History of Mexican Americans in Los Angeles

La Plaza, as seen from the Pico House, c.1869. The "Old Plaza Church" is to the left, the brick reservoir on the right, in the center of the plaza, was the original terminus of the Zanja Madre. Part of a series on

Chicanos and Mexican Americans

Terms

|  Identity

* Chola/o
* La Raza
* Pachuca
* Pachuco
* Pinta/o
* Xicanx

Concepts

* Anti-Mexican sentiment

History

|  Early-American Period

* Josefa Segovia
* Las Gorras Blancas
* Mexican–American War
* Mutualista
* San Elizario Salt War
* Sonoratown
* Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo

Pre-Chicano Movement

* 1917 Bath riots
* Bisbee Deportation
* Bloody Christmas
* Bracero program
* California agricultural strikes
* Cantaloupe strike of 1928
* Citrus Strike of 1936
* La Matanza
* Mexican Repatriation
* Operation Wetback
* Plan de San Diego
* Porvenir Massacre
* Sleepy Lagoon trial
* Zoot Suit Riots

Chicano Movement

* Aztlán
* Black-brown unity
* Brown Berets
* Católicos por La Raza
* Tulare labor camps rent strike
* Delano grape strike
* Centro Cultural
* Chicanismo
* Chicano Moratorium
* Colegio César Chávez
* CFMN
* Conferencia de Mujeres
* CRP
* East L.A. walkouts
* Hijas de Cuauhtémoc
* Huelga schools
* Land grant struggle
* Las Adelitas de Aztlán
* Los Siete de la Raza
* Los Seis de Boulder
* MANA
* MAYO
* MEChA
* Occupation of Catalina Island
* PCUN
* Plan Espiritual de Aztlán
* Plan de Santa Bárbara
* Quinto Sol
* Raza Unida Party
* United Farm Workers

Post-Chicano Period

* 1985–1987 cannery strike
* 1992 Drywall Strike
* 2019 El Paso shooting
* Abolish ICE
* Arizona SB 1070
* Castro 2020
* Chicano Art Exhibit
* DACA
* Great American Boycott
* IRCA
* Farah strike
* Justice for Janitors
* Murder of Selena
* Proposition 187
* South Central Farm

Culture

|  Language

* Abrazos, no balazos
* Caló
* Chicano English
* Chicano names
* Órale

Food

* New Mexican cuisine
* Tex-Mex cuisine
* Mexican-American cuisine

Music

* Chicano rap
* Chicano rock
* Chicano soul
* Tejano music

Symbols

* Cal-Style VW
* Homies
* Lowrider
* Lowrider bicycle
* Mexican-American folklore
* Pancho Claus
* Zoot suit

Literature

|  Literature

* Chicana literature
* Chicano literature
* Chicano poetry

Autobiographical

* Always Running
* Living Up the Street
* Who Would Have Thought It?

Novels

* Bless Me, Ultima
* Caballero
* Desert Blood
* From This Wicked Patch of Dust
* Mexican WhiteBoy
* The Dirty Girls Social Club
* The House on Mango Street
* The Rain God
* The Revolt of the Cockroach People
* So Far from God
* Under the Feet of Jesus
* ...y no se lo tragó la tierra

Poetry and Short Stories

* Emplumada
* I Am Joaquin
* Moment of Silence
* Pensamiento Serpentino
* The Moths

Chicano studies

|  Fields

* Chicana feminism
* Chicanafuturism

Organizations

* MAS Programs, Tucson
* NACCS
* UCLA Chicano Studies Research Center

Texts

* Borderlands/La Frontera: The New Mestiza
* Brown, Not White
* The Church in the Barrio
* This Bridge Called My Back

Theory

* Barrioization
* Coyolxauhqui imperative
* Gringo justice
* Nahui Ollin
* Nepantla
* New tribalism
* Rasquachismo
* Spiritual activism
* Vergüenza
* Youth control complex

Visual art

|  Visual Art

* Chicana art
* Chicano art
* Chicano cinema
* Paño
* Tortilla art

Art Collectives

* Asco
* Culture Clash
* East Los Streetscapers
* Los Four
* Mujeres Muralistas
* Teatro Campesino
* Royal Chicano Air Force

Art organizations

* Centro de Arte Público
* Galería de la Raza
* Mission Cultural Center for Latino Arts
* Precita Eyes
* Self Help Graphics & Art

Locations

* Balmy Alley
* Chicano Park
* Estrada Courts
* Great Wall of Los Angeles

Law

|  Supreme Court cases

* Botiller v. Dominguez
* Hernandez v. Texas
* San Antonio I.S.D. v. Rodriguez
* Espinoza v. Farah Manufacturing Co.
* U.S. v. Brignoni-Ponce
* Plyler v. Doe
* Medellín v. Texas
* Flores-Figueroa v. U.S.
* Leal Garcia v. Texas
* Mendez v. Westminster
* Bernal v. Fainter
* Perez v. Brownell
* DHS v. Regents of the Univ. of Cal.

Federal Court cases

* Madrigal v. Quilligan

Population

|  Population by City

* Arizona (Tucson)
* California (Los Angeles)
* Illinois (Chicago)
* Michigan (Detroit)
* Nebraska (Omaha)
* Texas
* Dallas–Fort Worth
* Houston

Multiethnic

* Blaxicans
* Californios
* Nuevomexicanos
* Tejanos
* Indigenous Mexican Americans
* Punjabi Mexican Americans

Lists

* Chicano films
* Chicano poets
* Chicano rappers
* Mexican Americans
* Writers
* Bibliography

* United States portal
* Category
* Index

* v
* t
* e

Mexican Americans have lived in Los Angeles since the original Pobladores, the 44 original settlers and 4 soldiers who founded the city in 1781. People of Mexican descent make up 31.9% of Los Angeles residents, and 32% of Los Angeles County residents.

## History

[edit]

Part of a series on

Ethnicity in Los Angeles

* African Americans
* Armenians
* Asians
* Bangladeshi
* Cambodians
* Central Americans (Salvadorans)
* Chinese (Taiwanese)
* Croats
* Ethiopians
* Filipinos
* Hispanics and Latinos
* Indians
* Iranians
* Israelis
* Italians
* Japanese
* Jews
* Koreans
* Mexicans (Chicanos and Xicanx)
* Middle Easterners
* Native Americans
* Pacific Islanders
* Palestinians
* Thai
* Ukrainians
* Vietnamese

* v
* t
* e

Nuestra Señora Reina de los Angeles Asistencia was founded in early 1784 within the burgeoning Pueblo de Los Ángeles as an asistencia (or "sub-mission") to the nearby Mission San Gabriel Arcángel.[1]

The city's original barrios were located in the eastern half of the city and the unincorporated community of East Los Angeles. The trend of Hispanization began in 1970, then accelerated in the 1980s and 1990s with immigration from Mexico and Central America (especially El Salvador, Honduras, and Guatemala). These immigrants settled in the city's eastern and southern neighborhoods. By 2000, South Los Angeles was a majority Mexican area, displacing most previous African-American and Asian-American residents. The city is often said to have the largest Mexican population outside Mexico and has the largest Spanish-speaking population outside Latin America or Spain. As of 2007, estimates of the number of residents originally from the Mexican state of Oaxaca ranged from 50,000 to 250,000.[2] Montebello was the first Spanish settlement in California in Los Angeles County.[3]

### Early 20th Century

[edit]

#### 1900-WWI

[edit]

Job contracts, sponsored by the US government in partnership with the Mexican government, initially motivated Mexican immigrants to migrate to Los Angeles.[4]

#### Post-WWI Era (1920s-30s)

[edit]

Post-World War I fear of communism manifested itself in Los Angeles through an increased nationalistic, anti-immigrant sentiment. While prominent politicians such as former governor Hiram Johnson and activist Simon Lubin advocated for progressive policies, such as women's rights and labor rights, local politics of Los Angeles county and California at large leaned conservative, with governor Friend W. Richardson reallocating the Americanization programs to the California Department of Education in 1923. The goal of these Americanization programs was to assimilate immigrants into "the American way of life"[5] and particularly targeted Mexican immigrants because of their perceived ethnic proximity to Europeans relative to other immigrant groups, such as the Chinese and Japanese; the main way this was achieved was through the instruction of the English language. At first, these programs prioritized Mexican men, registering them through their workplaces, but because of the seasonal nature of farm work, teaching English successfully was not possible.[5]

Aligning with the American ideal of Republican motherhood, assimilation efforts were eventually redirected toward Mexican women, who were usually in charge of the home and more involved in community institutions like schools than Mexican men. The new goal of Americanization programs then became training Mexican women for domestic work, to help "alleviate the shortage of housemaids, seamstresses, laundresses, and service workers."[5] By making Mexican women, the homemakers, more American, Americanists hoped that Mexican culture would slowly phase out of immigrants' lives; for example, replacing tortillas with bread during meals. These efforts to push Mexican women into newly-profitable, domestic work outside of the home was met with resistance, which Americanists attributed to machismo in Mexican culture. When naturalization rates of Mexican immigrants did not improve, Americanization programs shifted focus yet again to the implementation of Americanization curriculum in schools, in an effort to teach American values to American-born children of Mexican immigrants. Despite these programs promising full integration into American society, they only provided "idealized versions of American values"[5] and second-class citizenship, as Mexican immigrants continued to face economic disenfranchisement and their children received an unequal education to their white counterparts.[5]

##### WWII Era (1940s)

[edit]

Agricultural labor shortages associated with World War II brought on another wave of Mexican immigration to Los Angeles. The bracero program, or guest worker program, was a partnership between the US and Mexican governments, as well as American farms, to bring Mexican agricultural workers to the United States through labor contracts. With a demand for workers that exceeded the supply of labor contracts, the bracero program inadvertently became one of the origins of undocumented immigration from Mexico to the United States.[6]

## Today

[edit]

Census Bureau map (2000) of Los Angeles County showing percentage of population self-identified as Mexican in ancestry or national origin by census tracts. Heaviest concentrations are in East Los Angeles, Echo Park/Silver Lake, South Los Angeles, and San Pedro/Harbor City/Wilmington.

As of 2010, about 2.5 million residents of the Greater Los Angeles area are of Mexican American origin/heritage.[7]

As of 1996 Mexican-Americans make up about 80% of the Latino population in the Los Angeles area.[8] As of 1996 the Los Angeles region had around 3,736,000 people of Mexican origins.[9]

There's a shift of second and third generation Mexican-Americans out of Los Angeles into nearby suburbs, such as Ventura County, Orange County, San Diego and the Inland Empire, California region. Mexican and other Latin American immigrants moved in East and South sections of L.A. and sometimes, Asian immigrants moved into historic barrios to become mostly Asian-American areas. Starting in the late 1980s, Downey has become a renowned Latino majority community in Southern California, and the majority of residents moved in were middle or upper-middle class, and second and third generation Mexican-Americans.[10] The Mexican population is increasing in the Antelope Valley such as Palmdale.[11]

Suburban cities in Los Angeles County like Azusa, Baldwin Park, City of Industry, Duarte, El Monte, Irwindale, La Puente, Montebello, Rosemead, San Gabriel, South Gate, South El Monte, West Covina, Whittier and especially Pomona have large a Mexican population.[12][13]

## Culture

[edit]

See also: Cholo (subculture)

Mexican Americans from Los Angeles have celebrated the Cinco de Mayo holiday since the 1860s. They, along with other Spanish-speaking peoples, celebrate the Day of the Three Wise Kings as a gift giving holiday.[14]

Zoot suits were a staple of Mexican-American attire in the 1940s. The wearing of soot suits represented rebellion against the injustices of society.[15]

In the 1990s the quebradita dancing style was popular among Mexican-Americans in Greater Los Angeles.[16]

The El Centro Cultural de Mexico is located in Santa Ana.

Plaza Mexico is located in Lynwood.[17]

Two films, Tortilla Soup and Real Women Have Curves, portray Mexican-American families in the Los Angeles area.

Another film that portrays the life of a Mexican-American in Los Angeles is Stand and Deliver, which demonstrates the life of Mexican-American high school students and how they get through their academic struggles, with the help of their teacher, Jaime Escalante (Edward James Olmos).

## Notable Mexican Americans from Los Angeles

[edit]

Notable Mexican Americans from Los Angeles

* Constance Marie (actress)
* Pio Pico, last Californio governor (1840s).
* Rodolfo Acuña (scholar)
* Gustavo Arellano (publisher of the OC Weekly)
* Bobby Chacon (boxer, hall of fame member)
* Alexa Demie (actress)[18]
* Rene Enriquez (mobster)
* Tom Fears (NFL player, hall of fame member)
* William A. Fraker (cinematographer, six-time Oscar nominee)
* Guy Gabaldon (U.S. Marine, WWII hero)
* Eric Garcetti (politician, Mayor of Los Angeles)
* Kid Frost (rapper)
* John Gavin (actor)
* Eduardo C. Gomez (U.S. Army, Medal of Honor recipient)
* David M. Gonzales (U.S. Army, Medal of Honor recipient)
* Pancho Gonzales (tennis legend)
* Genaro Hernández (boxer, world champion)
* Oscar De La Hoya (boxer, hall of fame member)
* Rebbeca Marie Gomez a.k.a. Becky G (actress)
* Emile Kuri (film set decorator, Oscar winner)
* Los Lobos (rock band)
* George Lopez (actor, comedian)

* Cheech Marin (actor)
* Miguel (singer)
* Yvette Mimieux (actress)
* Julia Goldani Telles (actress)
* Ricardo Montalbán (actor)
* Edward James Olmos (actor)
* Anthony Quinn (actor, two-time Oscar winner)
* Efren Ramirez (actor)
* Richard Ramirez (serial killer)
* Paul Rodriguez (skateboarder)
* Teresa Ruiz (actress)
* Zack de la Rocha (lead vocalist of the rock band Rage Against the Machine)
* Andy Russell (singer)
* Rubén Salazar (journalist)
* Angela Morales (writer)
* María Elena Salinas (journalist)
* Lupita Tovar (actress)
* Danny Trejo (actor)
* Ritchie Valens (singer and recording artist)
* Tiburcio Vásquez (bandit, folk hero to some)
* Antonio Villaraigosa (politician, Mayor of Los Angeles)

|

## See also

[edit]

* Mexico portal
* Los Angeles portal

* Bibliography of California history
* Bibliography of Los Angeles
* Outline of the history of Los Angeles

* East Los Angeles
* Los Angeles Plaza
* Olvera Street
* El Mercado de Los Angeles
* Whittier Boulevard
* Siege of Los Angeles
* Battle of Chavez Ravine
* Zoot Suit Riots
* East L.A. walkouts
* Brown Berets

## References

[edit]

1. ^ "The San Bernardino Asistencias by R. Bruce Harley". California Mission Studies Association. Archived from the original on June 13, 2006. Retrieved November 21, 2006.
2. ^ "Sounds in Oaxacalifornia: Gala Porras-Kim Investigates Indigenous Tones, 18th Street Arts Center". Artbound – KCET – Los Angeles. July 31, 2012. Retrieved August 7, 2012.
3. ^ Bedolla, Lisa García (October 7, 2005). Fluid Borders: Latino Power, Identity, and Politics in Los Angeles. University of California Press. ISBN 9780520938496.
4. ^ Sanchez, George (1993). Becoming Mexican American: Ethnicity, Culture, and Identity in Chicano Los Angeles, 1900-1945. Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 39.
5. ^ a b c d e Sanchez, George (1993). Becoming Mexican American: Ethnicity, Culture, and Identity in Chicano Los Angeles, 1900-1945. Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 87–107.
6. ^ Cohen, Deborah (2001). Caught in the Middle: The Mexican State's Relationship with the United States and Its Own Citizen-Workers, 1942-1954. Journal of American Ethnic History. pp. 110–126.
7. ^ Moreno Areyan, Alex (2010). Mexican Americans in Los Angeles. Arcadia Publishing. p. 7\. ISBN 9780738580067.
8. ^ Lopez, David E.; Popkin, Eric; Telles, Edward (1996). "Central Americans: At the Bottom: Struggling to Get Ahead" (Chapter 10)". In Waldinger, Roger; Bozorgmehr, Mehdi (eds.). Ethnic Los Angeles. Russell Sage Foundation. p. 280. ISBN 9780871549013.
9. ^ Central Americans: At the Bottom: Struggling to Get Ahead, p. 281.
10. ^ Carcamo, Cindy (August 5, 2015). "Latinos' rising fortunes are epitomized in Downey". Los Angeles Times.
11. ^ Stringfellow, Kim (December 12, 2017). "The Shifting Demographics of Antelope Valley — And Development's Consequences". KCET.
12. ^ Santillán, Richard A. (December 9, 2013). Mexican American Baseball in the Central Coast. Arcadia. ISBN 9781439642443.
13. ^ González, Jerry (November 15, 2017). In Search of the Mexican Beverly Hills: Latino Suburbanization in Postwar Los Angeles. Rutgers University Press. ISBN 9780813583181.
14. ^ Kim, Ann L. (January 6, 2000). "Armenians Won't Rush Christmas". Los Angeles Times. Retrieved July 2, 2014. "Meantime, children in Mexico and many Latin American countries today celebrate El Dia De Los Tres Reyes Magos, or the Day of the Three Wise Kings. Families distribute gifts to commemorate the day that the three wise men brought gifts to the newborn Christ child. Christmas Eve is usually reserved for the religious celebration of the birth of Christ"
15. ^ Escobedo, Elizabeth Rachel (2013). From Coveralls to Zoot Suits : The Lives of Mexican American Women on the World War II Home Front. The University of North Carolina. p. 70\. ISBN 978-1-4696-2209-5.
16. ^ Simonett, Helena (January 30, 2001). "2". The Quebradita Dance Craze. Wesleyan University Press. p. 52. ISBN 9780819564306.
17. ^ "plaza mexico".
18. ^ "Alexa Demie named Top 100 Latina Powerhouse 2022". October 5, 2022.

## Further reading

[edit]

* Acuña, Rodolfo (1996). Anything But Mexican: Chicanos in Contemporary Los Angeles. Verso Books. ISBN 1859840310.
* Alarcon, Rafael; Escala, Luis; Odgers, Olga, eds. (2016). Making Los Angeles Home: The Integration of Mexican Immigrants in the United States. University of California Press. "ethnographic and statistical perspectives in a study of Mexican immigrants' strategies for economic, political, social, and cultural integration"
* Balderrama, Francisco E.; Santillan, Richard A., eds. (2011). Mexican American Baseball in Los Angeles. Arcadia Publishing. ISBN 9780738581804.
* Lewthwaite, Stephanie (2009). Race, Place, and Reform in Mexican Los Angeles: A Transnational Perspective, 1890-1940. University of Arizona Press. ISBN 9780816526338.
* Monroy, Douglas (1999). Rebirth: Mexican Los Angeles from the Great Migration to the Great Depression. University of California Press. ISBN 9780520920774.
* Lopez, Eduardo F. (2016). "Catholic Education for Mexican Americans in Los Angeles: A Brief Historical Overview" (PDF). Journal of Catholic Education. 19 (2). doi:10.15365/joce.1902082016.
* McConnell, Eileen Díaz (2015). "Hurdles or walls? Nativity, citizenship, legal status and Latino homeownership in Los Angeles". Social Science Research. 53: 19–33\. doi:10.1016/j.ssresearch.2015.04.009. PMID 26188435.
* McConnell, Eileen Díaz (2015). Restricted Movement: Nativity, Citizenship, Legal Status, and the Residential Crowding of Latinos in Los Angeles. Vol. 62\. pp. 141–162.
* Melero Malpica, Daniel (2008). Indigenous Mexican Migrants in the City of Los Angeles: Social Networks and Social Capital Among Zapotec Workers (PhD). UCLA. ISBN 9780549484936.
* Rendón, Maria G. (2015). "The urban question and identity formation: The case of second-generation Mexican males in Los Angeles". Ethnicities. 15 (2): 165–189\. doi:10.1177/1468796814557652. S2CID 147031256.

## External links

[edit]

* "Los Angeles County Chicano Employees Association".
* "Chicano Studies Research Center". University of California Los Angeles.
* "Chicano Rock!". PBS. Archived from the original on August 17, 2012.
* Wick, Julia (May 2, 2021). "L.A.'s history is often whitewashed, romanticized and censored. A new push to tell the truth". LA Times.

* v
* t
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Ethnic groups in Los Angeles

Latin American|

* Central Americans
* Mexicans
* Salvadorans
* Peruvians
* Puerto Ricans
* Cubans
* Colombians
* Nicaraguans
* Hondurans

Black/African|

* Ethiopians
* Eritreans
* Mulatto
* Blaxican
* Afro-Asian
* Garifuna
* Trinidadians
* Haitians
* Jamaicans
* Nigerians
* South Africans

Asian|

* Bangladeshis
* Chinese
* Filipinos
* Japanese
* Indians
* Koreans
* Taiwanese
* Thais
* Vietnamese
* Indonesians
* Malaysians
* Singaporeans
* Mongolians

Middle Eastern|

* Arabs
* Palestinians
* Armenians
* Iranians
* Israelis

Europeans|

* Albanians
* Bulgarians
* Dutch
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* Germans
* Greeks
* Hungarians
* Italians
* Irish
* Ukrainians
* Spaniards
* Swedes
* Romanians
* Russians
* Poles
* English
* Turkish

Native Americans|

* Tongva
* Chumash people

Other|

* Jews
* Roma
* Australians

* v
* t
* e

Chicano and Mexican American topics

Terms|

* Chicano
* Indigenismo
* Mexican American
* La Raza
* Cholo
* Pachuco
* Pinto
* Blaxican
* Xicanx

Pre-Chicano Movement|

* 1917 Bath riots
* Bisbee Deportation
* Bracero program
* Korean War
* La Matanza
* Mexican Repatriation
* Operation Wetback
* Plan de San Diego
* Porvenir Massacre
* Sleepy Lagoon trial
* Zoot Suit Riots

Chicano Movement|

* Aztlán
* Católicos por La Raza
* Centro de Arte Público
* Chicanismo
* Chicana feminism
* Chicano Blowouts
* Chicano Moratorium
* Mission Cultural Center for Latino Arts
* PCUN
* Plan Espiritual de Aztlán
* Plan de Santa Bárbara
* Farm workers' rights campaign
* Land grant struggle
* Colegio César Chávez
* Los Siete de la Raza
* Los Seis de Boulder
* Occupation of Catalina Island

Post-Chicano Movement|

* Aztlán
* 1985–1987 Watsonville Cannery strike
* 1992 Drywall Strike
* 2019 El Paso shooting
* Abolish ICE
* Arizona SB 1070
* Castro 2020
* DACA
* Great American Boycott
* IRCA
* Justice for Janitors
* Killing of Adam Toledo
* Murder of Selena
* Party crews
* Proposition 187
* Xicanx

Culture|

* Anti-Mexican sentiment
* Caló
* Chicano art
* Chicano cinema
* Chicano literature
* Chicano names
* Chicano poetry
* Chicano Park
* Chicano rock
* Chicano rap
* Cinco de Mayo
* Estrada Courts murals
* Lowrider
* Mexican-American cuisine
* Mexican-American folklore
* Mexican-American women's fashion
* Mexican muralism
* New Mexican cuisine
* New Mexico music
* Paño
* Regional Mexican
* Skull art
* Teatro Campesino
* Tejano music
* Tex-Mex cuisine
* Tortilla art
* Zoot suit

Chicana/o Theory|

* Barrioization
* Coyolxauhqui imperative
* Gringo justice
* Nepantla
* New tribalism
* Rasquachismo
* Spiritual activism
* Vergüenza
* Youth control complex

Supreme Court cases|

* Botiller v. Dominguez
* Hernandez v. Texas
* San Antonio I.S.D. v. Rodriguez
* Espinoza v. Farah Manufacturing Co.
* U.S. v. Brignoni-Ponce
* Plyler v. Doe
* Medellín v. Texas
* Flores-Figueroa v. U.S.
* Leal Garcia v. Texas
* Mendez v. Westminster
* Bernal v. Fainter
* DHS v. Regents of the Univ. of Cal.

By city and region|

* Arizona
* Tucson
* California (Californios • Los Angeles • San Francisco • San Diego)
* Colorado
* Illinois (Chicago)
* Kansas
* Maryland (Baltimore)
* Michigan (Detroit)
* Nebraska (Omaha)
* New Mexico
* New York (New York City)
* Pennsylvania
* Philadelphia
* Texas
* Dallas–Fort Worth
* Houston
* Tejanos
* Utah

Lists|

* Chicano films
* Chicano poets
* U.S. communities with Hispanic majority
* Mexican Americans
* Writers
* List of Hispanic and Latino Americans
* Bibliography
* List of Mexican-American communities
* List of Mexican-American political organizations
* List of Chicano and Mexican monuments and memorials in California

* Category:Chicano
* Category:American people of Mexican descent

Authority control databases: National |

* Spain
* Israel

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