 373, 378, 381.
342. ^ a b Micheau 2006, p. 403.
343. ^ Sanmark 2004, pp. 14–15.
344. ^ Brink 2004, p. xvi.
345. ^ Arnold 2018, pp. 363, 365.
346. ^ Ames 2009, p. 16.
347. ^ Deane 2022, p. xv.
348. ^ Peters 1980, p. 189.
349. ^ Mout 2007, p. 229.
350. ^ Zagorin 2003, p. 3.
351. ^ Arnold 2018, pp. 363, 367.
352. ^ Wood 2016, p. 9.
353. ^ Arnold 2018, p. 365.
354. ^ Arnold 2018, p. 363.
355. ^ Ames 2009, pp. 1–2, 4, 7, 16, 28, 34.
356. ^ Given 2001, p. 14.
357. ^ Arnold 2018, pp. 365, 368.
358. ^ a b Schacter 2011, p. 2.
359. ^ Rosenthal 1956, pp. 68–72.
360. ^ Shatzmiller 1974, p. 339.
361. ^ Rubin & Simons2009, p. 6.
362. ^ Resnick 2012, p. 4.
363. ^ Mundy 2000, p. 58.
364. ^ Moore 2007, p. 110.
365. ^ Rose 2015, p. 70.
366. ^ Marvin 2008, pp. 3, 4, 216.
367. ^ Kienzle 2001, pp. 46, 47.
368. ^ Dunbabin 2003, pp. 178–179.
369. ^ Fonnesberg-Schmidt 2007, pp. 23, 65.
370. ^ Firlej 2021–2022, p. 121.
371. ^ Christiansen 1997, p. 287.
372. ^ Hunyadi & Laszlovszky 2001, p. 606.
373. ^ Fonnesberg-Schmidt 2007, pp. 65, 75–77, 119.
374. ^ Fonnesberg-Schmidt 2007, p. 24.
375. ^ Lazzarini & Blanning 2021, pp. 7–9.
376. ^ a b Taylor 2021, pp. 109–110.
377. ^ Matthews & Platt 1998, pp. 241–244.
378. ^ Taylor 2021, pp. 118–119.
379. ^ Taylor 2021, pp. 114–115.
380. ^ Swanson 2021, pp. 9, 11, 12.
381. ^ Heß 2013, pp. 78–80, 88–89, 94.
382. ^ Swanson 2021, pp. 15–17, 21.
383. ^ MacCulloch 2009, p. 378.
384. ^ Taylor 2021, pp. 109–110, 118–119.
385. ^ MacCulloch 2009, pp. 375, 559, 561.
386. ^ Kelly 2009, p. 104.
387. ^ Whalen 2015, p. 14.
388. ^ Olson 1999, p. 348.
389. ^ Matthews & Platt 1998, pp. 245–246.
390. ^ Ullmann 2005, p. xv.
391. ^ Van Engen 1986, pp. 526, 532, 538, 552.
392. ^ Rubin & Simons 2009, pp. 1, 7.
393. ^ Matthews & Platt 1998, p. 247.
394. ^ Estep 1986, pp. 64, 66–67.
395. ^ Estep 1986, p. 64.
396. ^ Estep 1986, p. 69.
397. ^ Estep 1986, p. 76.
398. ^ Haberkern 2016, pp. 1–3.
399. ^ Frassetto 2007, pp. 196–198.
400. ^ Estep 1986, pp. 76–77.
401. ^ Matthews & Platt 1998, p. 246.
402. ^ Kitromilides 2006, pp. 187, 191.
403. ^ Kenworthy 2008, p. 173.
404. ^ Dowley 2018, pp. 342–343.
405. ^ Zachariadou 2006, pp. 171–181.
406. ^ a b c d Kenworthy 2008, p. 175.
407. ^ Zachariadou 2006, pp. 181, 184.
408. ^ Shepard 2006, pp. 8–9.
409. ^ Zachariadou 2006, p. 185.
410. ^ Hudson 2023.
411. ^ Matthews & Platt 1998, pp. 377–338.
412. ^ Gordon 2022, pp. 6, 9–10.
413. ^ Matthews & Platt 1998, pp. 299, 308–319.
414. ^ Hebron 2022, Heritage and Rupture with the Tradition.
415. ^ a b Rubin & Simons 2009, p. 5.
416. ^ Heß 2013, p. 84.
417. ^ Rubin & Simons 2009, pp. 96–97.
418. ^ Garcia 2004, p. 180.
419. ^ Kwiatkowska 2010, p. 30.
420. ^ a b Levack 2013, p. 6.
421. ^ Behringer 2019, pp. 69–72.
422. ^ Monter 2023.
423. ^ Heß 2013, p. 83.
424. ^ Bejczy 1997, pp. 374 fn43, 368.
425. ^ Cohen 1998, p. 396.
426. ^ Lacopo 2016, pp. 2–3.
427. ^ Rawlings 2006, pp. 1–2.
428. ^ Marcocci 2013, pp. 1–7.
429. ^ Mayer 2014, pp. 2–3.
430. ^ Tarver & Slape 2016, pp. 210–212.
431. ^ Bernardini & Fiering 2001, p. 371.
432. ^ Flannery 2013, p. 11.
433. ^ Mayer 2014, pp. 2–3, 5.
434. ^ Dixon 2017, pp. 535–536, 553.
435. ^ Williams 1995, pp. xxx–xxix.
436. ^ Fahlbusch & Bromiley 2003, p. 362.
437. ^ Barnett 1999, p. 28.
438. ^ O'Malley 1995, p. 16.
439. ^ Matthews & Platt 1998, pp. 329, 335–336.
440. ^ MacCulloch 2004, p. 404.
441. ^ Kenworthy 2008, pp. 175–176.
442. ^ Matthews & Platt 1998, pp. 329–331.
443. ^ Onnekink 2016, p. 3.
444. ^ a b Parker 2023.
445. ^ Onnekink 2016, p. 10.
446. ^ Murphy 2014, p. 481.
447. ^ Onnekink 2016, pp. 3, 6.
448. ^ Aguilera-Barchet 2015, p. 141.
449. ^ Jacob 2006, pp. 265–268, 270.
450. ^ Aston 2006, pp. 13–15.
451. ^ Patterson 1997, p. 64.
452. ^ Mout 2007, pp. 227–233, 242.
453. ^ Coffey 1998, p. 961.
454. ^ Coffey 2014, p. 12.
455. ^ Jacob 2006, pp. 272–273, 279.
456. ^ Mout 2007, pp. 225–243.
457. ^ Kaplan 2009, p. 119.
458. ^ Franck 1997, pp. 594–595.
459. ^ Boppart, Falkinger & Grossmann 2014, pp. 874–895.
460. ^ Schaltegger & Torgler 2010, pp. 99–101.
461. ^ Spater & Tranvik 2019, pp. 1963–1994.
462. ^ Becker, Pfaff & Rubin 2016.
463. ^ Weber & Kalberg 2012, pp. xi, xxviii–xxxvi, xl, 3–5, 103–126.
464. ^ Skocpol & Trimberger 1977, pp. 101–104.
465. ^ Gilley 2006, pp. 4–5.
466. ^ a b Gilley 2006, p. 5.
467. ^ Law 2012, pp. 8, 224.
468. ^ Baird 1992, pp. 118, 201.
469. ^ a b McLeod 2006, p. 3.
470. ^ Ward 2006, pp. 329, 347.
471. ^ Smith 2014b, p. 19.
472. ^ Valkenburgh 1994, p. 172.
473. ^ Jones & White 2012, pp. xi, xv.
474. ^ Heimert 2006, p. 2.
475. ^ Marty 2006, p. 524.
476. ^ a b McLeod 2006, p. 8.
477. ^ Ward 2006, p. 347.
478. ^ Doyle & Hightower 2003, p. 10.
479. ^ Nowell, Magdoff & Webster 2022.
480. ^ a b c d Gilley 2006, p. 1.
481. ^ Robinson 1952, p. 152.
482. ^ Robert 2009, p. 105.
483. ^ Sanneh 2007, p. 134.
484. ^ a b c Gilley 2006, p. 3.
485. ^ a b Macdonald 2015, p. 31.
486. ^ Jenkins 2008, pp. 14–15.
487. ^ a b Cairns 2015, p. 26.
488. ^ Masters & Young 2022, abstract.
489. ^ Brown 2006, pp. 517–524.
490. ^ Brown 2006, pp. 525–530.
491. ^ Eltis 1987, chapter 13.
492. ^ Brown 2006, pp. 525–526.
493. ^ Hughes 2004, p. 635.
494. ^ Mannion & Mudge 2008, p. 217.
495. ^ Gilley 2006, p. 2.
496. ^ Robert 2009, p. 1.
497. ^ Gonzalez 2010, p. 302.
498. ^ a b Sanneh 2007, p. xx.
499. ^ Táíwò 2010, pp. 68–70.
500. ^ Sanneh 2016, pp. 279, 285.
501. ^ Isichei 1995, p. 9.
502. ^ Sanneh 2016, p. xx.
503. ^ de Juan & Pierskalla 2017, p. 161.
504. ^ Hobson 2013, pp. 1, 3–4.
505. ^ Gasper 2020, p. 13.
506. ^ Gasper 2020, pp. 14, 18.
507. ^ Harris 1998, p. 22.
508. ^ Gasper 2020, p. 19.
509. ^ Harris 1998, pp. 42, 57.
510. ^ a b McLeod 2006, pp. 7–8.
511. ^ Holmes 1981, p. 116.
512. ^ United States Holocaust Memorial Museu n.d.
513. ^ Rossino 2003, pp. 72, 169, 185, 285.
514. ^ Rappaport 1999, pp. 201, 223.
515. ^ Shlikhta 2004, pp. 361–273.
516. ^ Klier & Lambroza 2004, p. 306.
517. ^ Bouteneff 1998, pp. vi–1.
518. ^ Sullivan 2006.
519. ^ Calciu-Dumitreasa 1983, pp. 5–8.
520. ^ Eidintas 2001, p. 23.
521. ^ Kenworthy 2008, p. 178.
522. ^ Pipes 1995, p. 356.
523. ^ Walters 2005, p. 15.
524. ^ Kenworthy 2008, pp. 177–178.
525. ^ Špidlík 1986, pp. 12, 13.
526. ^ a b PEW Research Center 2022.
527. ^ a b McLeod 2006, p. 1.
528. ^ Fontaine 2016, pp. 6–8.
529. ^ Sanneh 2007, p. 285.
530. ^ Isichei 1995, p. 1.
531. ^ Fernandez 1979, pp. 284, 285.
532. ^ Ponce Herrero & Martí Ciriquián 2019, pp. 101–124.
533. ^ Isichei 1995, p. 1.
534. ^ Isichei 1995, p. 2.
535. ^ Jenkins 2011, pp. 89–90.
536. ^ Zurlo 2020, pp. 3–9.
537. ^ McLeod 2006, p. 6.
538. ^ Singapore Management University 2017.
539. ^ Anderson & Tang 2005, p. 2.
540. ^ Yoo 2019, p. 27 fn.7.
541. ^ Albert 2018, Introduction.
542. ^ America magazine 2018: "A study of the religious lives of university students in Beijing published in a mainland Chinese academic journal Science and Atheism in 2013 showed Christianity to be the religion that interested students most and was the most active on campuses."
543. ^ McLeod 2006, pp. 1, 8.
544. ^ Ford 2013, p. 429.
545. ^ PEW global 2020.
546. ^ Pew Center 2017.
547. ^ Burgess 2006, p. xiii.
548. ^ Deininger 2014, pp. 1–2, 5.
549. ^ McLeod 2006, p. 4.
550. ^ a b McLeod 2006, pp. 2, 7–8.
551. ^ Fahmy 2022, section 1.
552. ^ Gilley 2006, pp. 1, 3.
553. ^ Houtman & Aupers 2007, pp. 315, 317.
554. ^ Palmer-Fernandes 1991, pp. 511–512.
555. ^ a b McLeod 2006, p. 12.
556. ^ McLeod 2006, pp. 1, 7–8.
557. ^ Houtman & Aupers 2007, p. 305.
558. ^ Fox 2013, abstract.
559. ^ Allen Jr. 2016, pp. x–xi.
560. ^ O'Collins 2014, pp. 16–23.
561. ^ a b McLeod 2006, p. 9.
562. ^ Chinnici 2012, p. 22.
563. ^ Cassidy 2005, pp. 106, 544.
564. ^ Pintarić 2014, abstract.
565. ^ Asprey 2008, p. 3.
566. ^ McLeod 2006, pp. 10, 14.
567. ^ a b Opoensky 2004, p. 5.
568. ^ McLeod 2006, p. 11.
569. ^ Levine 2022, p. 6.
570. ^ Wilkins 2017, pp. 24–28.
571. ^ Rauschenbusch 1917, p. 5.
572. ^ Wogaman 2011, p. 325.
573. ^ Chopp & Regan 2013, p. 469.
574. ^ Akanji 2010, pp. 177–178.
575. ^ McLeod 2006, p. 13.
576. ^ Hilkert 1995, abstract.
577. ^ Muers 2013, p. 431.
578. ^ Hilkert 1995, p. 327.
579. ^ Segovia & Moore 2007, pp. 4–5.
580. ^ Segovia & Moore 2007, pp. 6, 11.
581. ^ Robert 2009, p. 73.
582. ^ Cooper 2005, pp. 3–4.

## Sources

[edit]

### Books & periodicals

[edit]

* Abrams, Lesley (2016). "The conversion of the Danelaw". Vikings and the Danelaw: Select Papers from the Proceedings of the Thirteenth Viking Congress, Nottingham and York, 21-30 August 1997 (Repr. ed.). Oxford: Oxbow. pp. 31–44\. ISBN 978-1-78570-453-6. JSTOR j.ctt1kw29nj.7.31-44&rft.edition=Repr.&rft.pub=Oxbow&rft.date=2016&rft_id=https://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctt1kw29nj.7#id-name=JSTOR&rft.isbn=978-1-78570-453-6&rft.aulast=Abrams&rft.aufirst=Lesley&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:History+of+Christianity" class="Z3988">
* Abulafia, Anna Sapir (2002). "Introduction". In Abulafia, Anna Sapir (ed.). Religious Violence Between Christians and Jews: Medieval Roots, Modern Perspectives. Palgrave. pp. xi–xviii. ISBN 978-1-349-42499-3.xi-xviii&rft.pub=Palgrave&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-1-349-42499-3&rft.aulast=Abulafia&rft.aufirst=Anna+Sapir&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:History+of+Christianity" class="Z3988">
* Aguilera-Barchet, Bruno (2015). "Popes vs. Emperors: The Rise and Fall of Papal Power". A History of Western Public Law. Springer. doi:10.1007/978-3-319-11803-1. ISBN 978-3-319-11802-4.
* Agosti, Gianfranco (2015). "Greek poetry". In Johnson, Scott Fitzgerald (ed.). The Oxford Handbook of Late Antiquity (Repr. ed.). Oxford University Press. pp. 361–404\. ISBN 978-0-19-027753-6.361-404&rft.edition=Repr.&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-0-19-027753-6&rft.aulast=Agosti&rft.aufirst=Gianfranco&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:History+of+Christianity" class="Z3988">
* Akanji, Israel (2010). "Black Theology". In Irele, Abiola (ed.). The Oxford Encyclopedia of African Thought. Vol. 1\. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-533473-9.
* Albert, Eleanor (2018). "Christianity in China". Council on Foreign Relations. Archived from the original on 7 July 2021. Retrieved 17 October 2023.
* Allen Jr., John L. (2016). The Global War on Christians: Dispatches from the Front Lines of Anti-Christian Persecution. Crown Publishing Group. ISBN 978-0-7704-3737-4.
* Althoff, Gerd (2019). "Communicating Papal Primacy: the Impact of Gregory VII's Ideas (11th–13th Century)". Rules and Rituals in Medieval Power Games. Brill. pp. 189–202\. doi:10.1163/9789004415317_015. ISBN 978-9-00441-531-7. S2CID 211661394.189-202&rft.pub=Brill&rft.date=2019&rft_id=https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:211661394#id-name=S2CID&rft_id=info:doi/10.1163/9789004415317_015&rft.isbn=978-9-00441-531-7&rft.aulast=Althoff&rft.aufirst=Gerd&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:History+of+Christianity" class="Z3988">
* Ames, Christine Caldwell (2009). Righteous Persecution: Inquisition, Dominicans, and Christianity in the Middle Ages. University of Pennsylvania Press. ISBN 978-0-8122-4133-4.
* Anderson, Allan; Tang, Edmund (2005). Asian and Pentecostal: The Charismatic Face of Christianity in Asia. Oxford Centre for Mission Studies. ISBN 978-1-870345-43-9.
* Arnold, John H. (2018). "Persecution and Power in Medieval Europe: The Formation of a Persecuting Society, by R. I. Moore". The American Historical Review (Book review). 123 (1). Oxford University Press. Retrieved 3 July 2023.
* Asprey, Christopher (2008). Murphy, Francesca Aran (ed.). Ecumenism Today: The Universal Church in the 21st Century (1st ed.). Routledge. ISBN 978-0-7546-5961-7.
* Aston, Nigel (2006). "Continental Catholic Europe". In Brown, S.; Tackett, T. (eds.). The Cambridge History of Christianity. Vol. 7\. Cambridge University Press. pp. 13–32\. doi:10.1017/CHOL9780521816052.003. ISBN 978-1-139-05412-6.13-32&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2006&rft_id=info:doi/10.1017/CHOL9780521816052.003&rft.isbn=978-1-139-05412-6&rft.aulast=Aston&rft.aufirst=Nigel&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:History+of+Christianity" class="Z3988">
* Bachrach, Bernard S. (1977). Early medieval Jewish policy in Western Europe. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press. ISBN 978-0-8166-0814-0.
* Baird, William (1992). History of New Testament Research, Volume One: From Deism to Tübingen. Fortress. ISBN 978-1-4514-2017-3.
* Barnett, S. J. (1999). "Where Was Your Church before Luther? Claims for the Antiquity of Protestantism Examined". Church History. 68 (1): 14–41\. JSTOR 3170108. S2CID 154764488.14-41&rft.date=1999&rft_id=https://www.jstor.org/stable/3170108#id-name=JSTOR&rft_id=https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:154764488#id-name=S2CID&rft.aulast=Barnett&rft.aufirst=S.+J.&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:History+of+Christianity" class="Z3988">
* Barnish, S. J. B. (1988). "Transformation and Survival in the Western Senatorial Aristocracy, c. A.D. 400–700". Papers of the British School at Rome. 56: 120–155\. doi:10.1017/S0068246200009582.120-155&rft.date=1988&rft_id=info:doi/10.1017/S0068246200009582&rft.aulast=Barnish&rft.aufirst=S.+J.+B.&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:History+of+Christianity" class="Z3988">
* Barton, John (1998). Holy Writings, Sacred Text: The Canon in Early Christianity (Repr. ed.). Westminster John Knox. ISBN 978-0-664-25778-1.
* Barton, Simon (2009). A History of Spain (2nd ed.). Bloomsbury. ISBN 978-1-137-01347-7. Retrieved 27 May 2023.
* Bauer, Susan Wise (2013). The History of the Renaissance World: From the Rediscovery of Aristotle to the Conquest of Constantinople. W. W. Norton. ISBN 978-0-393-05976-2.
* Becker, Sascha O.; Pfaff, Steven; Rubin, Jared (2016). "Causes and Consequences of the Protestant Reformation". ESI Working Paper 16–13. ISSN 2572-1496. Archived from the original on 25 June 2023. Retrieved 5 July 2023.
* Behringer, Wolfgang (2019). "Weather, hunger and fear: origins of the European witch-hunts in climate, society and mentality". In Oldridge, Darren (ed.). The Witchcraft Reader. Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-21492-6.
* Bejczy, István (1997). "Tolerantia: A Medieval Concept". Journal of the History of Ideas. 58 (3): 365–384\. JSTOR 3653905.365-384&rft.date=1997&rft_id=https://www.jstor.org/stable/3653905#id-name=JSTOR&rft.aulast=Bejczy&rft.aufirst=István&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:History+of+Christianity" class="Z3988">
* Bernardini, Paolo; Fiering, Norman (2001). The Jews and the Expansion of Europe to the West, 1450 to 1800. Berghahn. ISBN 978-1-57181-430-2.
* Berndt, Guido M.; Steinacher, Roland (2014). Arianism: Roman Heresy and Barbarian Creed (1st ed.). London: Routledge. ISBN 978-1-4094-4659-0.
* Bokenkotter, Thomas (2007). A Concise History of the Catholic Church (Rev. ed.). New York: Crown. ISBN 978-0-307-42348-1.
* Bonser, Wilfrid (1962). "The Cult of Relics in the Middle Ages". Folklore. 73 (4): 234–56\. JSTOR 1258503.234-56&rft.date=1962&rft_id=https://www.jstor.org/stable/1258503#id-name=JSTOR&rft.aulast=Bonser&rft.aufirst=Wilfrid&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:History+of+Christianity" class="Z3988">
* Boppart, Timo; Falkinger, Josef; Grossmann, Volker (1 April 2014). "Protestantism and Education: Reading (the Bible) and Other Skills" (PDF). Economic Inquiry. 52 (2): 874–895\. doi:10.1111/ecin.12058. ISSN 1465-7295. S2CID 10220106. Archived (PDF) from the original on 7 March 2020.874-895&rft.date=2014-04-01&rft_id=https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:10220106#id-name=S2CID&rft.issn=1465-7295&rft_id=info:doi/10.1111/ecin.12058&rft.aulast=Boppart&rft.aufirst=Timo&rft.au=Falkinger,+Josef&rft.au=Grossmann,+Volker&rft_id=https://www.ifo.de/DocDL/cesifo1_wp3314.pdf&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:History+of+Christianity" class="Z3988">
* Father Arseny, 1893–1973: Priest, Prisoner, Spiritual Father: Being the Narratives Compiled by the Servant of God Alexander Concerning His Spiritual Father. Translated by Vera Bouteneff. St. Vladmir's Seminary Press. 1998. pp. vi–1. ISBN 978-0-88141-180-5. Retrieved 17 August 2023.
* Bradbury, Scott (1995). "Julian's Pagan Revival and the Decline of Blood Sacrifice". Phoenix. 49 (4): 331–356\. JSTOR 1088885.331-356&rft.date=1995&rft_id=https://www.jstor.org/stable/1088885#id-name=JSTOR&rft.aulast=Bradbury&rft.aufirst=Scott&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:History+of+Christianity" class="Z3988">
* Bremmer, Jan N. (2020). "2: Priestesses, Pogroms and Persecutions: Religious Violence in Antiquity in a Diachronic Perspective". In Raschle, Christian R.; Dijkstra, Jitse H. F. (eds.). Religious Violence in the Ancient World From Classical Athens to Late Antiquity. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-108-84921-0.
* Brink, Stefan (2004). "New Perspectives on the Christianization of Scandinavia and the Organization of the Early Church". Scandinavia and Europe 800-1350: Contact, Conflict, and Coexistence. ISD. pp. 163–175\. ISBN 978-2-503-51085-9.163-175&rft.pub=ISD&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-2-503-51085-9&rft.aulast=Brink&rft.aufirst=Stefan&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:History+of+Christianity" class="Z3988">
* Brita, Antonella (2020). "Genres of Ethiopian-Eritrean Christian Literature with a Focus on Hagiography". In Kelly, Samantha (ed.). A Companion to Medieval Ethiopia and Eritrea. Brill. pp. 252–281\. ISBN 978-90-04-41943-8. Retrieved 18 July 2023.252-281&rft.pub=Brill&rft.date=2020&rft.isbn=978-90-04-41943-8&rft.aulast=Brita&rft.aufirst=Antonella&rft_id=https://books.google.com/books?id=2gddyAEACAAJ&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:History+of+Christianity" class="Z3988">
* Broadhead, Edwin K. (2017). "Early Jewish Christianity". In Esler, Philip F. (ed.). The Early Christian World. Vol. 1 (second ed.). Routledge. ISBN 978-1-03-219935-1.
* Brodman, James (2009). Charity and Religion in Medieval Europe. Catholic University of America Press. ISBN 978-0-8132-1580-8.
* Brown, Christopher (2006). "Christianity and the campaign against slavery and the slave trade". In Brown, Stewart; Tackett, Timothy (eds.). The Cambridge History of Christianity. Vol. 7\. Cambridge University Press. pp. 517–535\. doi:10.1017/CHOL9780521816052.028. ISBN 978-1-139-05412-6.517-535&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2006&rft_id=info:doi/10.1017/CHOL9780521816052.028&rft.isbn=978-1-139-05412-6&rft.aulast=Brown&rft.aufirst=Christopher&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:History+of+Christianity" class="Z3988">
* Brown, P. (1964). "St. Augustine's Attitude to Religious Coercion". Journal of Roman Studies. 54 (1–2): 107–116\. JSTOR 298656. S2CID 162757247.1–2&rft.pages=107-116&rft.date=1964&rft_id=https://www.jstor.org/stable/298656#id-name=JSTOR&rft_id=https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:162757247#id-name=S2CID&rft.aulast=Brown&rft.aufirst=P.&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:History+of+Christianity" class="Z3988">
* Brown, Peter (1976). "Eastern and western Christendom in late antiquity: a parting of the way". Studies in Church History. 13: 1–24\. doi:10.1017/S0424208400006574.1-24&rft.date=1976&rft_id=info:doi/10.1017/S0424208400006574&rft.aulast=Brown&rft.aufirst=Peter&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:History+of+Christianity" class="Z3988">
* Brown, Peter (1998). "Christianization and religious conflict". In Cameron, Averil; Garnsey, Peter (eds.). The Cambridge Ancient History XIII: The Late Empire, A.D. 337–425. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-30200-5.
* Brown, Peter (2012). The rise of Western Christendom: triumph and diversity, A.D. 200–1000 (Third, revised ed.). Malden, MA: John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-1-118-33884-1.
* Brown, Peter (2008). "Introduction: Christendom, c. 600". In Noble, T.; Smith, J. (eds.). The Cambridge History of Christianity. Vol. 3\. Cambridge University Press. pp. 1–18\. doi:10.1017/CHOL9780521817752.002. ISBN 978-0-521-81775-2.1-18&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2008&rft_id=info:doi/10.1017/CHOL9780521817752.002&rft.isbn=978-0-521-81775-2&rft.aulast=Brown&rft.aufirst=Peter&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:History+of+Christianity" class="Z3988">
* Brown, Raymond E. (2010) [1997]. An Introduction to the New Testament. The Anchor Yale Bible Reference Library. Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-14016-3.
* Bruce, F. F. (1988). The Canon of Scripture. Intervarsity Press. ISBN 978-0-8308-1258-5.
* Bull, Marcus (2009). "Crusade and conquest". In Rubin, Miri; Simons, Walter (eds.). The Cambridge History of Christianity. Vol. 4\. Cambridge University Press. pp. 340–352\. doi:10.1017/CHOL9780521811064. ISBN 978-1-139-05602-1.340-352&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2009&rft_id=info:doi/10.1017/CHOL9780521811064&rft.isbn=978-1-139-05602-1&rft.aulast=Bull&rft.aufirst=Marcus&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:History+of+Christianity" class="Z3988">
* Bundy, David (2007). "Early Asian and East African Christianities". In Casiday, Augustine; Norris, Frederick W. (eds.). The Cambridge History of Christianity. Vol. 2\. Cambridge University Press. pp. 118–148\. doi:10.1017/CHOL9780521812443. ISBN 978-1-139-05413-3.118-148&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2007&rft_id=info:doi/10.1017/CHOL9780521812443&rft.isbn=978-1-139-05413-3&rft.aulast=Bundy&rft.aufirst=David&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:History+of+Christianity" class="Z3988">
* Burgess, Stanley M. (2006). "Introduction". In Burgess, Stanley M. (ed.). Encyclopedia of Pentecostal and charismatic Christianity. Religion and Society. New York: Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-96966-6.
* Bury, J.B. (1967). The invasion of Europe by the barbarians (reissue ed.). W. W. Norton. ISBN 978-0-393-00388-8.
* Butler, Cuthbert (1919). Benedictine Monachism: Studies in Benedictine Life and Rule. New York: Longmans, Green & Co. pp. 3–8.
* Cairns, Earle E. (2015). An Endless Line of Splendor: Revivals and Their Leaders from the Great Awakening to the Present. Wipf & Stock. ISBN 978-1-4982-2340-9.
* Calciu-Dumitreasa, George (May 1983). "Sermons to young people by Father George Calciu-Dumitreasa. Given at the Chapel of the Romanian Orthodox Church Seminary". Word Magazine. Antiochian Orthodox Christian Archdiocese of North America. pp. 5–8\. Archived from the original on 2 March 2007. Retrieved 11 May 2007 - via Orthodox Research Institute.5-8&rft.date=1983-05&rft.aulast=Calciu-Dumitreasa&rft.aufirst=George&rft_id=http://www.orthodoxresearchinstitute.org/resources/sermons/calciu_christ_calling.htm&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:History+of+Christianity" class="Z3988">
* Cameron, Averil (2006). "Constantine and the 'peace of the church'". In Mitchell, M.; Young, F. (eds.). The Cambridge History of Christianity. Vol. 1\. Cambridge University Press. pp. 538–551\. doi:10.1017/CHOL9780521812399.032. ISBN 978-1-139-05483-6.538-551&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2006&rft_id=info:doi/10.1017/CHOL9780521812399.032&rft.isbn=978-1-139-05483-6&rft.aulast=Cameron&rft.aufirst=Averil&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:History+of+Christianity" class="Z3988">
* Cameron, Averil (2015). The Mediterranean world in late Antiquity: AD 395–700. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-136-67306-1.
* Cantor, Norman F. (1960). "The Crisis of Western Monasticism, 1050–1130". The American Historical Review. 66 (1): 47–67\. JSTOR 1845706.47-67&rft.date=1960&rft_id=https://www.jstor.org/stable/1845706#id-name=JSTOR&rft.aulast=Cantor&rft.aufirst=Norman+F.&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:History+of+Christianity" class="Z3988">
* Carocci, Sandro (2016). "Popes as Princes? The Papal States (1000–1300)". In Larson, Atria; Sisson, Keith (eds.). A Companion to the Medieval Papacy: Growth of an Ideology and Institution. Brill. ISBN 978-90-04-31528-0.
* Carrington, Philip (1957). The Early Christian Church. Vol. 1, The First Christian Church (Repr. ed.). Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-16641-6.
* Casiday, Augustine; Norris, Frederick W. (2007). "Introduction". In Casiday, Augustine; Norris, Frederick W. (eds.). The Cambridge History of Christianity. Vol. 2\. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-139-05413-3.
* Cassidy, Edward Idris (2005). Ecumenism and Interreligious Dialogue: Unitatis Redintegratio, Nostra Aetate. Paulist Press. ISBN 978-0-8091-4338-2.
* Castelli, Elizabeth A. (2004). Martyrdom and Memory: Early Christian Culture Making. New York: Columbia University Press.
* Chinnici, Joseph P. (2012). "Ecumenism, Civil Rights, and the Second Vatican Council: The American Experience". U.S. Catholic Historian. 30 (3): 21–49\. ISSN 0735-8318. JSTOR 23362900.21-49&rft.date=2012&rft_id=https://www.jstor.org/stable/23362900#id-name=JSTOR&rft.issn=0735-8318&rft.aulast=Chinnici&rft.aufirst=Joseph+P.&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:History+of+Christianity" class="Z3988">
* Chopp, Rebecca S.; Regan, Ethna (2013). "Latin American Liberation Theology". In Ford, David F.; Muers, Rachel (eds.). The Modern Theologians: An Introduction to Christian Theology Since 1918 (3rd ed.). John Wiley and Sons. pp. 469–484\. ISBN 978-1-118-83496-1.469-484&rft.edition=3rd&rft.pub=John+Wiley+and+Sons&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-1-118-83496-1&rft.aulast=Chopp&rft.aufirst=Rebecca+S.&rft.au=Regan,+Ethna&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:History+of+Christianity" class="Z3988">
* Christiansen, Eric (1997). The Northern Crusades. London: Penguin Books. ISBN 978-0-14-026653-5.
* Cloke, Gillian (1995). This Female Man of God: Women and Spiritual Power in the Patristic Age, 350–450 AD. London: Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-09469-6.
* Coffey, John (December 1998). "Puritanism and Liberty Revisited: The Case for Toleration in the English Revolution". The Historical Journal. 41 (4): 961–985\. doi:10.1017/S0018246X98008103. S2CID 159485109.961-985&rft.date=1998-12&rft_id=info:doi/10.1017/S0018246X98008103&rft_id=https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:159485109#id-name=S2CID&rft.aulast=Coffey&rft.aufirst=John&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:History+of+Christianity" class="Z3988">
* Coffey, John (2014). Persecution and Toleration in Protestant England 1558–1689. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-317-88442-2.
* Cohen, Jeremy (1998). "'Slay Them Not': Augustine and the Jews in Modern Scholarship". Medieval Encounters. 4 (1). E. J. Brill: 78–92\. doi:10.1163/157006798X00043. Retrieved 6 July 2023.78-92&rft.date=1998&rft_id=info:doi/10.1163/157006798X00043&rft.aulast=Cohen&rft.aufirst=Jeremy&rft_id=https://www.academia.edu/36098249&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:History+of+Christianity" class="Z3988">
* Collins, Roger (1998). Charlemagne. Toronto: University of Toronto Press. ISBN 978-0-8020-8218-3.
* Constable, Olivia Remie (2004). Housing the Stranger in the Mediterranean World: Lodging, Trade, and Travel in Late Antiquity and the Middle Ages. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-139-44968-7.
* Constable, Giles (1998). The Reformation of the Twelfth Century (Rev. ed.). Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-63871-5.
* Cooper, Michael T. (2005). "Colonialism, neo-colonialism and forgotten missiological lessons". Global Missiology. 2 (2): 1–14.1-14&rft.date=2005&rft.aulast=Cooper&rft.aufirst=Michael+T.&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:History+of+Christianity" class="Z3988">
* Costambeys, Marios (2000). "Property, ideology and the territorial power of the papacy in the early Middle Ages". Early Medieval Europe. 9 (3). doi:10.1111/1468-0254.00075.
* Cowe, S. (2006). "The Armenians in the era of the crusades 1050–1350". In Angold, Michael (ed.). The Cambridge History of Christianity Eastern Christianity. Vol. 5\. Cambridge University Press. pp. 404–429\. doi:10.1017/CHOL9780521811132.018. ISBN 978-1-139-05408-9.404-429&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2006&rft_id=info:doi/10.1017/CHOL9780521811132.018&rft.isbn=978-1-139-05408-9&rft.aulast=Cowe&rft.aufirst=S.&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:History+of+Christianity" class="Z3988">
* Crislip, Andrew Todd (2005). From Monastery to Hospital: Christian Monasticism & the Transformation of Health Care in Late Antiquity. University of Michigan Press. ISBN 978-0-472-11474-0.
* Croix, G. E. M. de Sainte (2006). Whitby, Michael (ed.). Christian Persecution, Martyrdom, and Orthodoxy. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-927812-1.
* Croke, Brian (2015). "Historiography". In Johnson, Scott Fitzgerald (ed.). The Oxford Handbook of Late Antiquity (illustrated reprint ed.). Oxford University Press. pp. 405–436\. ISBN 978-0-19-027753-6.405-436&rft.edition=illustrated+reprint&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-0-19-027753-6&rft.aulast=Croke&rft.aufirst=Brian&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:History+of+Christianity" class="Z3988">
* Cross, Richard (2001). "A Recent Contribution on the Distinction between Monophysitism and Chalcedonianism". The Thomist: A Speculative Quarterly Review. 65 (3). Project MUSE: 361–383\. doi:10.1353/tho.2001.0001.361-383&rft.date=2001&rft_id=info:doi/10.1353/tho.2001.0001&rft.aulast=Cross&rft.aufirst=Richard&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:History+of+Christianity" class="Z3988">
* Cullmann, Oscar (2018). The Earliest Christian Confessions (reprint ed.). Wipf & Stock. ISBN 978-1-5326-5336-0.
* Dawson, Christopher (2008). The Formation of Christendom (reprint ed.). Ignatius Press. ISBN 978-1-58617-239-8.
* Deane, Jennifer Kolpacoff (2022). A History of Medieval Heresy and Inquisition. Rowman & Littlefield. ISBN 978-1-5381-5295-9.
* de Juan, Alexander; Pierskalla, Jan Henryk (2017). "The Comparative Politics of Colonialism and Its Legacies: An Introduction". Politics & Society. 45 (2 Special Issue): 159–172\. doi:10.1177/0032329217704434. S2CID 54971921.159-172&rft.date=2017&rft_id=info:doi/10.1177/0032329217704434&rft_id=https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:54971921#id-name=S2CID&rft.aulast=de+Juan&rft.aufirst=Alexander&rft.au=Pierskalla,+Jan+Henryk&rft_id=https://www.ssoar.info/ssoar/handle/document/70543&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:History+of+Christianity" class="Z3988">
* De Jonge, H. J. (2003). "The New Testament Canon". In Auwers, Jean-Marie; De Jonge, H. J. bibliques de (eds.). The Biblical Canons. Leuven University Press. pp. 309–319\. ISBN 978-2-87723-651-5. Retrieved 17 August 2023.309-319&rft.pub=Leuven+University+Press&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-2-87723-651-5&rft.aulast=De+Jonge&rft.aufirst=H.+J.&rft_id=https://books.google.com/books?id=TkwQAQAAIAAJ&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:History+of+Christianity" class="Z3988">
* Deininger, Matthias (2014). Global Pentecostalism: An Inquiry into the Cultural Dimensions of Globalization. Anchor. ISBN 978-3-95489-570-0.
* Den Heijer, Alexandra (2011). Managing the University Campus: Information to Support Real Estate Decisions. Academische Uitgeverij Eburon. ISBN 978-90-5972-487-7.
* Dixon, C. Scott (2017). "Luther's Ninety-Five Theses and the Origins of the Reformation Narrative". The English Historical Review. 132 (556). Oxford University Press: 533–569\. doi:10.1093/ehr/cex224.533-569&rft.date=2017&rft_id=info:doi/10.1093/ehr/cex224&rft.aulast=Dixon&rft.aufirst=C.+Scott&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:History+of+Christianity" class="Z3988">
* Dorfmann-Lazarev, Igor (2008). "Beyond empire I: Eastern Christianities from the Persian to the Turkish conquest, 604–1071". In Noble, T.; Smith, J. (eds.). The Cambridge History of Christianity. Vol. 3\. Cambridge University Press. pp. 1–18\. doi:10.1017/CHOL9780521817752.002. ISBN 978-0-521-81775-2.1-18&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2008&rft_id=info:doi/10.1017/CHOL9780521817752.002&rft.isbn=978-0-521-81775-2&rft.aulast=Dorfmann-Lazarev&rft.aufirst=Igor&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:History+of+Christianity" class="Z3988">
* Dowley, Tim (2018). A Short Introduction to the History of Christianity. Fortress. ISBN 978-1-5064-4597-7.
* Doyle, Jim; Hightower, Sarah (2003). "A French Genocide:The Vendée". The Library Journal. 128 (10).
* Drake, H. A. (2007). "The church, society and political power". In Casiday, Augustine; Norris, Frederick W. (eds.). The Cambridge History of Christianity. Vol. 21\. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-139-05413-3.
* Dunbabin, Jean (2003). "The Council of Bourges, 1225: a Documentary History". The English Historical Review. 118 (475): 178–179\. doi:10.1093/ehr/118.475.178.178-179&rft.date=2003&rft_id=info:doi/10.1093/ehr/118.475.178&rft.aulast=Dunbabin&rft.aufirst=Jean&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:History+of+Christianity" class="Z3988">
* Dunn, Marilyn (2003). The Emergence of Monasticism: From the Desert Fathers to the Early Middle Ages. John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-1-4051-0641-2. Retrieved 17 August 2023.
* Dunn, James D.G. (1994). "WHY "INCARNATION"? A Review of Recent New Testament Scholarship". In Porter, Stanley E.; Joyce, Paul; Orton, David E. (eds.). Crossing the Boundaries Essays in Biblical Interpretation in Honour of Michael D. Goulder. Brill. doi:10.1163/9789004493513_021. ISBN 90-04-10131-4.
* Eichbauer, M. H. (2022). "The Shaping and Reshaping of the Relationship between Church and State from Late Antiquity to the Present: A Historical Perspective through the Lens of Canon Law". Religions. 13 (5): 378. doi:10.3390/rel13050378.
* Eidintas, Alfonsas (2001). President of Lithuania: Prisoner of the Gulag: a Biography of Aleksandras Stulginskis. Genocide and Resistance Research Center of Lithuania. ISBN 978-9986-757-41-2. Retrieved 17 August 2023.
* Eltis, David (1987). Economic Growth and the Ending of the Transatlantic Slave Trade. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-536481-1.
* Esler, Philip Francis (2017). "The Mediterranean Context of Early Christianity". The early Christian world. Vol. 1 (second ed.). Routledge. ISBN 978-1-138-20007-4.
* Estep, William R. (1986). "Attempts at Reform: Wycliffe and Huss". Renaissance and Reformation. Grand Rapids, MI: Wm. B. Eerdmans. pp. 58–77\. ISBN 978-0-8028-0050-3. Retrieved 11 May 2022.58-77&rft.pub=Wm.+B.+Eerdmans&rft.date=1986&rft.isbn=978-0-8028-0050-3&rft.aulast=Estep&rft.aufirst=William+R.&rft_id=https://books.google.com/books?id=dUENoh0ey4QC&pg;=PA58&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:History+of+Christianity" class="Z3988">
* Fahlbusch, Erwin; Bromiley, Geoffrey William, eds. (2003). The Encyclopedia of Christianity. Vol. 3\. Wm. B. Eerdmans. ISBN 978-90-04-12654-1.
* Ferguson, Everett (2002). "Factors leading to the Selection and Closure of the New Testament Canon". In McDonald, L. M.; Sanders, J. A. (eds.). The Canon Debate (reprint ed.). Hendrickson. ISBN 978-0-8010-4708-4.
* Fernandez, James W. (1979). "Africanization, Europeanization, Christianization". History of Religions. 18 (3): 284–292\. doi:10.1086/462823. S2CID 162935593.284-292&rft.date=1979&rft_id=info:doi/10.1086/462823&rft_id=https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:162935593#id-name=S2CID&rft.aulast=Fernandez&rft.aufirst=James+W.&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:History+of+Christianity" class="Z3988">
* Ferzoco, George (2001). "The Changing face of Tradition: Monastic Education in the Middle Ages". In Ferzoco, George; Muessig, Carolyn (eds.). Medieval Monastic Education. Bloomsbury. ISBN 978-1-4411-4340-2.
* Firlej, Dominik (2021–2022). "Why did Polish Kings not go on Crusade in the Levant?" (PDF). The Cupola. 16: 120–135\. Archived (PDF) from the original on 26 March 2023. Retrieved 5 July 2023.120-135&rft.date=2021/2022&rft.aulast=Firlej&rft.aufirst=Dominik&rft_id=https://cnu.edu/academics/research/_pdf/cnu-the_cupola.pdf&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:History+of+Christianity" class="Z3988">
* Flannery, John M. (2013). The Mission of the Portuguese Augustinians to Persia and Beyond (1602–1747). Brill. ISBN 978-90-04-24382-8. Retrieved 23 February 2024.
* Folda, Jaroslav (1995). "7". In Riley-Smith, Jonathan (ed.). The Oxford Illustrated History of the Crusades. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-820435-0.
* Fonnesberg-Schmidt, Iben (2007). The popes and the Baltic crusades, 1147–1254. Brill. ISBN 978-90-04-15502-2.
* Fontaine, Darcie (2016). Decolonizing Christianity: Religion and the End of Empire in France and Algeria. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-107-11817-1.
* Ford, David F. (2013). "Introduction". In Ford, David F.; Muers, Rachel (eds.). The Modern Theologians: An Introduction to Christian Theology Since 1918 (3rd ed.). John Wiley and Sons. ISBN 978-1-118-83496-1.
* Fox, Jonathan (2013). "Religious discrimination against religious minorities in Middle Eastern Muslim states". Civil Wars. 15 (4): 454–470\. doi:10.1080/13698249.2013.853413. S2CID 144353518.454-470&rft.date=2013&rft_id=info:doi/10.1080/13698249.2013.853413&rft_id=https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:144353518#id-name=S2CID&rft.aulast=Fox&rft.aufirst=Jonathan&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:History+of+Christianity" class="Z3988">
* Fox, Robin Lane (1987). Pagans and Christians. New York: Alfred A. Knopf. ISBN 978-0-394-55495-2.
* Franck, Thomas M. (1997). "Is Personal Freedom a Western Value?". American Journal of International Law. 91 (4): 593–627\. JSTOR 2998096. S2CID 144328175.593-627&rft.date=1997&rft_id=https://www.jstor.org/stable/2998096#id-name=JSTOR&rft_id=https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:144328175#id-name=S2CID&rft.aulast=Franck&rft.aufirst=Thomas+M.&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:History+of+Christianity" class="Z3988">
* Frassetto, Michael (2007). Heretic Lives: Medieval Heresy from Bogomil and the Cathars to Wyclif and Hus. London: Profile. pp. 7–198\. ISBN 978-1-86197-744-1.7-198&rft.pub=Profile&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-1-86197-744-1&rft.aulast=Frassetto&rft.aufirst=Michael&rft_id=https://books.google.com/books?id=3C4lAwAAQBAJ&pg;=PA7&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:History+of+Christianity" class="Z3988">
* Frend, W. H. C. (2020). The Donatist Church. Wipf & Stock. ISBN 978-1-5326-9755-5.
* Gaddis, Michael (2005). There Is No Crime for Those Who Have Christ: Religious Violence in the Christian Roman Empire. Berkeley: University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-24104-6.
* Garcia, Cheryl Crozier (2004). "Reviewed work: The Fourth Estate: A History of Women in the Middle Ages, Shulamith Shahar, Chaya Galai". International Social Science Review. 79 (3/4): 179–80\. JSTOR 41887204.179-80&rft.date=2004&rft_id=https://www.jstor.org/stable/41887204#id-name=JSTOR&rft.aulast=Garcia&rft.aufirst=Cheryl+Crozier&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:History+of+Christianity" class="Z3988">
* Gardner, Jane F. (1991). Women in Roman Law & Society. Indianapolis: Indiana University Press. p. 67\. ISBN 978-0-253-20635-0.
* Garrett, William R. (1987). "Religion, Law, and the Human Condition". Sociological Analysis. 47. Oxford University Press: 1–34\. JSTOR 3711649.1-34&rft.date=1987&rft_id=https://www.jstor.org/stable/3711649#id-name=JSTOR&rft.aulast=Garrett&rft.aufirst=William+R.&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:History+of+Christianity" class="Z3988">
* Gasper, Louis (2020). The Fundamentalist Movement (Repr. ed.). Walter de Gruyter. ISBN 978-3-11-231758-7.
* Gerberding, R.; Moran Cruz, J. H. (2004). Medieval Worlds. New York: Houghton Mifflin. ISBN 978-0-395-56087-7.
* Gerdmar, Anders (2009). Roots of Theological Anti-Semitism German Biblical Interpretation and the Jews, from Herder and Semler to Kittel and Bultmann. Brill. ISBN 978-90-04-16851-0.
* Gilley, Sheridan (2006). The Cambridge History of Christianity. Vol. 8: World Christianities c. 1815 – c. 1914. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-81456-0.
* Given, James Buchanan (2001). Inquisition and Medieval Society: Power, Discipline, and Resistance in Languedoc (Illustrated ed.). Cornell University Press. ISBN 978-0-8014-8759-0.
* Gonzalez, Justo L. (2010). The Story of Christianity. Vol. 2: The Reformation to the Present Day. HarperCollins. ISBN 978-0-06-185589-4. Retrieved 7 July 2023.
* Goodenough, Erwin R. (1962). "Catacomb Art". Journal of Biblical Literature. 81 (2): 113–142\. JSTOR 3264749.113-142&rft.date=1962&rft_id=https://www.jstor.org/stable/3264749#id-name=JSTOR&rft.aulast=Goodenough&rft.aufirst=Erwin+R.&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:History+of+Christianity" class="Z3988">
* Goodman, Martin (2007). "Identity and Authority in Ancient Judaism". Judaism in the Roman World: Collected Essays. Brill. ISBN 978-90-04-15309-7.
* Gordon, Bruce (2022). "Late Medieval Christianity". In Marshall, Peter (ed.). The Oxford History of the Reformation. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-289526-4.
* Grabar, André (2023). Christian Iconography. Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-25209-4.
* Green, Bernard (2010). Christianity in Ancient Rome: The First Three Centuries. London: A&C Black. ISBN 978-0-567-03250-8.
* Grzymała-Busse, Anna M. (2023). Sacred Foundations: The Religious and Medieval Roots of the European State (Illustrated ed.). Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-24513-3.
* Guy, Laurie (2011). Introducing Early Christianity: A Topical Survey of Its Life, Beliefs Practices. Westmont: InterVarsity.
* Haberkern, Phillip N. (2016). Patron Saint and Prophet: Jan Hus in the Bohemian and German Reformations. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-028074-1.
* Haight, Roger D. (2004). Christian Community in History. Vol. 1: Historical Ecclesiology. New York: Continuum. ISBN 978-0-8264-1630-8.
* Hall, John R.; Battani, Marshall; Neitz, Mary Jo (2004). Sociology On Culture. Taylor & Francis. ISBN 978-1-134-45237-8.
* Hamilton, Bernard (2003). The Christian world of the Middle Ages. Sutton. ISBN 0750924055.
* Harnett, Benjamin (2017). "The Diffusion of the Codex". Classical Antiquity. 36 (2). University of California Press: 183–235\. doi:10.1525/ca.2017.36.2.183. JSTOR 26362608.183-235&rft.date=2017&rft_id=info:doi/10.1525/ca.2017.36.2.183&rft_id=https://www.jstor.org/stable/26362608#id-name=JSTOR&rft.aulast=Harnett&rft.aufirst=Benjamin&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:History+of+Christianity" class="Z3988">
* Harney, Lorcan (2017). "Christianising Pagan Worlds in Conversion-Era Ireland: Archaeological Evidence for the Origins of Irish Ecclesiastical Sites". Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy: Archaeology, Culture, History, Literature. 117C: 103–130\. doi:10.3318/priac.2017.117.07.103-130&rft.date=2017&rft_id=info:doi/10.3318/priac.2017.117.07&rft.aulast=Harney&rft.aufirst=Lorcan&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:History+of+Christianity" class="Z3988">
* Harper, Kyle (2015). "Marriage and Family". In Johnson, Scott Fitzgerald (ed.). The Oxford Handbook of Late Antiquity (Repr. ed.). Oxford University Press. pp. 667–714\. ISBN 978-0-19-027753-6.667-714&rft.edition=Repr.&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-0-19-027753-6&rft.aulast=Harper&rft.aufirst=Kyle&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:History+of+Christianity" class="Z3988">
* Harris, Harriet A. (1998). Fundamentalism and Evangelicals (Repr. ed.). Clarendon. ISBN 978-0-19-826960-1.
* Harvey, Susan Ashbrook (2006). "Syria and Mesopotamia". In Mitchell, M.; Young, F. (eds.). The Cambridge History of Christianity. Vol. 1\. Cambridge University Press. pp. 351–365\. doi:10.1017/CHOL9780521812399.021. ISBN 978-0-521-81239-9.351-365&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2006&rft_id=info:doi/10.1017/CHOL9780521812399.021&rft.isbn=978-0-521-81239-9&rft.aulast=Harvey&rft.aufirst=Susan+Ashbrook&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:History+of+Christianity" class="Z3988">
* Haskins, Charles Homer (1971). Renaissance of the Twelfth Century (Rev. ed.). Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0-674-76075-2.
* Hastings, Ed (2000). "Law". In Hastings, Adrian; Mason, Alistair; Pyper, Hugh S. (eds.). The Oxford Companion to Christian Thought. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-860024-4.
* Heather, Peter (2007). The Fall of the Roman Empire: A New History of Rome and the Barbarians (Repr. ed.). Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-532541-6.
* Heimert, Alan (2006). Religion and the American Mind: From the Great Awakening to the Revolution (Repr. ed.). Wipf & Stock. ISBN 978-1-59752-614-2.
* Helvétius, Anne-Marie; Kaplan, Michel (2008). "Asceticism and its institutions". In Noble, Thomas F. X.; Smith, Julia M. H. (eds.). The Cambridge History of Christianity. Vol. 3\. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-139-05422-5.
* Herrin, Judith (2021). The Formation of Christendom. Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-21921-9.
* Herrin, Judith (2009). "Book Burning as purification". In Rousseau, Philip; Papoutsakis, Emmanuel (eds.). Transformations of Late Antiquity: Essays for Peter Brown. Vol. 2 (Repr. ed.). Ashgate. ISBN 978-0-7546-6553-3.
* Heß, Cordelia (2013). "A Common Enemy: Late Medieval Anticlericalism Revisited". Zeitschrift für Religionswissenschaft. 21 (1): 77–96\. doi:10.1515/zfr-2013-0003.77-96&rft.date=2013&rft_id=info:doi/10.1515/zfr-2013-0003&rft.aulast=Heß&rft.aufirst=Cordelia&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:History+of+Christianity" class="Z3988">
* Higham, Nicholas John; Ryan, Martin J. (2013). The Anglo-Saxon world. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-12534-4.
* Hilkert, Mary Catherine (1995). "Feminist theology: a review of literature". Theological Studies. 56 (2): 327–341\. doi:10.1177/004056399505600206. S2CID 171166197.327-341&rft.date=1995&rft_id=info:doi/10.1177/004056399505600206&rft_id=https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:171166197#id-name=S2CID&rft.aulast=Hilkert&rft.aufirst=Mary+Catherine&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:History+of+Christianity" class="Z3988">
* Hobson, Theo (2013). Reinventing Liberal Christianity. Eerdmans. ISBN 978-0-8028-6840-4.
* Holmes, J. Derek (1981). The Papacy in the Modern World, 1914–1978. Crossroad. ISBN 978-0-8245-0047-4. Retrieved 17 August 2023.
* Hopkins, Keith (1998). "Christian Number and Its Implications". Journal of Early Christian Studies. 6 (2): 185–226\. doi:10.1353/earl.1998.0035. S2CID 170769034.185-226&rft.date=1998&rft_id=info:doi/10.1353/earl.1998.0035&rft_id=https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:170769034#id-name=S2CID&rft.aulast=Hopkins&rft.aufirst=Keith&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:History+of+Christianity" class="Z3988">
* Houtman, Dick; Aupers, Stef (2007). "The Spiritual Turn and the Decline of Tradition:The Spread of Post-Christian Spirituality in 14 Western Countries, 1981–2000". Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion. 46 (3): 287–434\. doi:10.1111/j.1468-5906.2007.00360.x.287-434&rft.date=2007&rft_id=info:doi/10.1111/j.1468-5906.2007.00360.x&rft.aulast=Houtman&rft.aufirst=Dick&rft.au=Aupers,+Stef&rft_id=https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1468-5906.2007.00360.x&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:History+of+Christianity" class="Z3988">
* Howe, John (2016). Before the Gregorian Reform: The Latin Church at the Turn of the First Millennium. Cornell University Press. ISBN 978-1-5017-0370-6.
* Humfress, Caroline (2013). "5: Laws' Empire: Roman Universalism and Legal Practice". New Frontiers: Law and Society in the Roman World. Edinburgh University Press. ISBN 978-0-7486-6817-5.
* Humfress, Caroline (2015). "7 Patristic sources". In Johnston, David (ed.). The Cambridge Companion to Roman Law. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-89564-4.
* Hunter, Dard (1978) [1947]. Papermaking: The History and Technique of an Ancient Craft. New York: Dover. ISBN 978-0-486-23619-3.
* Hunyadi, Zsolt; Laszlovszky, József (2001). The Crusades and the Military Orders: Expanding the Frontiers of Medieval Latin Christianity. Budapest: Central European University Press. ISBN 978-963-9241-42-8.
* Inglebert, Hervé (2015). "Introduction". In Johnson, Scott Fitzgerald (ed.). The Oxford Handbook of Late Antiquity (Repr. ed.). Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-027753-6.
* Iricinschi, Eduard; Zellentin, Holger M. (2008). "Making selves and Marking others: identity and Late Antique Heresiologies". Heresy and identity in late antiquity. Mohr Siebeck. pp. 1–27\. ISBN 978-3-16-149122-1.1-27&rft.pub=Mohr+Siebeck&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-3-16-149122-1&rft.aulast=Iricinschi&rft.aufirst=Eduard&rft.au=Zellentin,+Holger+M.&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:History+of+Christianity" class="Z3988">
* Isichei, Elizabeth (1995). A history of Christianity in Africa: From antiquity to the present. Wm. B. Eerdmans. ISBN 978-0-8028-0843-1.
* Ivanič, Peter (2016). "The origins of Christianity in the territory of Czech and Slovak republics within the contexts of written sources". European Journal of Science and Theology. 12 (6): 123–130. Retrieved 9 June 2023.123-130&rft.date=2016&rft.aulast=Ivanič&rft.aufirst=Peter&rft_id=https://www.academia.edu/70908086&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:History+of+Christianity" class="Z3988">
* Jacob, Margaret (2006). "The Enlightenment critique of Christianity". In S. J. Brown; T. Tackett (eds.). The Cambridge History of Christianity. Vol. 7: Enlightenment, Reawakening and Revolution 1660–1815. Cambridge University Press. pp. 265–282\. ISBN 978-0-521-81605-2.265-282&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-0-521-81605-2&rft.aulast=Jacob&rft.aufirst=Margaret&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:History+of+Christianity" class="Z3988">
* Jenkins, Philip (2011). "The Rise of the New Christianity". The Next Christendom: The Coming of Global Christianity. Oxford University Press. pp. 101–133\. ISBN 978-0-19-976746-5. Retrieved 16 February 2022.101-133&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-0-19-976746-5&rft.aulast=Jenkins&rft.aufirst=Philip&rft_id=https://books.google.com/books?id=rPBoAgAAQBAJ&pg;=PA101&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:History+of+Christianity" class="Z3988">
* Jenkins, Philip (2008). The Lost History of Christianity: The Thousand-Year Golden Age of the Church in the Middle East, Africa, and Asia — and How It Died. HarperCollins. pp. 14–15.14-15&rft.pub=HarperCollins&rft.date=2008&rft.aulast=Jenkins&rft.aufirst=Philip&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:History+of+Christianity" class="Z3988">
* Jestice, Phyllis G. (1997). Wayward Monks and the Religious Revolution of the Eleventh Century. Brill. ISBN 978-90-04-10722-9.
* Jones, David Ceri; White, Eryn Mant (2012). The Elect Methodists: Calvinistic Methodism in England and Wales, 1735–1811. University of Wales Press. ISBN 978-0-7083-2502-5.
* Judge, E. A. (2010). Nobbs, Alanna (ed.). Jerusalem and Athens: Cultural Transformation in Late Antiquity. Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck. ISBN 978-3-16-150572-0. Retrieved 4 August 2023.
* Kaldellis, Anthony (2012). Procopius of Caesarea: Tyranny, History, and Philosophy at the End of Antiquity. University of Pennsylvania Press. ISBN 978-0-8122-0241-0.
* Kaplan, Benjamin J. (2009). Divided by Faith Religious Conflict and the Practice of Toleration in Early Modern Europe. Harvard University Press. p. 191\. ISBN 978-0-674-03930-8.
* Kelly, Joseph Francis (2009). The Ecumenical Councils of the Catholic Church: A History. Liturgical Press. ISBN 978-0-8146-5376-0. Retrieved 17 August 2023.
* Kenworthy, Scott M. (2008). "Beyond Schism: Restoring Eastern Orthodoxy to the History of Christianity". Reviews in Religion and Theology. 15 (2): 171–178\. doi:10.1111/j.1467-9418.2007.00377_1.x.171-178&rft.date=2008&rft_id=info:doi/10.1111/j.1467-9418.2007.00377_1.x&rft.aulast=Kenworthy&rft.aufirst=Scott+M.&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:History+of+Christianity" class="Z3988">
* Kienzle, Beverly Mayne (2001). Cistercians, Heresy, and Crusade in Occitania, 1145–1229: Preaching in the Lord's Vineyard. Boydell. ISBN 978-1-903153-00-0.
* Kim, Hyun Jin (2013). The Huns, Rome and the Birth of Europe. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-107-06722-6.
* Kim, Lloyd (2006). Polemic in the Book of Hebrews: Anti-Judaism, Anti-Semitism, Supersessionism?. Wipf & Stock. ISBN 978-1-4982-7636-8.
* Kirby, David P. (2000). The earliest English kings (Rev. ed.). London: Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-24211-0.
* Kitromilides, Paschalis (2006). "Orthodoxy and the West: Reformation to Enlightenment". In Angold, Michael (ed.). The Cambridge History of Christianity. Cambridge University Press. pp. 187–209\. doi:10.1017/CHOL9780521811132.009. ISBN 978-1-139-05408-9.187-209&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2006&rft_id=info:doi/10.1017/CHOL9780521811132.009&rft.isbn=978-1-139-05408-9&rft.aulast=Kitromilides&rft.aufirst=Paschalis&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:History+of+Christianity" class="Z3988">
* Klier, John Doyle; Lambroza, Shlomo (2004). Pogroms: Anti-Jewish Violence in Modern Russian History. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-52851-1. Retrieved 17 August 2023.
* Klutz, Todd (2002) [2000]. "Part II: Christian Origins and Development – Paul and the Development of Gentile Christianity". In Esler, Philip F. (ed.). The Early Christian World. Routledge Worlds (1st ed.). New York and London: Routledge. ISBN 978-1-03-219934-4.
* Kolbaba, Tia M. (2008). "Latin and Greek Christians". In Noble, Thomas F. X.; Smith, Julia M. H. (eds.). The Cambridge History of Christianity. Vol. 3\. Cambridge University Press. pp. 213–229\. ISBN 978-1-139-05422-5.213-229&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-1-139-05422-5&rft.aulast=Kolbaba&rft.aufirst=Tia+M.&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:History+of+Christianity" class="Z3988">
* Köstenberger, Andreas J.; Kellum, Leonard Scott; Quarles, Charles Leland (2009). The Cradle, the Cross, and the Crown: An Introduction to the New Testament. B&H. ISBN 978-0-8054-4365-3. Retrieved 17 August 2023.
* Kostick, Conor (2010). "Introduction". In Kostick, Conor (ed.). The Crusades and the Near East: Cultural Histories. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-136-90247-5. Retrieved 17 August 2023.
* Kraemer, Ross S. (1980). "The Conversion of Women to Ascetic Forms of Christianity". Signs. 6 (2): 298–307\. doi:10.1086/493798. JSTOR 3173928. S2CID 143202380.298-307&rft.date=1980&rft_id=https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:143202380#id-name=S2CID&rft_id=https://www.jstor.org/stable/3173928#id-name=JSTOR&rft_id=info:doi/10.1086/493798&rft.aulast=Kraemer&rft.aufirst=Ross+S.&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:History+of+Christianity" class="Z3988">
* Kwiatkowska, Theresa (2010). "The Light Was Retreating Before Darkness: tales of the Witchhunt and Climate change". Medievalia (42). Mexico City: Ciudad Universitaria: 30–37\. Archived from the original on 12 July 2023. Retrieved 14 July 2023.30-37&rft.date=2010&rft.aulast=Kwiatkowska&rft.aufirst=Theresa&rft_id=https://revistas-filologicas.unam.mx/medievalia/index.php/mv/article/view/255/263&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:History+of+Christianity" class="Z3988">
* Lacopo, Frank P. (2016). "Medieval Europe and the Culture of Contempt in the Age of the Lateran Councils". Grand Valley Journal of History. 4 (2).
* Law, David R. (2012). The Historical-Critical Method: A Guide for the Perplexed. T&T Clark. ISBN 978-0-567-40012-3.
* LaFosse, Mona Tokarek (2017). "Women, Children and house churches". In Esler, Philip F. (ed.). The Early Christian World. Vol. II (second ed.). Routledge. ISBN 978-1-03-219935-1.
* Larson, Atria (2016). "Introduction". In Larson, Atria; Sisson, Keith (eds.). A Companion to the Medieval Papacy: Growth of an Ideology and Institution. Brill. ISBN 978-90-04-31528-0.
* Law, Stephen (2011). "Evidence, Miracles, and the Existence of Jesus". Faith and Philosophy. 28 (2): 129. doi:10.5840/faithphil20112821. Archived from the original on 29 July 2021. Retrieved 18 May 2023.
* Lazzarini, Isabella; Blanning, T. C. W., eds. (2021). The Later Middle Ages. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-873164-1.
* Léglu, Catherine; Rist, Rebecca; Taylor, Claire, eds. (2013). "Historical introduction". The Cathars and the Albigensian Crusade A Sourcebook (first ed.). Routledge. doi:10.4324/9781315798141. ISBN 978-0-415-73688-6.
* Levack, Brian P. (2013). "Introduction". In Levack, Brian P. (ed.). The Oxford Handbook of Witchcraft in Early Modern Europe and Colonial America. Oxford University Press. pp. 1–10\. ISBN 978-0-19-957816-0.1-10&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-0-19-957816-0&rft.aulast=Levack&rft.aufirst=Brian+P.&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:History+of+Christianity" class="Z3988">
* Levine, Amy-Jill (2022). "Supersessionism: Admit and Address Rather than Debate or Deny". Religions. 13 (155): 155. doi:10.3390/rel13020155.
* Lieu, Judith M. (1999). "The 'attraction of women' in/to early Judaism and Christianity: gender and the politics of conversion". Journal for the Study of the New Testament. 21 (72): 5–22\. doi:10.1177/0142064X9902107202. S2CID 144475695.5-22&rft.date=1999&rft_id=info:doi/10.1177/0142064X9902107202&rft_id=https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:144475695#id-name=S2CID&rft.aulast=Lieu&rft.aufirst=Judith+M.&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:History+of+Christianity" class="Z3988">
* Lindberg, David C.; Numbers, Ronald L. (1986). "Introduction". In Lindberg, David C.; Numbers, Ronald L. (eds.). God & Nature: Historical Essays on the Encounter Between Christianity and Science. Berkeley: University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-05538-4.
* Logan, F. Donald (2013). A History of the Church in the Middle Ages (illustrated ed.). Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-66994-8.
* Löhr, Winrich (2007). "Western Christianities". In Casiday, Augustine; Norris, Frederick W. (eds.). The Cambridge History of Christianity. Vol. 2\. Cambridge University. pp. 7–51\. ISBN 978-1-139-05413-3.7-51&rft.pub=Cambridge+University&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-1-139-05413-3&rft.aulast=Löhr&rft.aufirst=Winrich&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:History+of+Christianity" class="Z3988">
* Longwell, Horace Craig (1928). "The Significance of Scholasticism". The Philosophical Review. 37 (3): 210–225\. JSTOR 2179428.210-225&rft.date=1928&rft_id=https://www.jstor.org/stable/2179428#id-name=JSTOR&rft.aulast=Longwell&rft.aufirst=Horace+Craig&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:History+of+Christianity" class="Z3988">
* Louth, Andrew (2008). "The emergence of Byzantine Orthodoxy, 600–1095". In Noble, Thomas F. X.; Smith, Julia M. H. (eds.). The Cambridge History of Christianity. Vol. Early Medieval Christianities, c.600 – c.1100. ISBN 978-1-139-05422-5.
* MacCulloch, Diarmaid (2004). The Reformation: A History. Viking. ISBN 978-0-670-03296-9. Retrieved 17 August 2023.
* MacCulloch, Diarmaid (2009). A History of Christianity: The First Three Thousand Years. London: Allen Lane. ISBN 978-0-7139-9869-6.
* MacDonald, Margaret Y. (1996). Early Christian Women and Pagan Opinion The power of the hysterical woman. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-56174-7.
* Macdonald, Stuart (2015). "The Changed (and Changing) Face of Church History". Toronto Journal of Theology. 31 (1): 29–42\. doi:10.3138/tjt.30.suppl_1.29.29-42&rft.date=2015&rft_id=info:doi/10.3138/tjt.30.suppl_1.29&rft.aulast=Macdonald&rft.aufirst=Stuart&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:History+of+Christianity" class="Z3988">
* McGowan, Andrew B. (2016). "Book review The Original Bishops: Office and Order in the First Christian Communities". Ecclesiology. 12 (3): 370–372\. doi:10.1163/17455316-01203010.370-372&rft.date=2016&rft_id=info:doi/10.1163/17455316-01203010&rft.aulast=McGowan&rft.aufirst=Andrew+B.&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:History+of+Christianity" class="Z3988">
* Mannion, Gerard; Mudge, Lewis Seymour (2008). The Routledge Companion to the Christian Church. Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-37420-0.
* Marcocci, Giuseppe (2013). Paiva, José Pedro (ed.). "From start to finish: the history of the Portuguese Inquisition revisited". História da Inquisição Portuguesa (1536–1821). 20. Lisboa: Esfera dos Livros. Archived from the original on 7 July 2020. Retrieved 14 July 2023.
* Marcus, Joel (2006). "Jewish Christianity". In Mitchell, Margaret M.; Young, Francis M. (eds.). The Cambridge History of Christianity. Vol. 1\. Cambridge University Press. pp. 85–102\. ISBN 978-1-139-05483-6.85-102&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-1-139-05483-6&rft.aulast=Marcus&rft.aufirst=Joel&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:History+of+Christianity" class="Z3988">
* Markus, Robert Austin (1990). The End of Ancient Christianity (illustrated, reprint ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-33949-0.
* Marty, Martin (2006). "The American Revolution and religion, 1765–1815". In Brown, Stewart; Tackett, Timothy (eds.). The Cambridge History of Christianity. Vol. 7\. Cambridge University Press. pp. 495–516\. doi:10.1017/CHOL9780521816052.027. ISBN 978-1-139-05412-6.495-516&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2006&rft_id=info:doi/10.1017/CHOL9780521816052.027&rft.isbn=978-1-139-05412-6&rft.aulast=Marty&rft.aufirst=Martin&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:History+of+Christianity" class="Z3988">
* Marvin, Laurence W. (2008). The Occitan War: A Military and Political History of the Albigensian Crusade, 1209–1218. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-139-47014-8.
* Masters, Ryan K.; Young, Michael P. (2022). "The Power of Religious Activism in Tocqueville's America: The Second Great Awakening and the Rise of Temperance and Abolitionism in New York State". Social Science History. 46 (3): 473–504\. doi:10.1017/ssh.2022.6. S2CID 247830382.473-504&rft.date=2022&rft_id=info:doi/10.1017/ssh.2022.6&rft_id=https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:247830382#id-name=S2CID&rft.aulast=Masters&rft.aufirst=Ryan+K.&rft.au=Young,+Michael+P.&rft_id=https://doi.org/10.1017%2Fssh.2022.6&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:History+of+Christianity" class="Z3988">
* Mathews, Shailer (1909). "The Council at Jerusalem". The Biblical World. 33 (5). The University of Chicago Press: 337–342\. doi:10.1086/474194. JSTOR 3141730.337-342&rft.date=1909&rft_id=info:doi/10.1086/474194&rft_id=https://www.jstor.org/stable/3141730#id-name=JSTOR&rft.aulast=Mathews&rft.aufirst=Shailer&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:History+of+Christianity" class="Z3988">
* Mathisen, Ralph W. (2002). "The Christianization of the Late Roman Senatorial Order: Circumstances and Scholarship". International Journal of the Classical Tradition. 9issue=Fall 2 (2): 257–278\. doi:10.1007/BF02898437. JSTOR 30224309.257-278&rft.date=2002&rft_id=info:doi/10.1007/BF02898437&rft_id=https://www.jstor.org/stable/30224309#id-name=JSTOR&rft.aulast=Mathisen&rft.aufirst=Ralph+W.&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:History+of+Christianity" class="Z3988">
* Matthews, Roy T.; Platt, F. DeWitt (1998). The Western Humanities: The Renaissance to the Present. Mayfield. ISBN 978-0-87484-785-7.
* Matter, Ann E. (2008). "Orthodoxy and deviance". In Noble, T.; Smith, J. (eds.). The Cambridge History of Christianity. Vol. 3\. Cambridge University Press. pp. 510–530\. doi:10.1017/CHOL9780521817752.002. ISBN 978-0-521-81775-2.510-530&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2008&rft_id=info:doi/10.1017/CHOL9780521817752.002&rft.isbn=978-0-521-81775-2&rft.aulast=Matter&rft.aufirst=Ann+E.&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:History+of+Christianity" class="Z3988">
* Mayer, T. F. (2014). The Roman Inquisition on the Stage of Italy, c. 1590–1640. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press. ISBN 978-0-8122-4573-8.
* Maxwell, Jaclyn (2015). "Paganism and Christianization". In Johnson, Scott Fitzgerald (ed.). The Oxford Handbook of Late Antiquity (Repr. ed.). Oxford University Press. pp. 849–875\. ISBN 978-0-19-027753-6.849-875&rft.edition=Repr.&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-0-19-027753-6&rft.aulast=Maxwell&rft.aufirst=Jaclyn&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:History+of+Christianity" class="Z3988">
* McGill, Scott (2015). "Latin poetry". In Johnson, Scott Fitzgerald (ed.). The Oxford Handbook of Late Antiquity (Repr. ed.). Oxford University Press. pp. 335–360\. ISBN 978-0-19-027753-6.335-360&rft.edition=Repr.&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-0-19-027753-6&rft.aulast=McGill&rft.aufirst=Scott&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:History+of+Christianity" class="Z3988">
* McGinn, Sheila E. (2017). "Internal Renewal and Dissent in the Early Christian World". In Esler, Philip F. (ed.). The Early Christian World. Vol. II (second ed.). Routledge. ISBN 978-1-03-219935-1.
* McLeod, Hugh (2006). "Introduction". In McLeod, Hugh (ed.). The Cambridge History of Christianity. Vol. 9: World Christianities c.1914-c.2000. Cambridge University Press. pp. 1–14\. doi:10.1017/CHOL9780521815000.002. ISBN 978-1-139-05485-0.1-14&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2006&rft_id=info:doi/10.1017/CHOL9780521815000.002&rft.isbn=978-1-139-05485-0&rft.aulast=McLeod&rft.aufirst=Hugh&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:History+of+Christianity" class="Z3988">
* Meeks, Wayne A. (2003). The First Urban Christians (2nd ed.). Yale University. ISBN 978-0-300-09861-7.
* Meyendorff, John (1979). Byzantine Theology: Historical Trends and Doctrinal Themes (Rev. ed.). Fordham University Press. ISBN 978-0-8232-0967-5.
* Micheau, Françoise (2006). "Eastern Christianities (eleventh to fourteenth century): Copts, Melkites, Nestorians and Jacobites". In Angold, Michael (ed.). The Cambridge History of Christianity. Vol. 5: Eastern Christianity. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-139-05408-9.
* Milnor, Kristina (2011). "Women in Roman Society". In Peachin, Michael (ed.). The Oxford Handbook of Social Relations in the Roman World. doi:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780195188004.013.0029. ISBN 978-0-19-518800-4.
* Moore, R. I. (2007). The Formation of a Persecuting Society (2nd ed.). Malden, MA: Blackwell. ISBN 978-1-4051-2964-0.
* Mout, Nicolette (2007). "Peace without concord: Religious toleration in theory and practice". In Hsia, R. (ed.). The Cambridge History of Christianity. Vol. 6\. Cambridge University Press. pp. 225–243\. doi:10.1017/CHOL9780521811620.014. ISBN 978-1-139-05484-3.225-243&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2007&rft_id=info:doi/10.1017/CHOL9780521811620.014&rft.isbn=978-1-139-05484-3&rft.aulast=Mout&rft.aufirst=Nicolette&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:History+of+Christianity" class="Z3988">
* Muers, Rachel (2013). "Feminism, Gender, and Theology". In Ford, David F.; Muers, Rachel (eds.). The Modern Theologians: An Introduction to Christian Theology Since 1918 (3rd ed.). John Wiley and Sons. pp. 431–450\. ISBN 978-1-118-83496-1.431-450&rft.edition=3rd&rft.pub=John+Wiley+and+Sons&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-1-118-83496-1&rft.aulast=Muers&rft.aufirst=Rachel&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:History+of+Christianity" class="Z3988">
* Mundy, John H. (2000). Europe in the High Middle Ages 1150–1300 (3rd ed.). Routledge. ISBN 978-0-582-36987-0.
* Murphy, James Bernard (2014). "Religious Violence: Myth or Reality? A Symposium on William T. Cavanaugh's The Myth of Religious Violence". Political Theology. 15 (6): 479–485\. doi:10.1179/1462317X14Z.00000000093. S2CID 147458599.479-485&rft.date=2014&rft_id=info:doi/10.1179/1462317X14Z.00000000093&rft_id=https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:147458599#id-name=S2CID&rft.aulast=Murphy&rft.aufirst=James+Bernard&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:History+of+Christianity" class="Z3988">
* Nelson, Janet L. (2008). "Law and its applications". In Noble, T.; Smith, J. (eds.). The Cambridge History of Christianity. Vol. 3\. Cambridge University Press. pp. 299–326\. doi:10.1017/CHOL9780521817752.002. ISBN 978-0-521-81775-2.299-326&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2008&rft_id=info:doi/10.1017/CHOL9780521817752.002&rft.isbn=978-0-521-81775-2&rft.aulast=Nelson&rft.aufirst=Janet+L.&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:History+of+Christianity" class="Z3988">
* Noll, Mark A. (1997). Turning Points: Decisive Moments in the History of Christianity. Baker. ISBN 978-0-8010-5778-6. Retrieved 17 August 2023.
* Oakley, Francis (1985). The Western Church in the Later Middle Ages (revised ed.). Cornell University Press. ISBN 978-0-8014-9347-8.
* O'Collins, Gerald (2014). The Second Vatican Council: Message and Meaning (Repr. ed.). Liturgical Press. ISBN 978-0-8146-8336-1.
* Olson, Roger E. (1999). The Story of Christian Theology: Twenty Centuries of Tradition and Reform. Downer's Grove, IN: InterVarsity. p. 172\. ISBN 978-0-8308-1505-0.
* O'Malley, John W. (1995). The First Jesuits. Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0-674-25194-6.
* Onnekink, David (2016). War and Religion after Westphalia, 1648–1713 (Repr. ed.). Routledge. ISBN 978-1-317-00052-5.
* Opoensky, Milan (2004). "Theology between Yesterday and Tomorrow". Occasional Papers on Religion in Eastern Europe. 24 (1) 2.
* Palmer-Fernandes, Gabriel (1991). "Modern christian ethics". In Carman, John; Jürgensmeyer, Mark; Darrow, William (eds.). A Bibliographic Guide to the Comparative Study of Ethics. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-34448-7.
* Patterson, Annabel (1997). Early modern liberalism (Illustrated ed.). Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-59260-4.
* Pearson, Birger A. (2006). "Egypt". In Mitchell, M.; Young, F. (eds.). The Cambridge History of Christianity: Origins to Constantine. Vol. 1\. Cambridge University Press. pp. 330–350\. doi:10.1017/CHOL9780521812399.020. ISBN 978-1-139-05483-6.330-350&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2006&rft_id=info:doi/10.1017/CHOL9780521812399.020&rft.isbn=978-1-139-05483-6&rft.aulast=Pearson&rft.aufirst=Birger+A.&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:History+of+Christianity" class="Z3988">
* Pennington, Kenneth (2011). "Feudal Oath of Fidelity and Homage". In Pennington, Kenneth; Eichbauer, Melodie Harris (eds.). Law as Profession and Practice in Medieval Europe (first ed.). Routledge. ISBN 978-1-315-59155-1.
* Pennington, K. (2007). "The growth of church law". In Casiday, Augustine; Norris, Frederick W (eds.). The Cambridge History of Christianity. Vol. 2\. Cambridge University Press. pp. 386–402\. doi:10.1017/CHOL9780521812443.018. ISBN 978-1-107-42363-3.386-402&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2007&rft_id=info:doi/10.1017/CHOL9780521812443.018&rft.isbn=978-1-107-42363-3&rft.aulast=Pennington&rft.aufirst=K.&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:History+of+Christianity" class="Z3988">
* Peters, Edward, ed. (1980). Heresy and Authority in Medieval Europe. Pittsburgh: University of Pennsylvania Press. ISBN 978-0-8122-1103-0.
* Phipps, W. E. (1988). "The origin of hospices/hospitals". Death Studies. 12 (2): 91–99\. doi:10.1080/07481188808252226. PMID 10302347.91-99&rft.date=1988&rft_id=info:doi/10.1080/07481188808252226&rft_id=info:pmid/10302347&rft.aulast=Phipps&rft.aufirst=W.+E.&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:History+of+Christianity" class="Z3988">
* Pintarić, Damir (16 November 2014). "Ecumenism – yes and/or no?". Kairos: Evangelical Journal of Theology. 8 (2): 175–186\. ISSN 1846-4599. Archived from the original on 6 August 2023. Retrieved 6 August 2023.175-186&rft.date=2014-11-16&rft.issn=1846-4599&rft.aulast=Pintarić&rft.aufirst=Damir&rft_id=https://hrcak.srce.hr/215547&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:History+of+Christianity" class="Z3988">
* Pipes, Richard (1995). Russia Under the Bolshevik Regime. Knopf Doubleday. ISBN 978-0-679-76184-6. Retrieved 17 August 2023.
* Pomeroy, Sarah (1995). "Women in the Bronze Age and Homeric Epic". Goddesses, Whores, Wives, and Slaves: Women in Classical Antiquity. New York: Schocken. ISBN 978-0-8052-1030-9.
* Ponce Herrero, Gabino; Martí Ciriquián, Pablo (2019). "El complejo urbano transfronterizo Melilla-Nador" (PDF). Investigaciones Geográficas (72). Alicante: San Vicente del Raspeig: 101–124\. doi:10.14198/INGEO2019.72.05. hdl:10045/99969. ISSN 1989-9890. S2CID 213966829. Retrieved 26 June 2023.101-124&rft.date=2019&rft_id=info:hdl/10045/99969&rft_id=https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:213966829#id-name=S2CID&rft.issn=1989-9890&rft_id=info:doi/10.14198/INGEO2019.72.05&rft.aulast=Ponce+Herrero&rft.aufirst=Gabino&rft.au=Martí+Ciriquián,+Pablo&rft_id=https://rua.ua.es/dspace/bitstream/10045/99969/1/Investigaciones_Geograficas_72_05.pdf&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:History+of+Christianity" class="Z3988">
* Poppe, Andrzej (1991). "Christianity and Ideological change in Kievan Rus': The First Hundred Years". Canadian-American Slavic Studies. 25 (1–4): 3–26\. doi:10.1163/221023991X00038.1–4&rft.pages=3-26&rft.date=1991&rft_id=info:doi/10.1163/221023991X00038&rft.aulast=Poppe&rft.aufirst=Andrzej&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:History+of+Christianity" class="Z3988">
* Porter, Stanley E. (2011). "Early Apocryphal Non-Gospel Literature and the New Testament Text" (PDF). Journal of Greco-Roman Christianity and Judaism. 8: 192–198\. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022. Retrieved 5 August 2023.192-198&rft.date=2011&rft.aulast=Porter&rft.aufirst=Stanley+E.&rft_id=http://www.jgrchj.net/volume8/JGRChJ8-9_Porter.pdf&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:History+of+Christianity" class="Z3988">
* Praet, Danny (1992). "Explaining the Christianization of the Roman Empire. Older theories and recent developments". Sacris Erudiri. Jaarboek voor Godsdienstgeschiedenis. A Journal on the Inheritance of Early and Medieval Christianity. 23: 5–119.5-119&rft.date=1992&rft.aulast=Praet&rft.aufirst=Danny&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:History+of+Christianity" class="Z3988">
* Radić, Radmilla (2010). "11:Serbian Christianity". In Parry, Ken (ed.). The Blackwell Companion to Eastern Christianity. Wiley. ISBN 978-1-4443-3361-9.
* Rahner, Hugo (2013). Church and State in Early Christianity. Ignatius. ISBN 978-1-68149-099-1.
* Rankin, David (2017). "Arianism". In Esler, Philip F. (ed.). The Early Christian World. Vol. II (second ed.). Routledge. ISBN 978-1-03-219935-1.
* Rapp, Stephen H. Jr. (2007). "Chapter 7 – Georgian Christianity". In Parry, Ken (ed.). The Blackwell Companion to Eastern Christianity. John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-1-4443-3361-9.
* Rappaport, Helen (13 December 1999). Joseph Stalin: A Biographical Companion. ABC-CLIO. ISBN 978-1-57607-084-0. Retrieved 17 August 2023.
* Rauschenbusch, Walter (1917). Theology for the Social Gospel. Macmillan. LCCN 17031090. OCLC 1085604908.
* Rawlings, Helen (2006). The Spanish Inquisition. Malden, MA: Blackwell. ISBN 978-0-631-20599-9.
* Resnick, Irven M. (2012). Marks of Distinctions: Christian Perceptions of Jews in the High Middle Ages. The Catholic University of America Press. ISBN 978-0-8132-1969-1.
* Rives, J. B. (1999). "The Decree of Decius and the Religion of Empire". The Journal of Roman Studies. 89: 135–154\. JSTOR 300738. S2CID 159942854.135-154&rft.date=1999&rft_id=https://www.jstor.org/stable/300738#id-name=JSTOR&rft_id=https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:159942854#id-name=S2CID&rft.aulast=Rives&rft.aufirst=J.+B.&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:History+of+Christianity" class="Z3988">
* Robert, Dana L. (2009). Christian Mission: How Christianity Became a World Religion (Illustrated ed.). John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-0-631-23619-1.
* Roberts, C. H. (1949). "The Christian Book and the Greek Papyri". The Journal of Theological Studies. 50 (199/200): 155–168\. doi:10.1093/jts/os-L.2.155. JSTOR 23954151.155-168&rft.date=1949&rft_id=info:doi/10.1093/jts/os-L.2.155&rft_id=https://www.jstor.org/stable/23954151#id-name=JSTOR&rft.aulast=Roberts&rft.aufirst=C.+H.&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:History+of+Christianity" class="Z3988">
* Robinson, W. Stitt (May 1952). "Indian Education and Missions in Colonial Virginia". The Journal of Southern History. 18 (2): 152–168\. JSTOR 2954270.152-168&rft.date=1952-05&rft_id=https://www.jstor.org/stable/2954270#id-name=JSTOR&rft.aulast=Robinson&rft.aufirst=W.+Stitt&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:History+of+Christianity" class="Z3988">
* Rose, E. M. (2015). The Murder of William of Norwich: The Origins of the Blood Libel in Medieval Europe. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-021962-8.
* Rosenthal, Judah M. (1956). "The Talmud on Trial: The Disputation at Paris in the Year 1240". The Jewish Quarterly Review. 47 (1): 58–76\. JSTOR 1453186.58-76&rft.date=1956&rft_id=https://www.jstor.org/stable/1453186#id-name=JSTOR&rft.aulast=Rosenthal&rft.aufirst=Judah+M.&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:History+of+Christianity" class="Z3988">
* Rosenwein, Barbara H. (2014). A Short History of the Middle Ages. Vol. 1 (Fourth ed.). University of Toronto Press. ISBN 978-1-4426-0611-1.
* Rossino, Alexander B. (2003). Hitler Strikes Poland: Blitzkrieg, Ideology, and Atrocity (Rev. ed.). University Press of Kansas. ISBN 978-0-7006-1392-2.
* Rousseau, Philip (2017). "Inheriting the fifth century: Who bequeathed what?". In Allen, Pauline; Jeffreys, Elizabeth (eds.). The Sixth Century: End or Beginning?. Brill. ISBN 978-1-86420-074-4.
* Rubin, Miri; Simons, Walter (2009). "Introduction". In Rubin, Miri; Simons, Walter (eds.). The Cambridge History of Christianity. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-139-05602-1.
* Sabo, Theodore (2018). From Monophysitism to Nestorianism: AD 431–681. Cambridge Scholars Publishing. ISBN 978-1-5275-0959-7.[better source needed]
* Sághy, Marianne; Schoolman, Edward M. (2017). Pagans and Christians in the Late Roman Empire: New Evidence, New Approaches (4th–8th centuries). Central European University Press. ISBN 978-963-386-256-8.
* Salzman, Michele Renee (2002). The Making of a Christian Aristocracy: Social and Religious Change in the Western Roman Empire. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0-674-00641-6.
* Salzman, Michele Renee (1993). "The Evidence for the Conversion of the Roman Empire to Christianity in Book 16 of the 'Theodosian Code". Historia: Zeitschrift für Alte Geschichte. 42 (3). Franz Steiner Verlag: 362–378\. JSTOR 4436297.362-378&rft.date=1993&rft_id=https://www.jstor.org/stable/4436297#id-name=JSTOR&rft.aulast=Salzman&rft.aufirst=Michele+Renee&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:History+of+Christianity" class="Z3988">
* Salzman, Michelle Renee (2021). The Falls of Rome: Crises, Resilience, and Resurgence in Late Antiquity. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-107-11142-4.
* Sanmark, Alexandra (2004). Power and Conversion. A Comparative Study of Christianization in Scandinavia. The University of Uppsala. ISBN 978-91-506-1739-9.
* Sanneh, Lamin O. (2007). Disciples of all nations: Pillars of world Christianity. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-804084-2.
* Sanneh, Lamin O. (2016). "Bible Translation, Culture, and Religion". In Sanneh, Lamin; McClymond, Michael (eds.). The Wiley Blackwell Companion to World Christianity. John Wiley & Sons. pp. 263–281\. ISBN 978-1-118-55604-7.263-281&rft.pub=John+Wiley+&+Sons&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=978-1-118-55604-7&rft.aulast=Sanneh&rft.aufirst=Lamin+O.&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:History+of+Christianity" class="Z3988">
* Schacter, Jacob J. (2011). Carlebach, Elisheva; Schacter, Jacob J. (eds.). New Perspectives on Jewish-Christian Relations: In Honor of David Berger. Netherlands: Brill. ISBN 978-9-00422-118-5.
* Schäferdiek, Knut (2007). "Germanic and Celtic Christianities". In Casiday, Augustine; Norris, Frederick W. (eds.). The Cambridge History of Christianity. Cambridge University Press. pp. 52–69\. doi:10.1017/CHOL9780521812443. ISBN 978-1-139-05413-3.52-69&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2007&rft_id=info:doi/10.1017/CHOL9780521812443&rft.isbn=978-1-139-05413-3&rft.aulast=Schäferdiek&rft.aufirst=Knut&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:History+of+Christianity" class="Z3988">
* Schaff, Philip (1953). History of the Christian Church. Vol. IV: Mediaeval Christianity. A.D. 590–1073. CCEL. pp. 161–162\. ISBN 978-1-61025-043-6.161-162&rft.pub=CCEL&rft.date=1953&rft.isbn=978-1-61025-043-6&rft.aulast=Schaff&rft.aufirst=Philip&rft_id=https://books.google.com/books?id=v5CV_-6BGFgC&pg;=PT161&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:History+of+Christianity" class="Z3988">
* Schaltegger, Christoph A.; Torgler, Benno (1 May 2010). "Work ethic, Protestantism, and human capital" (PDF). Economics Letters. 107 (2): 99–101\. doi:10.1016/j.econlet.2009.12.037. Archived (PDF) from the original on 22 May 2023.99-101&rft.date=2010-05-01&rft_id=info:doi/10.1016/j.econlet.2009.12.037&rft.aulast=Schaltegger&rft.aufirst=Christoph+A.&rft.au=Torgler,+Benno&rft_id=https://eprints.qut.edu.au/32407/1/COVERSHEET_C32407.pdf&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:History+of+Christianity" class="Z3988">
* Schwartz, Seth (9 February 2009). Imperialism and Jewish Society: 200 B.C.E. to 640 C.E. Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-1-4008-2485-4. Retrieved 27 December 2020.
* Seagrave, S. Adam (2009). "Cicero, Aquinas, and Contemporary Issues in Natural Law Theory". The Review of Metaphysics. 62 (3): 491–523\. JSTOR 40387823.491-523&rft.date=2009&rft_id=https://www.jstor.org/stable/40387823#id-name=JSTOR&rft.aulast=Seagrave&rft.aufirst=S.+Adam&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:History+of+Christianity" class="Z3988">
* Shatzmiller, Joseph (1974). "Review of 'Medieval Jewry in Northern France: A Political and Social History', by Robert Chazan". Jewish Social Studies (Book review). 36 (3): 339. Retrieved 4 June 2020.
* Seifrid, Mark A. (1992). "'Justification by Faith' and The Disposition of Paul's Argument". Justification by Faith: The Origin and Development of a Central Pauline Theme. Novum Testamentum, Supplements. Leiden: Brill Publishers. ISBN 978-90-04-09521-2. ISSN 0167-9732.
* Segovia, Fernando F.; Moore, Stephen D. (2007). "Introduction". In Segovia, Fernando F.; Moore, Stephen D. (eds.). Postcolonial Biblical Criticism: Interdisciplinary Intersections (Rev. ed.). A&C Black. ISBN 978-0-567-04530-0.
* Shaw, Teresa M. (2017). "Sex and Sexual Renunciation I". In Esler, Philip F. (ed.). The Early Christian World. Vol. 1 (second ed.). Routledge. ISBN 978-1-03-219935-1.
* Shepard, J. (2006). "The Byzantine Commonwealth 1000–1550". In Angold, Michael (ed.). The Cambridge History of Christianity. Vol. 5: Eastern Christianity. Cambridge University Press. pp. 1–52\. doi:10.1017/CHOL9780521811132.002. ISBN 978-1-139-05408-9.1-52&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2006&rft_id=info:doi/10.1017/CHOL9780521811132.002&rft.isbn=978-1-139-05408-9&rft.aulast=Shepard&rft.aufirst=J.&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:History+of+Christianity" class="Z3988">
* Shlikhta, Natalia (September 2004). "'Greek Catholic'–'Orthodox'–'Soviet': a symbiosis or a conflict of identitites?" (PDF). Religion, State and Society. 32 (3): 261–273\. doi:10.1080/0963749042000252214. S2CID 144374454. Archived (PDF) from the original on 6 August 2023. Retrieved 6 August 2023.261-273&rft.date=2004-09&rft_id=info:doi/10.1080/0963749042000252214&rft_id=https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:144374454#id-name=S2CID&rft.aulast=Shlikhta&rft.aufirst=Natalia&rft_id=https://biblicalstudies.org.uk/pdf/rss/32-3_261.pdf&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:History+of+Christianity" class="Z3988">
* Skocpol, Theda; Trimberger, Ellen Kay (1977). "Revolutions and the world-historical development of capitalism". Berkeley Journal of Sociology. 22: 101–113\. JSTOR 41035248.101-113&rft.date=1977&rft_id=https://www.jstor.org/stable/41035248#id-name=JSTOR&rft.aulast=Skocpol&rft.aufirst=Theda&rft.au=Trimberger,+Ellen+Kay&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:History+of+Christianity" class="Z3988">
* Siker, Jeffrey S. (2017). "The Second and Third centuries". In Esler, Philip F. (ed.). The Early Christian World. Vol. 1 (second ed.). Routledge. ISBN 978-1-03-219935-1.
* Smith, John Howard (2014). The First Great Awakening: Redefining Religion in British America, 1725–1775 (reprint ed.). Rowman & Littlefield. ISBN 978-1-61147-715-3.
* Southern, Patricia (2015). The Roman Empire from Severus to Constantine (2nd ed.). Routledge. ISBN 978-1-317-49694-6.
* Spater, Jeremy; Tranvik, Isak (1 November 2019). "The Protestant Ethic Reexamined: Calvinism and Industrialization". Comparative Political Studies. 52 (13–14): 1963–1994\. doi:10.1177/0010414019830721. ISSN 0010-4140. S2CID 204438351.13–14&rft.pages=1963-1994&rft.date=2019-11-01&rft_id=https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:204438351#id-name=S2CID&rft.issn=0010-4140&rft_id=info:doi/10.1177/0010414019830721&rft.aulast=Spater&rft.aufirst=Jeremy&rft.au=Tranvik,+Isak&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:History+of+Christianity" class="Z3988">
* Špidlík, Tomáš (1986). The Spirituality of the Christian East: A systematic handbook. Cistercian Publications. ISBN 0-87907-879-0.
* Štefan, Ivo (2022). "6". In Curta, Florin (ed.). The Routledge Handbook of East, Central and Eastern Europe in the Middle Ages, 500–1300. Routledge. pp. 101–120\. ISBN 978-0-367-22655-8.101-120&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2022&rft.isbn=978-0-367-22655-8&rft.aulast=Štefan&rft.aufirst=Ivo&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:History+of+Christianity" class="Z3988">
* Stephenson, David (2009). Heavenly Vaults: From Romanesque to Gothic in European Architecture (illustrated ed.). Princeton Architectural Press. ISBN 978-1-56898-840-5.
* Stewart, Alistair C. (2014). The Original Bishops: Office and Order in the First Christian Communities. Baker Academic. ISBN 978-1-4412-4570-0.
* Stewart, Colomba (2017). "Monasticism". In Esler, Philip F. (ed.). The Early Christian World. Vol. 1 (second ed.). Routledge. ISBN 978-1-03-219935-1.
* Strout, Shawn (2016). "Jesus' Table Fellowship, Baptism, and the Eucharist". Anglican Theological Review. 98 (3). Sage: 479–494\. doi:10.1177/000332861609800303.479-494&rft.date=2016&rft_id=info:doi/10.1177/000332861609800303&rft.aulast=Strout&rft.aufirst=Shawn&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:History+of+Christianity" class="Z3988">
* Swanson, Robert (2021). "Medieval Anticlericalism: Terms and Conditions". History of Religions. 61 (1). The University of Chicago Press: 1–135\. doi:10.1086/714917. S2CID 237618411.1-135&rft.date=2021&rft_id=info:doi/10.1086/714917&rft_id=https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:237618411#id-name=S2CID&rft.aulast=Swanson&rft.aufirst=Robert&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:History+of+Christianity" class="Z3988">
* Táíwò, Olúfémi (2010). How Colonialism Preempted Modernity in Africa. Bloomington: University of Indiana Press. ISBN 978-0-253-35374-0.
* Tapie, Matthew (2017). "Christ, Torah, and the Faithfulness of God: The Concept of Supersessionism in "The Gifts and the Calling"". Studies in Christian-Jewish Relations. 12 (1). doi:10.6017/scjr.v12i1.9802.
* Tarver, Micheal; Slape, Emily (2016). "Christianos Nuevos". In Tarver, Micheal; Slape, Emily (eds.). The Spanish Empire: A Historical Encyclopedia. Vol. 1\. Santa Barbara, California: ABC-Clio. pp. 210–212\. ISBN 978-1-4408-4570-3. Retrieved 11 July 2023.210-212&rft.pub=ABC-Clio&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=978-1-4408-4570-3&rft.aulast=Tarver&rft.aufirst=Micheal&rft.au=Slape,+Emily&rft_id=https://books.google.com/books?id=1LCJDAAAQBAJ&pg;=PA210&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:History+of+Christianity" class="Z3988">
* Taylor, Molly E. (2021). "Eschatology and Exile: The Crisis of the Fourteenth Century". Bishop Street: Student Journal of Theological Studies. 109.
* Testa, Judith Anne (1998). "10, The Christian Catacombs". Rome is Love Spelled Backward (Roma Amor): Enjoying Art and Architecture in the Eternal City. Northern Illinois University Press. ISBN 978-0-87580-576-4.
* Thiessen, Matthew (September 2014). Breytenbach, Cilliers; Thom, Johan (eds.). "Paul's Argument against Gentile Circumcision in Romans 2:17–29". Novum Testamentum. 56 (4). Leiden: Brill Publishers: 373–391\. doi:10.1163/15685365-12341488. eISSN 1568-5365. ISSN 0048-1009. JSTOR 24735868.373-391&rft.date=2014-09&rft_id=https://www.jstor.org/stable/24735868#id-name=JSTOR&rft.issn=0048-1009&rft.eissn=1568-5365&rft_id=info:doi/10.1163/15685365-12341488&rft.aulast=Thiessen&rft.aufirst=Matthew&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:History+of+Christianity" class="Z3988">
* Thomas, Charles (1997). "Evidence for Christianity in Roman Britain. The Small Finds. By CF Mawer. BAR British Series 243. Tempus Reparatum, Oxford, 1995. Pp. vi+ 178, illus. ISBN 0-86054-789-2". Britannia (Book review). 28: 506–507\. JSTOR 526801. S2CID 191997942.506-507&rft.date=1997&rft_id=https://www.jstor.org/stable/526801#id-name=JSTOR&rft_id=https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:191997942#id-name=S2CID&rft.aulast=Thomas&rft.aufirst=Charles&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:History+of+Christianity" class="Z3988">
* Thompson, Glen L. (28 June 2012). "Constantius II and the first removal of the Altar of Victory". In Aubert, Jean-Jacques; Várhelyi, Zsuzsanna (eds.). A Tall Order. Writing the Social History of the Ancient World: Essays in honor of William V. Harris (illustrated ed.). Walter de Gruyter. ISBN 978-3-11-093141-9.
* Thompson, James Westfall (2016). "The Papacy and the War of investiture". History of the Middle Ages 300–1500. Taylor & Francis. ISBN 978-1-317-21700-8.
* Tilley, Maureen (2006). "North Africa". In Mitchell, M.; Young, F. (eds.). The Cambridge History of Christianity. Vol. 1\. Cambridge University Press. pp. 380–396\. doi:10.1017/CHOL9780521812399.021.380-396&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2006&rft_id=info:doi/10.1017/CHOL9780521812399.021&rft.aulast=Tilley&rft.aufirst=Maureen&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:History+of+Christianity" class="Z3988">
* Tolan, John (2016). "Constructing Christendom". The Making of Europe: Essays in Honour of Robert Bartlett. Brill. pp. 277–298\. doi:10.1163/9789004311367_015. ISBN 978-90-04-31136-7.277-298&rft.pub=Brill&rft.date=2016&rft_id=info:doi/10.1163/9789004311367_015&rft.isbn=978-90-04-31136-7&rft.aulast=Tolan&rft.aufirst=John&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:History+of+Christianity" class="Z3988">
* Tov, Emanuel (2014). "The Myth of the Stabilization of the Text of Hebrew Scripture". In Martín-Contreras, Elvira; Miralles Maciá, Lorena (eds.). The Text of the Hebrew Bible: From the Rabbis to the Masoretes. Journal of Ancient Judaism: Supplements. Vol. 103\. Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht. pp. 37–46\. doi:10.13109/9783666550645.37. ISBN 978-3-525-55064-9.37-46&rft.pub=Vandenhoeck+&+Ruprecht&rft.date=2014&rft_id=info:doi/10.13109/9783666550645.37&rft.isbn=978-3-525-55064-9&rft.aulast=Tov&rft.aufirst=Emanuel&rft_id=https://books.google.com/books?id=YPgxBgAAQBAJ&pg;=PA37&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:History+of+Christianity" class="Z3988">
* Trebilco, Paul Raymond (2017). Outsider Designations and Boundary Construction in the New Testament: Early Christian Communities and the Formation of Group Identity. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-108-31132-8.
* Trevett, Christine (2006). "Asia Minor and Achaea". In Mitchell, M.; Young, F. (eds.). The Cambridge History of Christianity. Vol. 1\. pp. 314–329\. doi:10.1017/CHOL9780521812399.019. ISBN 978-1-139-05483-6.314-329&rft.date=2006&rft_id=info:doi/10.1017/CHOL9780521812399.019&rft.isbn=978-1-139-05483-6&rft.aulast=Trevett&rft.aufirst=Christine&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:History+of+Christianity" class="Z3988">
* Trombley, Frank (2006). "Overview: the geographical spread of Christianity". In Mitchell, Margaret M.; Young, Francis M. (eds.). The Cambridge History of Christianity. Vol. 1\. Cambridge University Press. pp. 302–313\. doi:10.1017/CHOL9780521812443. ISBN 978-1-139-05413-3.302-313&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2006&rft_id=info:doi/10.1017/CHOL9780521812443&rft.isbn=978-1-139-05413-3&rft.aulast=Trombley&rft.aufirst=Frank&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:History+of+Christianity" class="Z3988">
* Truran, Margaret (2000). "Benedictine Thought". In Hastings, Adrian; Mason, Alistair; Pyper, Hugh S. (eds.). The Oxford Companion to Christian Thought. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-860024-4.
* Tulloch, Janet (2004). "Art and Archaeology as an Historical Resource for the Study of Women in Early Christianity: An Approach for Analyzing Visual Data". Feminist Theology. 12 (3): 277–304\. doi:10.1177/096673500401200303. S2CID 145361724.277-304&rft.date=2004&rft_id=info:doi/10.1177/096673500401200303&rft_id=https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:145361724#id-name=S2CID&rft.aulast=Tulloch&rft.aufirst=Janet&rft_id=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/096673500401200303&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:History+of+Christianity" class="Z3988">
* Tyerman, Christopher (1992). "Who went on Crusades to the Holy Land?". In Ḳedar, Benjamin Z. (ed.). The Horns of Hattin Proceedings of the 2nd Conference of the Society for the Study of the Crusades and the Latin East, Jerusalem and Haifa, 2–6 July, 1987. University of Michigan. pp. 13–26.13-26&rft.pub=University+of+Michigan&rft.date=1992&rft.aulast=Tyerman&rft.aufirst=Christopher&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:History+of+Christianity" class="Z3988">
* Ullmann, Walter (2005). A Short History of the Papacy in the Middle Ages (2nd ed.). New York: Routledge. ISBN 978-0-203-34952-6.
* Ullmann, Walter (1965). "The Papacy as an Institution of Government in the Middle Ages". Studies in Church History. 2 (2): 78–101\. doi:10.1017/S0424208400005131.78-101&rft.date=1965&rft_id=info:doi/10.1017/S0424208400005131&rft.aulast=Ullmann&rft.aufirst=Walter&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:History+of+Christianity" class="Z3988">
* Ullmann, Walter (1972). The Growth of Papal Government in the Middle Ages (first ed.). Routledge. doi:10.4324/9780203707524. ISBN 0-203-34952-0.
* Van Engen, John (1986). "The Christian Middle Ages as an Historiographical Problem". The American Historical Review. 91 (3): 519–552\. JSTOR 1869130.519-552&rft.date=1986&rft_id=https://www.jstor.org/stable/1869130#id-name=JSTOR&rft.aulast=Van+Engen&rft.aufirst=John&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:History+of+Christianity" class="Z3988">
* Vaughn, Sally N. (1980). "St Anselm and the English investiture controversy reconsidered". Journal of Medieval History. 6 (1): 61–86\. doi:10.1016/0304-4181(80)90028-7.61-86&rft.date=1980&rft_id=info:doi/10.1016/0304-4181(80)90028-7&rft.aulast=Vaughn&rft.aufirst=Sally+N.&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:History+of+Christianity" class="Z3988">
* Verger, Jacques (1995). "The Universities and Scholasticism". In McKitterick, Rosamond; Abulafia, David (eds.). The New Cambridge Medieval History. Vol. 5, c.1198 – c.1300. Cambridge University Press. pp. 256–276\. ISBN 978-0-521-36289-4. Retrieved 31 March 2022.256-276&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=978-0-521-36289-4&rft.aulast=Verger&rft.aufirst=Jacques&rft_id=https://books.google.com/books?id=bclfdU_2lesC&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:History+of+Christianity" class="Z3988">
* Walters, Philip (10 November 2005). "A survey of Soviet religious policy". In Ramet, Sabrina (ed.). Religious Policy in the Soviet Union. Cambridge University Press. pp. 3–30\. ISBN 978-0-521-41643-6.3-30&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2005-11-10&rft.isbn=978-0-521-41643-6&rft.aulast=Walters&rft.aufirst=Philip&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:History+of+Christianity" class="Z3988">
* Ward, W. (2006). "Evangelical awakenings in the North Atlantic world". In Brown, Stewart; Tackett, Timothy (eds.). The Cambridge History of Christianity. Vol. 7\. Cambridge University Press. pp. 329–347\. doi:10.1017/CHOL9780521816052.019. ISBN 978-1-139-05412-6.329-347&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2006&rft_id=info:doi/10.1017/CHOL9780521816052.019&rft.isbn=978-1-139-05412-6&rft.aulast=Ward&rft.aufirst=W.&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:History+of+Christianity" class="Z3988">
* Ware, Timothy (1993). The Orthodox Church: An Introduction to Eastern Christianity (New ed.). Penguin. ISBN 978-0-141-92500-4.
* Weber, Max; Kalberg, Stephen (2012) [1905]. The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-57958-338-5.
* Weitzmann, Kurt (1979). Weitzmann, Kurt (ed.). Age of Spirituality: Late Antique and Early Christian Art, Third to Seventh Century (Illustrated ed.). Metropolitan Museum of Art. ISBN 978-0-87099-179-0.
* Weitzmann, Kurt (1966). "Various Aspects of Byzantine Influence on the Latin Countries from the Sixth to the Twelfth Century". Dumbarton Oaks Papers. 20: 1–24\. JSTOR 1291240.1-24&rft.date=1966&rft_id=https://www.jstor.org/stable/1291240#id-name=JSTOR&rft.aulast=Weitzmann&rft.aufirst=Kurt&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:History+of+Christianity" class="Z3988">
* Welch, John W.; Pulham, Kathryn Worlton (2000). "Reviewed work: The Rise of Christianity: How the Obscure, Marginal Jesus Movement Became the Dominant Religious Force in the Western World in a Few Centuries, RODNEY STARK". Brigham Young University Studies. 39 (3): 197–204\. JSTOR 43044187.197-204&rft.date=2000&rft_id=https://www.jstor.org/stable/43044187#id-name=JSTOR&rft.aulast=Welch&rft.aufirst=John+W.&rft.au=Pulham,+Kathryn+Worlton&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:History+of+Christianity" class="Z3988">
* Westcott, Brooke Foss (2005). A General Survey of the History of the Canon of the New Testament. Wipf and Stock Publishers. ISBN 978-1-72521-423-1.
* Whalen, Brett Edward (2015). "The Papacy". In Swanson, R. N. (ed.). The Routledge History of Medieval Christianity: 1050–1500 (Illustrated ed.). Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-66014-3.
* White, L. Michael (2017). "Early Christian Architecture the first five centuries". In Esler, Philip F. (ed.). The Early Christian World. Vol. II (second ed.). Routledge. ISBN 978-1-03-219935-1.
* Wilken, Robert Louis (2013). The First Thousand Years: A Global History of Christianity. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-11884-1. JSTOR j.ctt32bd7m.5. S2CID 160590164. Retrieved 8 May 2021.
* Wilkins, Steve (2017). Christian Ethics: Four Views. IVP Academic. ISBN 978-0-8308-4023-6.
* Williams, George Huntston (1995). The Radical Reformation (3rd ed.). Penn State Press. ISBN 978-0-271-09134-1.
* Williams, Rowan (1987). "Judith Herrin, The Formation of Christendom". New Left Review. 170 (122).
* Wogaman, J. Philip (2011). Christian Ethics A Historical Introduction. Westminster John Knox. ISBN 978-0-664-23409-6.
* Wood, Cindy (2016). Studying Late Medieval History A Thematic Approach. Taylor & Francis. ISBN 978-1-317-21120-4.
* Woods, Thomas Jr.; Canizares, Antonio (2012). How the Catholic Church Built Western Civilization. Regnery. ISBN 978-1-59698-328-1.
* Wylen, Stephen M. (1995). The Jews in the Time of Jesus: An Introduction. Paulist Press. ISBN 978-0-8091-3610-0.
* Young, Frances M. (2006). "Prelude: Jesus Christ, foundation of Christianity". In Mitchell, M.; Young, F. (eds.). The Cambridge History of Christianity. Vol. 1\. Cambridge University Press. pp. 1–34\. doi:10.1017/CHOL9780521812399.002. ISBN 978-1-139-05483-6.1-34&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2006&rft_id=info:doi/10.1017/CHOL9780521812399.002&rft.isbn=978-1-139-05483-6&rft.aulast=Young&rft.aufirst=Frances+M.&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:History+of+Christianity" class="Z3988">
* Zachariadou, Elizabeth (2006). "The Great Church in captivity 1453–1586". In Angold, Michael (ed.). The Cambridge History of Christianity. Vol. 5\. Cambridge University Press. pp. 169–186\. doi:10.1017/CHOL9780521811132.009. ISBN 978-1-139-05408-9.169-186&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2006&rft_id=info:doi/10.1017/CHOL9780521811132.009&rft.isbn=978-1-139-05408-9&rft.aulast=Zachariadou&rft.aufirst=Elizabeth&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:History+of+Christianity" class="Z3988">
* Zagorin, Perez (2003). How the Idea of Religious Toleration Came to the West (Repr. ed.). Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-09270-6.
* Zurlo, Gina A. (2020). "A Demographic Profile of Christianity in East and Southeast Asia". In Ross, Kenneth R.; Alvarez, Francis D.; Johnson, Todd M. (eds.). Christianity in East and Southeast Asia (Illustrated ed.). Edinburgh University Press. ISBN 978-1-4744-5162-8.

### Encyclopedia & web sources

[edit]

* "Why the Chinese government is targeting young Christians in its latest crackdown". America magazine. 14 May 2018. Archived from the original on 20 July 2021. Retrieved 17 October 2023.
* "pentarchy". Encyclopedia Britannica. Britannica. 2016. Retrieved 4 May 2024.
* Fahmy, Dalia (2022). "How U.S. religious composition has changed in recent decades". Modeling the Future of America in American Religion. Pew. Retrieved 27 May 2024.
* Hackett, Conrad; McClendon, David (5 April 2017). "Christians remain world's largest religious group, but they are declining in Europe". Pew Research Center. Retrieved 12 September 2024.
* Halsall, Paul (2021) [1996]. "Medieval Sourcebook: Iconoclastic Council, 754 – Epitome of the definition of the iconoclastic Conciliabulum, held in Constantinople, A.D. 754". Internet History Sourcebooks Project. New York: Fordham University Center for Medieval Studies at the Fordham University. Archived from the original on 21 March 2022. Retrieved 11 April 2022.
* Hebron, M. (2022). "Patronage in the Renaissance". In Sgarbi, M. (ed.). Encyclopedia of Renaissance Philosophy. Springer. pp. 2446–2449\. doi:10.1007/978-3-319-14169-5_1150. ISBN 978-3-319-14168-8.2446-2449&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=2022&rft_id=info:doi/10.1007/978-3-319-14169-5_1150&rft.isbn=978-3-319-14168-8&rft.aulast=Hebron&rft.aufirst=M.&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:History+of+Christianity" class="Z3988">
* Hudson, Miles (22 May 2023). "Fall of Constantinople". Encyclopædia Britannica. Archived from the original on 25 June 2023. Retrieved 3 August 2023.
* Hughes, Richard T. (2004). "Restoration, Historical Models of". In Foster, Douglas A.; Dunnavant, Anthony L. (eds.). The Encyclopedia of the Stone-Campbell Movement. Wm. B. Eerdmans. pp. 635–638\. ISBN 978-0-8028-3898-8.635-638&rft.pub=Wm.+B.+Eerdmans&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0-8028-3898-8&rft.aulast=Hughes&rft.aufirst=Richard+T.&rft_id=https://books.google.com/books?id=-3UtqrX56rgC&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:History+of+Christianity" class="Z3988">
* MacCulloch (2010). A History of Christianity (Television production). BBC Four. Retrieved 7 April 2022.
* Monter, William (2023). "Witch Trials, Europe". Encyclopedia of Sex and Gender: Culture Society History. Archived from the original on 14 July 2023. Retrieved 14 July 2023 - via Encyclopedia.com.
* Neusner, J. (1972). "Judaism in a time of crisis: Four responses to the destruction of the second temple". ProQuest 1304353371. Retrieved 11 November 2024.
* Noll, Mark (2009). "Science, Religion, and A.D. White: Seeking Peace in the "Warfare Between Science and Theology"" (PDF). The Biologos Foundation. Archived from the original (PDF) on 22 March 2015. Retrieved 14 January 2015.
* Nowell, Charles E.; Magdoff, Harry; Webster, Richard A. (13 November 2022). "Western colonialism". Encyclopædia Britannica. Archived from the original on 20 November 2018. Retrieved 15 January 2023.
* Ostling, Richard (24 June 2001). "Cross meets Kremlin". Time. Archived from the original on 13 August 2007.
* Parker, N. Geoffrey (2023). "The emergence of modern Europe, 1500–1648". The Wars of Religion. Encyclopædia Britannica. Archived from the original on 18 July 2023. Retrieved 17 July 2023.
* Johnson, Todd M.; Grim, Brian J., eds. (2020). "All Religions (global totals)". World Religion Database. Leiden, Boston: BRILL, Boston University.
* "Religion in Africa 2022". Find Easy population & more. 26 October 2022. Archived from the original on 26 March 2023. Retrieved 4 February 2023.
* "Understanding the rapid rise of Charismatic Christianity in Southeast Asia". cmp.smu.edu.sg. Singapore Management University. 27 October 2017. Archived from the original on 29 January 2021. Retrieved 10 December 2023.
* Sullivan, Patricia (26 November 2006). "Anti-Communist Priest Gheorghe Calciu-Dumitreasa". The Washington Post. p. C09. Archived from the original on 3 February 2020. Retrieved 29 August 2017.
* "The German churches and the Nazi state". Holocaust Encyclopedia. United States Holocaust Memorial Museum. Archived from the original on 29 July 2018. Retrieved 24 July 2023.
* Valkenburgh, Sarah (1994). "A Dramatic Revival: The first great awakening in Connecticut" (PDF). schoolinfosystem.org. The Concord Review. Archived (PDF) from the original on 19 July 2023. Retrieved 19 July 2023.
* Yoo, Wonji (2019). "The making of god's subject: Christian conversion and urban youth in china". ProQuest. University of Pittsburgh. ProQuest 2279903082. Retrieved 1 November 2024. "recent Chinese converts in Beijing seem to be mainly young people. In her study on churches in Beijing, Gao Shining (2005) points out that Christians under 35 accounted for 39% of Beijing's Christian population until 1990s, but the number increased by 70% in 2000s. Moreover, a survey of college students at Renmin University of China in Beijing shows that 61.5% of respondents were interested in Christianity (Goossaert and Palmer 2011). See – Page 27 Footnote 7"

## External links

[edit]

The following links give an overview of the history of Christianity:

* Historical Christianity: The Ancient Communal Faith: Print, ebook, and audiobook
* History of Christianity Reading Room: Archived 28 August 2019 at the Wayback Machine Extensive online resources for the study of global church history (Tyndale Seminary).
* Dictionary of the History of Ideas: Christianity in History
* Dictionary of the History of Ideas: Church as an Institution
* Sketches of Church History From AD 33 to the Reformation by Rev. J. C Robertson, M.A., Canon of Canterbury
* "Church History" . Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 6 (11th ed.). 1911. pp. 330–345.330-345&rft.edition=11th&rft.date=1911&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:History+of+Christianity" class="Z3988">
* A History of Christianity in 15 Objects online series in association with Faculty of Theology, Uni. of Oxford from September 2011

Wikimedia Commons has media related to History of Christianity.

The following links provide quantitative data related to Christianity and other major religions, including rates of adherence at different points in time:

* American Religion Data Archive
* Historical Christianity, A timeline with references to the descendants of the early church.
* Reformation Timeline, A short timeline of the Protestant Reformation.
* Fourth-Century Christianity

|

* v
* t
* e

History of Christianity

* Early Christianity
* Spread

Centuries|

* 1st
* 2nd and 3rd
* 4th
* 5th
* 6th
* 7th
* 8th
* 9th
* 10th
* 11th
* 12th
* 13th
* 14th
* 15th
* 16th
* 17th
* 18th
* 19th
* 20th
* 21st

Origins and
Apostolic Age|

* Background
* Life of Jesus
* Baptism
* Ministry
* Crucifixion
* Resurrection
* Great Commission
* Holy Spirit
* Apostles in the New Testament
* Jewish Christians
* Paul the Apostle
* Council of Jerusalem
* Gospels
* Acts
* Pauline epistles
* General epistles
* Revelation

Ante-Nicene
period|

* Diversity
* Adoptionism
* Arianism
* Docetism
* Donatism
* Gnosticism
* Marcionism
* Montanism
* Canon development
* Persecution
* Apostolic / Church Fathers
* Clement of Rome
* Polycarp
* Ignatius
* Irenaeus
* Justin Martyr
* Tertullian
* Origen
* Early African

Late antiquity
(Great Church)|

* Constantine
* Constantinian shift
* Roman state religion
* Monasticism
* Councils
* Nicaea I
* Creed
* Christianity
* Athanasius
* Jerome
* Augustine
* Constantinople I
* Ephesus I
* Chalcedon
* Chalcedonian / Non-Chalcedonian
* Biblical canon

Catholicism|

* Papacy
* Development of primacy
* Eastern Orthodox opposition
* Crusading movement
* Lateran IV
* Art patronage of Julius II
* Leo X
* Counter-Reformation
* Trent
* Art
* Catholic Reformation
* Jesuits
* Xavier
* Thomas More
* Monastery dissolution
* Wars
* Mass rocks and priest holes
* Guadalupe
* Jansenists
* Molinists
* Neo-Scholasticism
* Teresa
* Modernism
* Independent Catholics
* Vatican I and Vatican II
* Ecclesial community
* Timeline

Eastern
Christianity|

* Eastern Orthodoxy
* Oriental Orthodoxy
* Church of the East
* Chrysostom
* Nestorianism
* Icons
* Iconodulism
* Iconoclasm
* Great Schism
* Fall of Constantinople
* Armenia
* Georgia
* Greece
* Egypt
* Syriac
* Serbian
* Ethiopia
* Ottoman Empire
* Russia
* North America

Middle Ages|

* Pelagianism
* Gregory I
* Celtic
* Germanic
* Anglo-Saxon
* Franks
* Gothic
* Scandinavian
* Iceland
* Slavs
* Bohemia
* Bulgaria
* Kievan Rus'
* Moravia
* Poland
* Pomerania
* Investiture
* Anselm
* Abelard
* Bernard
* Bogomils
* Bosnian
* Cathars
* Apostolic Brethren
* Dulcinian
* Crusades
* Waldensians
* Inquisition
* Early Scholasticism
* Christian mysticism
* Dominic
* Francis
* Bonaventure
* Aquinas
* Five Ways
* Wycliffe
* Avignon
* Papal Schism
* Bohemian Reformation
* Hus
* Conciliarism
* Synods

Reformation
and
Protestantism|

* Erasmus
* Eucharist
* Calvinist–Arminian debate
* Arminianism
* Wars
* Resistance theories
* Separation of church and state
* Nicodemites
* Hymnody of continental Europe
* Formal and material principles
* Law and Gospel
* Literature
* Protestant work ethic

| Lutheranism|

* Luther
* Ninety-five Theses
* Diet of Worms
* Theology
* Bible
* Melanchthon
* Book of Concord
* Orthodoxy
* Eucharist
* Art

|

Calvinism|

* Zwingli
* Calvin
* Huguenots
* Presbyterianism
* Scotland
* Knox
* TULIP
* Baptism
* Dort
* Three Forms of Unity
* Westminster
* Orthodoxy
* Metrical psalters

Anglicanism|

* Timeline
* Henry VIII
* Cranmer
* Elizabethan
* 39 Articles
* Puritans
* Civil War
* Church music
* Book of Common Prayer
* King James Version

Anabaptism|

* Theology
* Radical Reformation
* Grebel
* Swiss Brethren
* Müntzer
* Martyrs' Synod
* Menno Simons
* Smyth
* Martyrs Mirror
* Ausbund

1640–1789|

* Revivalism
* Missionaries
* Baptists
* Separation of church and state
* Edicts of toleration
* Congregationalism
* First Great Awakening
* Methodism
* Millerism
* Pietism
* Fostering of early experimental science
* Neo- and Old Lutherans

1789–present|

* Camp meeting
* Holiness movement
* Second Great Awakening
* Restorationists
* Jehovah's Witnesses
* Mormonism
* Seventh-day Adventist
* Adventism
* Oxford Movement
* Laestadianism
* Finnish Awakening
* Christian existentialism
* Third Great Awakening
* Azusa Revival
* Gospel music
* Fundamentalist – Modernist controversy
* Pacifism
* Ecumenism
* Five solae
* Jesus movement
* Pentecostalism
* Charismatics
* Liberation theology
* Reformed epistemology
* Fourth Great Awakening
* Evangelical and Mainline Protestants
* Christian right and left
* Political influence of Evangelicalism in Latin America

* Timeline
* Missions
* Martyrs
* Theology
* Eastern Orthodoxy
* Oriental Orthodoxy
* Protestantism
* Catholicism

* v
* t
* e

Christianity

* Index
* Outline
* Glossary
* Prophets
* People
* Lists of Christians
* By country

Bible
(Scriptures)|

* Canon
* Old Testament
* New Testament

Foundations|

* Church
* Creed
* Gospel
* New Covenant
* Christian tradition
* Worship

History
(timeline)
(spread)|

| Early
Christianity|

* Jesus
* in Christianity
* Nativity
* Baptism
* Ministry
* Sermon on the Mount
* Parables
* Miracles
* Great Commandment
* Crucifixion
* Resurrection
* Great Commission
* Apostles
* Church fathers
* Apostolic fathers

|

Great Church|

* Ante-Nicene period
* Late antiquity
* Constantine
* First seven ecumenical councils
* Nicaea I
* Chalcedon
* State church of the Roman Empire
* Christian biblical canon

Middle Ages|

* Monasticism
* Papal States
* East–West Schism
* Investiture Controversy
* Crusades
* Age of Discovery

Modern era|

* Auto-da-fé
* Protestant Reformation
* Catholic Reformation
* Thirty Years' War
* Enlightenment
* French Revolution
* Relations with Islam
* Influences

Denominations
(list, members)|

| Western|

* Catholic
* Old Catholic
* Independent Catholic (Palmarian)
* Protestant
* Adventist
* Anabaptist
* Anglican
* Baptist
* Charismatic
* Evangelical
* Holiness
* Lutheran
* Methodist
* Pentecostal
* Quakers
* Reformed
* Western Rite Orthodoxy

|

Eastern|

* Eastern Orthodox
* Church
* Oriental Orthodox (Miaphysite)
* Church of the East (Nestorian)
* Eastern Catholic

Restorationist|

* Jehovah's Witnesses
* Latter Day Saint movement
* Iglesia ni Cristo

Theology|

* Ablution
* Angel
* Born again
* Christology
* Divine apathy
* Ecclesiology
* Four marks
* Body of Christ
* One true church
* People of God
* Canon law
* Faith
* Fall of man
* Forbidden fruit
* Garden of Eden
* Final Judgement
* God
* Trinity
* Father
* Son
* Holy Spirit
* Good works
* Heaven
* Hell
* Holy water
* Hygiene
* Kingdom of God
* Liturgy
* Catholic
* Eastern Catholic
* Eastern Orthodox
* Protestant
* Love
* of Christ
* of God
* Mariology
* Theotokos
* Mission
* Monasticism
* Mortification
* Catholic
* Of the flesh
* New Covenant
* Nicene Creed
* Old Covenant
* Views
* Original sin
* Penance
* Prayer
* Repentance
* Sacraments
* Baptism
* Eucharist
* Marriage
* Confirmation
* Penance
* Anointing of the Sick
* Holy orders
* Saints
* Salvation
* Satan
* Sin
* Eternal sin
* Mortal sin
* Sins that cry to Heaven for Vengeance
* Seven deadly sins
* Venial sin
* Tradition
* Values
* Vice
* Works of mercy
* Worship

Philosophy|

* Natural law
* Ethics
* Science
* Evolution
* Politics
* Social mortgage
* Universal destination of goods
* Views on poverty and wealth
* Option for the poor
* Worldview

Other
features|

| Culture|

* Alcohol
* Architecture
* Architecture of cathedrals and great churches
* Art
* Jesus
* Mary
* Trinity
* God the Father
* Holy Spirit
* Atonement
* Christmas
* Church buildings
* Lists of cathedrals
* Crucifix
* Cupio dissolvi
* Evangelism
* Catechesis
* Catechism
* Catholic priest
* Folk Christianity
* Open-air
* Pastor
* Fallen woman
* Magdalene asylum
* Flag
* Flagellant
* Forgiveness
* Literature
* Marriage
* Catholic
* Music
* Chant
* Choir
* Gospel
* Hymn
* Introit
* Pop
* Psalm
* Requiem
* Mythology
* Pilgrimage
* Popular piety
* Redemptive suffering
* Role in civilization
* Self-flagellation
* Sign of the cross
* Symbolism

|

Movements|

* Crusading movement
* Anarchism
* Charismatic
* Democracy
* Evangelism
* Mission
* Environmentalism
* Existentialism
* Fundamentalism
* Liberation
* Left/Right
* Mysticism
* Pacifism
* Prosperity
* Supremacy
* Terrorism
* Traditionalist Catholicism

Cooperation|

* Christendom
* Ecumenism
* Charta Oecumenica
* World Council of Churches
* World Evangelical Alliance
* Nondenominationalism

Related|

* ... and Islam
* ... and other religions
* ... and violence
* ... as an ethnicity
* Anti-Christian sentiment
* Christian universalism
* Criticism
* Jesus
* Cultural Christians
* Good and evil
* Great Apostasy
* Martyrs
* Miracle
* Nominal Christian
* Persecution
* Religious views on love
* Role of Christianity in civilization
* Christianization
* Cultural Christians
* Spread
* Unlimited atonement
* Views on homosexuality

* Christianity portal
* Category

* v
* t
* e

History of religions

* Timeline of religion
* List of religions and spiritual traditions

Major groups|

| Abrahamic|

* Baháʼí
* Christianity
* Islam
* Judaism
* Rastafari

|

Amerindian|

* Aztec
* Mayan
* Inca

East Asian|

* Confucianism
* Taoism
* Shinto

Indian|

* Buddhism
* Hinduism
* Jainism
* Sikhism

Iranian|

* Mithraism
* Zoroastrianism
* Manichaeanism

Modern|

* Neopaganism
* Wicca
* New Thought
* Kardecist spiritism

Historical|

| Prehistoric|

* Paleolithic

|

Near East|

* Egyptian
* Semitic
* Mesopotamian

Indo-European|

* Baltic
* Celtic
* Germanic
* Greek
* Gnosticism
* Neoplatonism
* Illyro-thracian
* Roman
* Slavic
* Vedic Hinduism

Related topics|

* Evolution of morality
* Evolutionary origin of religions
* Evolutionary psychology of religion
* History of atheism
* History of theology (Greco-Abrahamic)
* Humanism
* Irreligion
* Roman School
* Secularism

* v
* t
* e

History of Europe

Prehistory|

* Paleolithic Europe
* Neolithic Europe
* Bronze Age Europe
* Iron Age Europe

Classical antiquity|

* Classical Greece
* Roman Republic
* Hellenistic period
* Roman Empire
* Early Christianity
* Christianity in late antiquity
* Crisis of the Third Century
* Fall of the Western Roman Empire
* Late antiquity

Middle Ages|

* Early Middle Ages
* Migration Period
* Christianity in the Middle Ages
* Christianization
* Francia
* Anglo-Saxon England
* Byzantine Empire
* Papal States
* Bulgarian Empire
* First
* Second
* Maritime republics
* Venice
* Genoa
* Pisa
* Amalfi
* Viking Age
* Kievan Rus'
* Crown of Aragon (Aragon, Catalonia, Valencia, Majorca)
* Holy Roman Empire
* High Middle Ages
* Republic of Florence
* Feudalism
* Crusades
* Mongol invasion
* Serbian Empire
* Late Middle Ages
* Black Death
* Hundred Years' War
* Kalmar Union

Modern period|

* Renaissance
* Early modern
* Christianity in the modern era
* Reformation
* Age of Discovery
* Baroque
* Grand Duchy of Tuscany
* Thirty Years' War
* Absolute monarchy
* Ottoman Empire
* Portuguese Empire
* Spanish Empire
* Early modern France
* Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth
* Cossack Hetmanate
* Swedish Empire
* Dutch Republic
* British Empire
* Habsburg monarchy
* Russian Empire
* Age of Enlightenment
* Great Divergence
* Industrial Revolution
* French Revolution
* Napoleonic Wars
* Nationalism
* Revolutions of 1848
* World War I
* Russian Revolution
* Interwar period
* World War II
* Cold War
* European integration
* European debt crisis
* COVID-19 pandemic
* Russian invasion of Ukraine

See also|

* Art of Europe
* Bibliography of European history
* Genetic history of Europe
* History of Christianity
* History of the Mediterranean region
* History of the European Union
* History of Western civilization
* Maritime history of Europe
* Military history of Europe
* Crusading movement

Authority control databases: National |

* Germany
* United States
* Czech Republic
* 2
* Spain
* Latvia
* Israel

|

*[v]: View this template
*[t]: Discuss this template
*[e]: Edit this template
*[c.]: circa
*[r.]: reigned