History of Sarawak

Etching depicting a kampong in Kuching

Part of a series on the

History of Malaysia

Prehistoric period

|  Paleolithic|

|

Lenggong Valley|  c. 2,000,0000 BCE
Mansuli Valley| 235,000 BCE
Mesolithic|
Niah cultures|  65,000-40,000 BCE
Neolithic|
Bewah man/woman|  16,000 BCE
Perak man/woman|  11,000-200 BCE
Neolithic Klang|  500 - 200 BCE

Early kingdoms

|  Ancient Kedah|  <100 BCE

|

Chi Tu|  100 BCE-642 CE
Langkasuka|  100 BCE-1474 CE
Gangga Negara|  c. 100 CE-1025
Pan Pan|  424-775
Old Kedah|  170-1135
Old Pahang|  449–1454
Srivijaya|  700s-1025
Majapahit|  1300s

Rise of Muslim states

|  Kedah Sultanate|  1136–present

|

Samudera Pasai Sultanate|  1267–1521
Brunei Sultanate|  1368–present
Malacca Sultanate|  1402–1511
Sulu Sultanate|  1450–1899
Pahang Sultanate|  1470–1623
Aceh Sultanate|  1496–1903
Pattani Sultanate|  1516– 1902
Johor Sultanate|  1528–present
Sarawak Sultanate|  1599–1641
Selangor Sultanate|  1766–present
Besut Kingdom|  1780–1899
Setul Kingdom|  1808–1916
Reman Kingdom|  1810–1902
Kubang Pasu Kingdom|  1839–1864

Colonial period

|  Portuguese Malacca|  1511–1641

|

Dutch–Portuguese War|  1601–1661
Dutch Malacca|  1641–1824
Pahang Kingdom|  1770–1881
Straits Settlements|  1786–1946
Siamese invasion of Kedah|  1821–1826
Anglo-Dutch Treaty| 1824
Burney Treaty| 1826
Naning War|  1831–1832
Kingdom of Sarawak|  1841–1946
Separation of Perlis from Kedah|  1843
Crown Colony of Labuan|  1848–1946
Pahang Civil War|  1857–1863
Larut Wars|  1861–1874
Klang War|  1867–1874
Pangkor Treaty|  1874
Perak War| 1875–1876
British Malaya / Borneo|  1874–1946
Jementah Civil War|  1879
North Borneo|  1882–1946
Pahang Uprising|  1891–1895
Mat Salleh Rebellion|  1894–1905
Federated Malay States|  1895–1946
Anglo-Siamese Treaty|  1909
Unfederated Malay States|  1909–1946
Battle of Penang|  1914
Kelantan rebellion|  1915

World War II

Japanese occupation of Malaya / Borneo

1941–1945

|

Malayan campaign|  1941–1942
Bornean Campaign|  1941–1942
Battle of Muar|  1942
Parit Sulong Massacre|  1942
Battle of Singapore|  1942
Sook Ching|  1942
Syburi|  1942
Sandakan Death Marches|  1942–1945
Si Rat Malai|  1943–1945
Jesselton revolt|  1943–1944

Formative period

|  BMA of Malaya/Borneo|  1945–1946

|

Crown Colony of N. Borneo/Sarawak|  1946–1963
Anti-cession movement|  1946–1963
Malayan Union|  1946–1948
Federation of Malaya|  1948–1963
Malayan Emergency|  1948–1960
Baling Talks|  1955

Independence period

|  Malayan Independence|  1957

|

Singapore self-governance|  1959
ISA 1960|  1960–2012
Sarawak Insurgency|  1962–1990
North Borneo self-governance|  1963
Konfrontasi|  1963–1966
Sarawak self-governance|  1963
Formation of Malaysia|  1963
Singapore in Malaysia|  1963–1965
ASEAN Declaration|  1967
Second communist insurgency|  1968–1989

Modern period

|  1966 Sarawak constitutional crisis|  1965–1966

|

13 May incident|  1969
National Operations Council|  1969–1971
Declaration of Rukun Negara|  1970
New Economic Policy|  1971–1990
Federal Territory of KL|  1974
1977 Kelantan Emergency|  1977
Pedra Branca dispute|  1979–2008
South China Sea dispute (Spratly)|  1980–present
Dawn Raid|  1981
Federal Territory of Labuan|  1984
Memali incident|  1985
Sabah Emergency|  1986
Ming Court Affair|  1987
Operation Lalang|  1987
Constitutional crisis|  1987–1988
Peace Agreement of Hat Yai|  1989
Royal Immunity Amendments|  1993
Asian financial crisis|  1997–1998
Reformasi Movement|  1998–2022
Federal Territory of Putrajaya|  2001
2008 Malaysian Opposition Wave|  2008
2009 Perak constitutional crisis|  2009
H1N1 flu pandemic|  2009–2010
Lahad Datu standoff|  2013
Sedition Dragnet|  2014
1MDB scandal|  2015–present
Pakatan Harapan takeover|  2018
COVID-19 pandemic|  2020–2022
Political crisis|  2020–2022
Bornean Amendment|  2021–2023
Green Wave|  2022–present
2023 Sabah political crisis|  2023

Incidents

|  Brunei revolt|  1962–1966

|

North Borneo dispute (Philippine militant attacks)|  1962–present
Singapore race riots|  1964
Brunei's Limbang claim|  1967–2009
Penang Hartal riot|  1967
Ligitan and Sipadan dispute|  1969–2002
Kuala Lumpur flash floods|  1971
Malaysian haze crisis|  1972–present
AIA building hostage crisis|  1975
National Monument bombing|  1975
Campbell Shopping Complex fire|  1976
Sabah Air GAF Nomad crash|  1976
Japan Airlines Flight 715 incident|  1977
MH653 incident|  1977
1982 Bukit Merah radioactive pollution|  1982
1985 Lahad Datu ambush|  1985
Memali Incident|  1985
Penang terminal bridge collapse|  1988
Taufiqiah Al-Khairiah madrasa fire|  1989
Kuala Lumpur–Karak Highway crash|  1990
Bright Sparklers disaster|  1991
Highland Towers collapse|  1993
Genting landslide|  1995
MH2133 incident|  1995
Pos Dipang mudflow|  1996
Tropical Storm Greg|  1996
Nipah virus outbreak|  1998–1999
2000 Sipadan kidnappings|  2000
Al-Ma'unah incident|  2000
Sauk Siege|  2000
2001 Kampung Medan riots|  2001
2002 Taman Hillview landslide|  2002
Indian Ocean tsunami|  2004
2006–2007 Southeast Asian floods|  2006–2007
Bukit Gantang bus crash|  2007
Bukit Antarabangsa landslide|  2008
Attacks against places of worship|  2010
2010 Cameron Highlands bus crash|  2010
Hulu Langat landslide|  2011
2013 Genting Highlands bus crash|  2013
MH370 incident|  2014
MH17 incident|  2014
2014–15 Malaysia floods|  2014–2015
Sabah earthquake|  2015
2015 Plaza Low Yat riot|  2015
Movida Bar grenade attack|  2016
Kim Jong-nam's Assassination|  2017
Darul Quran madrasa fire| 2017
2018 Subang Temple riot|  2018
2019 Kim Kim River toxic pollution|  2019
2020-21 Malaysia floods|  2021
LRT train collision|  2021
2021-22 Malaysia floods|  2021–2022
2022 Batang Kali landslide|  2022
2023 Elmina plane crash|  2023
2024 Lumut helicopters crash|  2024
2024 Ulu Tiram police station attack|  2024
2025 Putra Heights pipeline fire|  2025
2025 Gerik bus crash|  2025

By topic

* Communications
* Constitutional
* Economic
* Immigration
* Legal
* Military

By region

* Kedah
* Kuala Lumpur
* Penang
* George Town
* Sabah
* Sarawak

Malaysia portal

* v
* t
* e

The History of Sarawak can be traced as far as 40,000 years ago to the Paleolithic period where the earliest evidence of human settlement is found in the Niah caves. A series of Chinese ceramics dated from the 8th to 13th century AD was uncovered at the archeological site of Santubong. The coastal regions of Sarawak came under the influence of the Bruneian Empire in the 16th century. In 1839, James Brooke, a British explorer, first arrived in Sarawak. Sarawak was later governed by the Brooke family between 1841 and 1946. During World War II, it was occupied by the Japanese for three years. After the war, the last White Rajah, Charles Vyner Brooke, ceded Sarawak to Britain, and in 1946 it became a British Crown Colony. On 22 July 1963, Sarawak was granted self-government by the British. Following this, it became one of the founding members of the Federation of Malaysia, established on 16 September 1963. However, the federation was opposed by Indonesia, and this led to the three-year Indonesia–Malaysia confrontation. From 1960 to 1990, Sarawak experienced a communist insurgency.

## Prehistory

[edit]

Further information: Prehistoric Malaysia

The main entrance to the Niah Caves

The first foragers visited the West Mouth of the Niah Caves (located 110 kilometres (68 mi) southwest of Miri)[1] 65,000 years ago instead of 40,000 years ago as previously believed, when Borneo was connected to the mainland of Southeast Asia.[2] The landscape around the Niah Caves was drier and more exposed than it is now. Prehistorically, the Niah Caves were surrounded by a combination of closed forests with bush, parkland, swamps, and rivers. The foragers were able to survive in the rainforest through hunting, fishing, and gathering molluscs and edible plants.[3] This new timeline of 65,000 years was established when five pieces of microlithic tools that were aged 65,000 years old and a human skull that was aged 55,000 years were discovered at part of the Niah Caves complex, Trader cave, during excavation work.[4] An earlier evidence is the discovery of a modern human skull, nicknamed "Deep Skull", in a deep trench uncovered by Barbara and Tom Harrisson (a British ethnologist) in 1958;[1][5] this is also the oldest modern human skull in Southeast Asia.[6] The Deep Skull probably belongs to a 16- to 17-year-old adolescent girl.[3] When compared with the Iban skull and other fossils, the Deep Skull most closely resembles the indigenous people of Borneo today, with their delicate features and small body size, and it has few similarities with the skulls of the indigenous Australians.[7] Mesolithic and Neolithic burial sites have also been found.[8] The area around the Niah Caves has been designated the Niah National Park.[9]

Another earlier excavation by Tom Harrisson in 1949 unearthed a series of Chinese ceramics at Santubong (near Kuching) that date to the Tang and the Song dynasties in the 8th to 19th century AD. It is possible that Santubong was an important seaport in Sarawak during the period, but its importance declined during the Yuan dynasty, and the port was deserted during the Ming dynasty.[10] Other archaeological sites in Sarawak can be found inside the Kapit, Song, Serian, and Bau districts.[11]

## Early kingdoms

[edit]

Early kingdoms within the Sarawak were Santubong (near Kuching), Sadong (near Samarahan), Saribas, Kalaka (both in Betong Division), Malano (in Mukah),[12] and Banting and Lingga (both located in Sri Aman).[13]

Before these early kingdoms in Sarawak came about, the Hindu Funan Civilization, which housed a multiethnic conglomeration of Austronesian and Austroasiatic peoples together with Indian (South Asian) administrators, subsisted in Mainland Southeast Asia on what is now Cambodia, was described by Chinese and Arabic sources, to have the same religion and customs as the kingdoms in Sarawak.[14]: 35 Upon Cambodian (Khmer) conquest of Funan, its people fled to Sarawak where its royal family the Sailendra dynasty set up new kingdoms using refugees from Funan.[14]: 35

Archeological excavations in Santubong showed that the site was an important trading port from the 7th century to the 14th century. Among the artifacts that were found were Chinese ceramics, iron slag (weighing around 40,000 tonnes), and artifacts of the Hindu religion. According to the historical work Hikayat Datuk Merpati, Datuk Merpati and his relatives hailed from the Jawa island. They helped other two people named Datuk Kuli and Datuk Kuali who were stranded at Tanjung Datu (near Kuching) in Sarawak. Both Datuk Kuli and Kuali invited Datuk Merpati to move to the Sarawak River and started the Santubong kingdom. The son of Datuk Merpati Merpati Jepang continued his rule in the Santubong area. By 1350, Majapahit started to expand its power base to Borneo. Trading at Santubong port was halted, as evidenced by the absence of Chinese Ming dynasty pottery in the area. The name of Santubong was later changed to Sawaku (Sarawak) as recorded in the Javanese manuscript Nagarakretagama.[12]

The people of Santubong would have migrated inland into Gedong/Sadong areas within the Saramahan Division. Silsilah Raja-raja Brunei mentioned the state of Samarahan which is sometimes known as Sadong. The place name Samadong recorded in the Java manuscript Nagarakretagama possibly refer to the state of Sadong. In the 1850s, James Brooke and Spenser St. John found a female doll and a stone bull in this area which were used in Hinduism worship. Archeological excavations at Sadong River revealed Chinese ceramic wares dating back to the 14th to 15th centuries. A total of 79,654 ceramic pieces, beads, coins, and gold were found at Gedong, located 7 miles inland of Santubong. A further 15 miles inland of Gedong is Bukit Sandong where 30,000 ceramic pieces were found which date back to those pottery pieces found at Gedong and Santubong. The presence of Thai traditional ceramic ware Sangkhalok ceramic ware at Bukit Sandong dates back the area to 16th to 17th centuries. The presence of large quantities of ceramic wares shows that trading could have happened further inland from Santubong. Lucas Chin, the former director of Sarawak State Museum stated that if Gedong happens to be a political entity, it would have existed from the 7th to 13th century.[12]

Located near Kalaka river valley was the state of Kalaka, located at 10 miles to the east of Santubong. Another state named Kabong was located at the mouth of Kalaka and Saribas rivers. Nagarakretagama recorded Kalaka as Kalka, colony of Majapahit. In Silsilah Raja-raja Brunei, Kalaka was said to have been awarded by the Johor sultanate to Bruneian empire. In Syair Tarsilah Cetera Dato' Gudam dan Temenggong Qadir Negeri Saribas, the state was said to be ruled by two sisters. Excavations in this area revealed 9,469 Chinese ceramic wares, including Sangkhalok ceramic wares and blue and white pottery, dating back to 16th to 17th centuries.[12]

The Saribas kingdom, located near the Kelaka kingdom, was at the confluence of Saribas and Rimbas rivers. Silsilah raja-raja Brunei mentioned the name of Saribas. In Syair Tarsilah Cetera Abang Gudam dan Temenggong Qadir Negeri Saribas, a Bruneian dignitary named Pengiran Temenggong Abdul Qadir ran away from the Brunei capital because his daughter named Dang Chi; was taken by the Sultan of Brunei. Abdul Qadir later set up a capital at Tandang Sari on the bank of the Saribas River. He later met Dato' Gundam from Sumatera and persuaded Gundam to bring back his daughter. Dato' Gundam succeeded and Abdul Qadir's daughter was married to Dato' Gundam. Dato' Gundam later took over the administration of Saribas Kingdom. The administration was later inherited through Datu Patinggi, Datu Bandar, Aulaksamana, Datuk Imam and Datu Hakim administrative posts. However, Negarakertagama did not mention the name Saribas. This could be due to the kingdom was only established in the early or mid 17th century.[12]

The Melano kingdom existed from about 1300 to 1400 AD and centred at the Mukah river. Rajah Tugau is a memorable King in Sarawak as he is mentioned in both Bruneian[15] and Filipino (Madja-as) sources.[16][17] His kingdom consisted of groups of similar Melanau and Kajang language speakers and covered coastal Sarawak until Belait. They also share almost identical culture and heritage. Nagarakertagama, written in 1365 during Hayam Wuruk, mentions Malano and Barune(ng) among the 14 tributaries of Majapahit. After the fall of Majapahit, Barune(ng) expanded its territory along the northern coast of Borneo island.[14]: 36 According to the manuscript of Brunei's rulers, following the fall of Majapahit, Barunai led by Awang Semaun being reinforced by the Iban, conquered Tutong under its chief Mawanga and the whole of the Melano kingdom until Igan under its chief Basiung despite reinforcement from Sambas. Barunai continued the conquest of the entire south and then north of Borneo Island, after which conquered the whole Sulu and Philippines.[18]

By 1530, the Santubong area was known to Portuguese cartographers as Cerava, one of the five great seaports on the island of Borneo.[12][19][20] European maps in the 16th and 17th centuries named the Santubong area as Cereua (1537), Cereuwa (1550), Melano as Belanos, Sadong as Sedang, Kalaka as Calca and Bintulu as River de Berulu. In the 17th century, Samuel Blommaert, a Dutch merchant mentioned that "Sadong were one of the best place for trade comparable to Lauwe (Lawai)". A Dutch report in 1609 mentioned a rebellion against the Bruneian sultanate by the tribes living in Calca, Saribas, and Melano to politically align themselves with the Johor sultanate.[12] John Hunt, an English officer mentioned Kalaka as an important trading port in the region in 1812.[12]

The Catalan Atlas published in 1375 shows the map of the Malano kingdom. This was confirmed by a Portuguese map which shows the existence of a polity called Malano. At Florence, Italy, an old map dated 1595 shows the Sarawak coastal areas as districts of Oya, Balingian dan Mukah which was marked as Malano. In the Nan-hai-chih of China mentioned Achen atau Igan. According to Historian Robert Nicholl, Rajah Tugau of the Melanao was the Rajah Makatunao mentioned in the Philippine History book of Maragtas to which the 10 Datus of the Kedatuan of Madja-as in Panay Island, at the Visayas region, waged a war against, it is through the Melano that Visayans have further links with the Srivijayans in Vijayapura (The Srivijayan vassal-state in Borneo) before the conquest of Majapahit.[14]: 36

## Bruneian Empire and the Sultanate of Sarawak

[edit]

Further information: Bruneian Empire and Sultanate of Sarawak

Mausoleum of Sultan Tengah, the Sultan of Sarawak, located in Santubong

During its golden age, Brunei under the leadership of Nahkhod Raga Sultan Bolkiah (1473-1521 AD) managed to conquer the Santubong Kingdom in 1512.[21]

In 1599, after the death of the Sultan Muhammad Hasan, Abdul Jalilul Akbar rose to the Brunei throne. However, Jalilul Akbar's younger brother, Pengiran Muda Tengah, disputed the enthronement of Abdul Jalilu Akbar and also wanted to become Sultan of Brunei by claiming himself rightful successor on the basis of having been born when his father became the Crown Prince. Sultan Abdul Jalilul Akbar responded by proclaiming Pengiran Muda Tengah as Sultan of Sarawak, as at that time Sarawak was a territory administered by Brunei.[22] Sultan Tengah was killed at Batu Buaya in 1641 by one of his followers. He was buried in Kampong Batu Buaya. With his death, the Sultanate of Sarawak came to an end and was later readmitted back into the Bruneian empire. By the early 19th century, Sarawak had become a loosely governed territory under the control of the Brunei Sultanate. The Bruneian Empire had authority only along the coastal regions of Sarawak held by semi-independent Malay leaders. Meanwhile, the interior of Sarawak suffered from tribal wars fought by Iban, Kayan, and Kenyah peoples, who aggressively fought to expand their territories.[22]

Following the discovery of antimony ore in the Kuching region, Pangeran Indera Mahkota (a representative of the Sultan of Brunei) began to develop the territory between 1824 and 1830. When antimony production increased, the Brunei Sultanate demanded higher taxes from Sarawak; this led to civil unrest and chaos.[23] In 1839, Sultan Omar Ali Saifuddin II (1827–1852), ordered his uncle Pengiran Muda Hashim to restore order. Pangeran Muda Hashim requested the assistance of British sailor James Brooke in the matter, but Brooke refused.[24] However, in 1841 during his next visit to Sarawak in 1841 he agreed to a repeated request. Pangeran Muda Hashim signed a treaty in 1841 surrendering Sarawak to Brooke. On 24 September 1841,[25] Pangeran Muda Hashim bestowed the title of governor on James Brooke. This appointment was later confirmed by the Sultan of Brunei in 1842. In 1843, James Brooke decided to create a pro-British Brunei government by installing Pangeran Muda Hashim into the Brunei Court as he would take Brooke's advice, forcing Brunei to appoint Hashim under the guns of East India Company's steamer Phlegethon. The Brunei Court was unhappy with Hashim's appointment and had him assassinated in 1845. In retaliation, James Brooke attacked Kampong Ayer, the capital of Brunei. After the incident, the Sultan of Brunei sent an apology letter to Queen Victoria. The sultan also confirmed James Brooke's possession of Sarawak and his mining rights of antimony without paying tribute to Brunei.[26] In 1846 Brooke effectively became the Rajah of Sarawak and founded the White Rajah Dynasty of Sarawak.[27][28]

## Iban expansion to Sarawak

[edit]

Iban northern expansion between 1800-1941

Based on the Iban legends and myths, they originally arrived from the Kapuas river in West Kalimantan (in present-day Indonesian Borneo). The early migrations to Sarawak was a result of the tribal issues in their Kapuas Hulu ancestral homeland.[29][30][31] The early Iban folk story was also aligned by the modern-day language research by Asmah Haji Omar (1981), Rahim Aman (1997), Chong Shin and James T. Collins (2019) as well as from the evidence of material cultures from M. Heppell (2020) that verify the Iban language and its cultures emerged from the upper Kapuas region.[32]

According to the studies made by Benedict Sandin (1968), the era of Iban migrations from Kapuas Hulu was identified to begin from the 1750s onwards.[32] The pioneers were described to arrived in Batang Lupar and founded a settlement near the Undop River. Within five generations, the Ibans of Batang Lupar spread to the north, east and west, establishing new communities situated the boundaries of Batang Lupar, Batang Sadong, Saribas and Batang Layar.

During the White Rajah's era in the 19th century, the migrations of the Ibans largely headed north towards the Rejang Basin, the area was reach from the upper Katibas, Batang Lupar and Saribas Rivers. A large community of Iban was recorded near Mukah and Oya river by the 1870s. By the early 20th century, the Iban pioneers arrived in Tatau, Kemena (Bintulu) and Balingan. In the 1900s, the Iban has expanded to the Baram valley and Limbang River northern Sarawak.

Iban ladies in their Kapuas Hulu ancestral land

The colonial documents during the Brooke's administration has recorded several complications pertaining to the migration of the Ibans, as the Iban community can effortlessly outnumbered the original pre-existing tribes, as well as created an adverse environmental mark on the lands originally intended for swidden agriculture. Hence, the Ibans were barred from the government to migrate to other river system. The strain between the Iban people against the Brooke administrative policies were reported in the Balleh Valley.[32]

In spite of the challengers between the Brooke's administration and the settlers during the early migration period, the migration has created a good opportunity for both parties. The Ibans, known for their extensive skills and knowledge on the forest and lands were approved to seek new lands to explore forst produce including camphor, rattans, wild rubber and damar. The colonial government then approved permanent Iban settlements across the newly acquired territories of Sarawak. For instance, in the 1890 cessesion of Limbang, the Ibans were entrusted by the government to settle in the area. A correlating program can also be seen in Baram.[32]

Towards the end of the 19th century, there are several areas in Sarawak that recorded overpopulation, including Batang Lupar, Skrang Valley and Batang Ai. Thus, the Sarawakian government initiated a program to open up several territories for the Iban settlements, with several conditions. This can be seen on the unlimited migrations of Ibans heading to Baram, Balingan and Bintulu. A similar process can also be witnessed in the early 1900s, where the Ibans in the Second Division were permitted to settle in Limbang, as well as the migrations of the Ibans to Batang Lupar from Lundu.[32]

The colonial government initiative has left a favourable effect on the expansion of the Iban language and culture throughout modern day Sarawak. At the same time, the mass migration has equally impacted other indigenous groups, for instance amongst the Bukitans in Batang Lupar, an intensive intermarriage by the Bukitan leaders resulted the Batang Lupar Bukitan populations assimilate in the Iban society. However, there are other groups that resulted in a fiercer relationship, for example the Ukits, Seru, Miriek and Biliun in which their traditional communities were almost replaced the Ibans.[33]

## Brooke dynasty

[edit]

Main articles: Raj of Sarawak and White Rajahs

James Brooke, the first Rajah of Sarawak

James Brooke ruled the area and expanded the territory northwards until his death in 1868. He was succeeded by his nephew Charles Anthoni Johnson Brooke, who in turn was succeeded by his son, Charles Vyner Brooke, on the condition that Charles Anthoni should rule in consultation with Vyner Brooke's brother Bertram Brooke.[34] Both James and Charles Anthoni Johnson Brooke pressured Brunei to sign treaties as a strategy to acquire territories from Brunei and expand the territorial boundaries of Sarawak. In 1861, Brunei ceded the Bintulu region to James Brooke. Sarawak was recognised as an independent state by the United States in 1850 and the United Kingdom in 1864. The state issued its first currency as the Sarawak dollar in 1858.[35] In 1883 Sarawak was extended to the Baram River (near Miri). Limbang was added to Sarawak in 1890. The final expansion of Sarawak occurred in 1905 when Lawas was ceded to the Brooke government.[36][37] Sarawak was divided into five divisions, corresponding to territorial boundaries of the areas acquired by the Brookes through the years. Each division was headed by a Resident.[38]

A barque named Rajah of Sarawak, in honour of James Brooke, operating between Swansea in the UK, Australia, and the East Indies from the late 1840s.

Sarawak became a British protectorate in 1888, while still ruled by the Brooke dynasty. The Brookes ruled Sarawak for a hundred years as "White Rajahs".[39] The Brookes adopted a policy of paternalism to protect the interests of the indigenous population and their overall welfare. While the Brooke government established a Supreme Council consisting of Malay chiefs who advised the Rajahs on all aspects of governance,[40] in the Malaysian context the Brooke family is viewed as a colonialist.[41] The Supreme Council is the oldest state legislative assembly in Malaysia, with the first General Council meeting taking place at Bintulu in 1867.[42] Meanwhile, the Ibans and other Dayak people were hired as militia.[43] The Brooke dynasty encouraged the immigration of Chinese merchants for economic development, especially in the mining and agricultural sectors.[40][44] Western businessmen were restricted from entering the state while Christian missionaries were tolerated.[40] Piracy, slavery, and headhunting were banned.[45] Borneo Company Limited was formed in 1856. It was involved in a wide range of businesses in Sarawak such as trade, banking, agriculture, mineral exploration, and development.[46]

An 1888 revenue stamp of Sarawak featuring the picture of Charles Brooke Territorial expansion of the Raj of Sarawak from 1841 to 1905 played a significant role to the present-day boundaries of the modern state of Sarawak.

In 1857, 500 Hakka Chinese gold miners from Bau, under the leadership of Liu Shan Bang, destroyed the Brookes' house. Brooke escaped and organised a bigger army together with his nephew Charles[47] and his Malayo-Iban supporters.[40] A few days later, Brooke's army was able to cut off the escape route of the Chinese rebels, who were defeated after two months of fighting.[48][44] The Brookes subsequently built a new government house by the Sarawak River at Kuching.[49][50] An anti-Brooke faction at the Brunei Court was defeated in 1860 at Mukah. Other notable rebellions that were successfully quashed by the Brookes include those led by an Iban leader Rentap (1853–1863), and a Malay leader named Syarif Masahor (1860–1862).[40] As a result, a series of forts were built around Kuching to consolidate the Rajah's power. These include Fort Margherita, which was completed in 1879.[50] In 1891 Charles Anthoni Brooke established the Sarawak Museum, the oldest museum in Borneo.[50][51] In 1899, Charles Anthoni Brooke ended the intertribal wars in Marudi. The first oil well was drilled in 1910. Two years later, the Brooke Dockyard opened. Anthony Brooke was born in the same year and became Rajah Muda in 1939.[52]

In 1941, during the centenary celebration of Brooke rule in Sarawak, a new constitution was introduced to limit the power of the Rajah and to allow the Sarawak people to play a greater role in the functioning of the government.[53]

## Japanese occupation and Allied liberation

[edit]

Main articles: Japanese occupation of British Borneo and Battle of North Borneo

Aerial view of Batu Lintang POW camp; photo taken on or after 29 August 1945.

The Brooke government, under the leadership of Charles Vyner Brooke, established several airstrips in Kuching, Oya, Mukah, Bintulu, and Miri for preparations in the event of war. By 1941, the British had withdrawn its defending forces from Sarawak to Singapore. With Sarawak now unguarded, the Brooke regime decided to adopt a scorched earth policy where oil installations in Miri would be destroyed and the Kuching airfield will be held as long as possible before being destroyed. Meanwhile, Japanese forces seized British Borneo to guard their eastern flank in the Malayan Campaign and to facilitate their invasion of Sumatra and West Java. A Japanese invasion force led by Kiyotake Kawaguchi landed in Miri on 16 December 1941 (eight days into the Malayan Campaign) and conquered Kuching on 24 December 1941. British forces led by Lieutenant Colonel C. M. Lane retreated to Singkawang in Dutch Borneo bordering Sarawak. After ten weeks of fighting in Dutch Borneo, the Allied forces surrendered on 1 April 1942.[54] When the Japanese invaded Sarawak, Charles Vyner Brooke had already left for Sydney, Australia, while his officers were captured by the Japanese and interned at the Batu Lintang camp.[55]

Sarawak remained part of the Empire of Japan for three years and eight months. Sarawak, together with North Borneo and Brunei, formed a single administrative unit named Kita Boruneo (Northern Borneo)[56] under the Japanese 37th Army headquartered in Kuching. Sarawak was divided into three provinces, namely: Kuching-shu, Sibu-shu, and Miri-shu, each under their respective Japanese Provincial Governor. The Japanese retained pre-war administrative machinery and assigned Japanese for government positions. The administration of Sarawak's interior was left to the native police and village headmen, under Japanese supervision. Though the Malays were typically receptive toward the Japanese, other indigenous tribes such as the Iban, Kayan, Kenyah, Kelabit and Lun Bawang maintained a hostile attitude toward them because of policies such as compulsory labour, forced deliveries of foodstuffs, and confiscation of firearms. The Japanese did not resort to strong measures in clamping down on the Chinese population because the Chinese in the state were generally apolitical. However, a considerable number of Chinese moved from urban areas into the less accessible interior to lessen contact with the Japanese.[57]

Allied forces later formed the Z Special Unit to sabotage Japanese operations in Southeast Asia. Beginning in March 1945, Allied commanders were parachuted into Borneo jungles and established several bases in Sarawak under an operation codenamed "Semut". Hundreds of indigenous people were trained to launch offensives against the Japanese.[58] During the battle of North Borneo, the Australian forces landed at Lutong-Miri area on 20 June 1945 and had penetrated as far as Marudi and Limbang before halting their operations in Sarawak.[59] After the surrender of Japan, the Japanese surrendered to the Australian forces at Labuan on 10 September 1945.[60][61] This was followed by the official surrender ceremony at Kuching aboard the Australian Corvette HMAS Kapunda on 11 September 1945.[62] The Batu Lintang camp was liberated on the same day.[63] Sarawak was immediately placed under British Military Administration until April 1946.[64]

* A map of the occupation of Borneo in 1943 prepared by the Japanese during World War II, with label written in Japanese characters.

* Large crowd of Sarawak native population throngs the street of Kuching to witness the arrival of Australian Imperial Force (AIF) on 12 September 1945.

* The official surrender ceremony of the Japanese to the Australian forces at Kuching on 11 September 1945.

* A large world map, showing the Japanese-occupied area in Asia, set up in the main street of Sarawak's capital.

## British crown colony

[edit]

Main article: Crown Colony of Sarawak

Anti-cession demonstration in Sarawak

After the war, the Brooke government did not have enough resources to rebuild Sarawak. Charles Vyner Brooke was also not willing to hand over his power to his heir apparent, Anthony Brooke (his nephew, the only son of Bertram Brooke) because of serious differences between them.[22][note 1] Furthermore, Vyner Brooke's wife, Sylvia Brett, tried to defame Anthony Brooke in order to install her daughter to the throne. Faced with these problems, Vyner Brooke decided to cede sovereignty of Sarawak to the British Crown.[citation needed] A Cession Bill was put forth in the Council Negri (now Sarawak State Legislative Assembly) and was debated for three days. The bill was passed on 17 May 1946 with a narrow majority (19 versus 16 votes). Supporters of the bill were mostly European officers, while the Malays opposed the bill. This caused hundreds of Malay civil servants to resign in protest, sparking an anti-cession movement and the assassination of the second colonial governor of Sarawak Sir Duncan Stewart by Rosli Dhobi.[65]

Anthony Brooke opposed the cession of Sarawak to the British Crown, and was linked to anti-cessionist groups in Sarawak, especially after the assassination of Sir Duncan Stewart.[66] Anthony Brooke continued to claim sovereignty as Rajah of Sarawak even after Sarawak became a British Crown colony on 1 July 1946. For this he was banished from Sarawak by the colonial government[40][note 2] and was allowed to return only 17 years later for a nostalgic visit, when Sarawak became part of Malaysia.[67] In 1950 all anti-cession movements in Sarawak ceased after a clamp-down by the colonial government.[22] In 1951 Anthony relinquished all his claims to the Sarawak throne after he used up his last legal avenue at the Privy Council.[67]

## Self-government and the Federation of Malaysia

[edit]

Further information: Malaysia Agreement, 18-point agreement, Indonesia–Malaysia confrontation, and Sarawak Communist Insurgency

Tan Sri Datuk Amar Stephen Kalong Ningkan declaring the formation of the Federation of Malaysia on 16 September 1963

On 27 May 1961, Tunku Abdul Rahman, the prime minister of the Federation of Malaya, announced a plan to form a greater federation together with Singapore, Sarawak, Sabah and Brunei, to be called Malaysia. This plan caused the local leaders in Sarawak to be wary of Tunku's intentions in view of the great disparity in socioeconomic development between Malaya and the Borneo states. There was a general fear that without a strong political institution, the Borneo states would be subjected to Malaya's colonisation. Therefore, various political parties in Sarawak emerged to protect the interests of the communities they represented.[68] On 17 January 1962, the Cobbold Commission was formed to gauge the support of Sarawak and Sabah for the proposed federation. Between February and April 1962, the commission met more than 4,000 people and received 2,200 memoranda from various groups. The commission reported divided support among the Borneo population. However, Tunku interpreted the figures as 80 percent support for the federation.[69][70] Sarawak proposed an 18-point memorandum to safeguard its interests in the federation. In September 1962, Sarawak Council Negri (now Sarawak state legislative assembly) passed a resolution that supported the federation with a condition that the interests of the Sarawak people would not be compromised. On 23 October 1962, five political parties in Sarawak formed a united front that supported the formation of Malaysia.[68] Sarawak was officially granted self-government on 22 July 1963,[71][72] and formed the federation of Malaysia with Malaya, North Borneo, and Singapore on 16 September 1963.[73][74]

Sarawak Rangers leap from a Royal Australian Air Force Bell UH-1 Iroquois helicopter to guard the Malay–Thai border from potential guerrilla attacks in 1965.

The Malaysian federation had drawn opposition from the Philippines, Indonesia, Brunei People's Party, and the Sarawak-based communist groups. The Philippines and Indonesia claimed that the British would be "neocolonising" the Borneo states through the federation.[75] Meanwhile, A. M. Azahari, leader of the Brunei People's Party, instigated the Brunei Revolt in December 1962 to prevent Brunei from joining the Malaysian federation.[76] Azahari seized Limbang and Bekenu before being defeated by British military forces sent from Singapore. Claiming that the Brunei revolt was solid evidence of opposition to the Malaysian federation, Indonesian President Sukarno ordered a military confrontation with Malaysia, sending armed volunteers and later military forces into Sarawak, which became a flashpoint during the Indonesia–Malaysia confrontation between 1962 and 1966.[77][78] The confrontation gained little support from Sarawakians except from the Sarawak communists. Thousands of communist members went into Kalimantan, Indonesian Borneo, and underwent training with the Communist Party of Indonesia. During the confrontation, around 10,000 to 150,000 British troops were stationed in Sarawak, together with Australian and New Zealand troops. When Suharto replaced Sukarno as the president of Indonesia, negotiations were restarted between Malaysia and Indonesia which led to the end of the confrontation on 11 August 1966.

After the formation of the People's Republic of China in 1949, the ideology of Maoism started to influence Chinese schools in Sarawak. The first communist group in Sarawak was formed in 1951, with its origins in the Chung Hua Middle School (Kuching). The group was succeeded by the Sarawak Liberation League (SLL) in 1954. Its activities spread from schools to trade unions and farmers. They were mainly concentrated in the southern and central regions of Sarawak. Communist members successfully penetrated the Sarawak United Peoples' Party (SUPP). SLL tried to realise a communist state in Sarawak through constitutional means but during the confrontation period, it resorted to armed struggle against the government.[22][note 3] Weng Min Chyuan and Bong Kee Chok were the two notable leaders of the SLL. Following this, the Sarawak government relocated Chinese villagers into security-guarded settlements along the Kuching–Serian road to prevent the communists from getting material support from the villagers. The North Kalimantan Communist Party (NKCP) (also known as Clandestine Communist Organisation (CCO) by government sources) was formally set up in 1970. In 1973, Bong surrendered to chief minister Abdul Rahman Ya'kub; this significantly reduced the strength of the communist party. However, Weng, who had directed the CCO from China since the mid-1960s, called for armed struggle against the government, which after 1974 continued in the Rajang Delta. In 1989 the Malayan Communist Party (MCP) signed a peace agreement with the government of Malaysia. This caused the NKCP to reopen negotiations with the Sarawak government, which led to a peace agreement on 17 October 1990. Peace was restored in Sarawak after the final group of 50 communist guerrillas laid down their arms.[79][80]

## Notes

[edit]

1. ^ Morrison, 1993. There has been serious differences between Rajah and his brother and nephew (page 14)
2. ^ Ooi, 2013. This denial of entry to Anthony ... (page 93) ... The anti-cession movement was by the early 1950s effectively "strangled" a dead letter.(page 98)
3. ^ The first Communist group to be formed in Sarawak ... (page 95)

## References

[edit]

1. ^ a b "Niah National Park – Early Human settlements". Sarawak Forestry. Archived from the original on 18 February 2015. Retrieved 23 March 2015.
2. ^ "New pre-history timeline discovered for Borneo". 22 October 2018. Archived from the original on 22 February 2023. Retrieved 1 May 2020.
3. ^ a b Faulkner, Neil (7 November 2003). Niah Cave, Sarawak, Borneo. Current World Archaeology Issue 2. Archived from the original on 23 March 2015. Retrieved 23 March 2015.
4. ^ The new timeline of 65,000 years was concluded when five pieces of microlithic tools that were aged 65,000 years old and a human skull that was aged 55,000 years old were discovered at part of the Niah Saves complex, Trader cave, during excavation work.
5. ^ "History of the Great Cave of Niah". Australian Broadcasting Corporation. Archived from the original on 22 November 2014. Retrieved 23 March 2015.
6. ^ "Niah Cave". humanorigins.si.edu. Smithsonian National Museum of Natural History. January 1958. Archived from the original on 22 November 2013. Retrieved 23 March 2015.
7. ^ "Ancient Deep Skull still holds big surprises 60 years after it was unearthed". 28 June 2016. Archived from the original on 28 January 2019. Retrieved 1 May 2020.
8. ^ Hirst, K. Kris. "Niah Cave (Borneo, Malaysia) – Anatomically modern humans in Borneo". about.com. Archived from the original on 20 October 2007. Retrieved 23 March 2015.
9. ^ "Niah National Park, Miri". Sarawak Tourism Board. Archived from the original on 26 December 2015. Retrieved 26 December 2015.
10. ^ Zheng, Dekun (1 January 1982). Studies in Chinese Archeology. The Chinese University Press. pp. 49, 50. ISBN 978-962-201-261-5. "In case of Santubong, its association with T'ang and Sung porcelain would necessary provide a date of about 8th – 13th century A.D."
11. ^ "Archeology". Sarawak Muzium Department. Archived from the original on 12 October 2015. Retrieved 28 December 2015.
12. ^ a b c d e f g h Said, Sanib (2012). "Sejarah Awal Kepulauan Melayu: Lima Buah Negeri Warisan Sarawak yang Hilang (The Early History of the Malay Archipelago: The Five Lost Kingdoms of Sarawak heritage. )" (PDF). Current Research in Malaysia. 1 (1): 21–50\. Archived (PDF) from the original on 19 December 2023. Retrieved 19 December 2023.
13. ^ Shafik Ahmad, Mohd (16 January 2016). "Sejarah kewujudan pentadbiran dua kerajaan dikaji(The existence of two historical kingdoms are studied)". Utusan Borneo. Archived from the original on 27 December 2023. Retrieved 23 February 2024.
14. ^ a b c d Brunei Rediscovered: A Survey of Early Times By Robert Nicholl Archived 20 July 2021 at the Wayback Machine p. 35 citing Ferrand. Relations, page 564-65. Tibbets, Arabic Texts, pg 47.
15. ^ "The Pre-Islamic Kings of Brunei By Rozan Yunos taken from the Magazine "Pusaka" published on year 2009". Archived from the original on 7 December 2023. Retrieved 7 December 2023.
16. ^ "THE BISAYA OF BORNEO AND THE PHILIPPINES: A NEW LOOK AT THE MARAGTAS By Joseph Baumgartner". Archived from the original on 2 August 2021. Retrieved 2 August 2021.
17. ^ Sonza, Demy P. (1974). "The Bisayas of Borneo and the Philippines: A New Look at the Maragtas" (PDF). Bahandian. Archived (PDF) from the original on 7 September 2023. Retrieved 7 September 2023.
18. ^ "The Fall of Melanau Kingdom and the expansion of Brunei empire". Archived from the original on 24 September 2020. Retrieved 1 May 2020.
19. ^ Donald F, Lach (15 July 2008). Asia in the Making of Europe, Volume I: The Century of Discovery, Book 1. University of Chicago Press. p. 581\. ISBN 978-0-226-46708-5. "... but Castanheda lists five great seaports that he says were known to the Portuguese. In his transcriptions they are called "Moduro" (Marudu?), "Cerava" (Sarawak?), "Laue" (Lawai), "Tanjapura" (Tanjungpura), and "Borneo" (Brunei) from which the island derives its name."
20. ^ Broek, Jan O.M. (1962). "Place Names in 16th and 17th Century Borneo". Imago Mundi. 16 (1): 134. doi:10.1080/03085696208592208. JSTOR 1150309. "Carena (for Carena), deep in the bight, refers to Sarawak, the Kuching area, where there is clear archaeological evidence of an ancient trade center just inland from Santubong."
21. ^ Rozan Yunos (28 December 2008). "Sultan Tengah – Sarawak's first Sultan". The Brunei Times. Archived from the original on 3 April 2014.
22. ^ a b c d e Morrison, Alastair (1 January 1993). Fair Land Sarawak: Some Recollections of an Expatriate Official. SEAP Publications. p. 10\. ISBN 978-0-87727-712-5.
23. ^ Ring, Trudy; Watson, Noelle; Schellinger, Paul (12 November 2012). Asia and Oceania: International Dictionary of Historic Places. SEAP Publications. p. 497\. ISBN 978-0-87727-712-5.
24. ^ B.A., Hussainmiya (2006). "The Brookes and the British North Borneo Company". Brunei - Revival of 1906 - A popular history (PDF). Bandar Seri Begawan: Brunei Press Sdn Bhd. p. 6\. ISBN 99917-32-15-2. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2 December 2016.
25. ^ Reece, Robert. "Empire in Your Backyard – Sir James Brooke". Archived from the original on 17 March 2015. Retrieved 29 October 2015.
26. ^ Saunders, Graham (5 November 2013). A History of Brunei. Routledge. pp. 74–78\. ISBN 978-1-136-87394-2.
27. ^ James Leasor (1 January 2001). Singapore: The Battle That Changed the World. House of Stratus. p. 41\. ISBN 978-0-7551-0039-2.
28. ^ Alex Middleton (June 2010). "Rajah Brooke and the Victorians" (PDF). The Historical Journal. 53 (2): 381–400\. doi:10.1017/S0018246X10000063. ISSN 1469-5103. S2CID 159879054. Archived (PDF) from the original on 4 November 2014. Retrieved 24 December 2014.
29. ^ "Early Iban Migration – Part 1". 26 March 2007. Archived from the original on 10 April 2023. Retrieved 6 December 2023.
30. ^ Simonson, T. S.; Xing, J.; Barrett, R.; Jerah, E.; Loa, P.; Zhang, Y.; Watkins, W. S.; Witherspoon, D. J.; Huff, C. D.; Woodward, S.; Mowry, B.; Jorde, L. B. (8 April 2023). "Ancestry of the Iban Is Predominantly Southeast Asian: Genetic Evidence from Autosomal, Mitochondrial, and Y Chromosomes". PLOS ONE. 6 (1): e16338. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0016338. PMC 3031551. PMID 21305013.
31. ^ "Ngepan Batang Ai (Iban Women Traditional Attire)" (PDF). 8 April 2023. Archived (PDF) from the original on 14 June 2023. Retrieved 6 December 2023.
32. ^ a b c d e "Iban as a koine language in Sarawak". 1 May 2023.
33. ^ "Asal usul Melayu Sarawak: Menjejaki titik tak pasti". 1 May 2023. Archived from the original on 1 May 2023. Retrieved 6 December 2023.
34. ^ Mike, Reed. "Book review of "The Name of Brooke – The End of White Rajah Rule in Sarawak" by R.H.W. Reece, Sarawak Literary Society, 1993". sarawak.com.my. Archived from the original on 8 June 2003. Retrieved 7 August 2015.
35. ^ Cuhaj, George S (2014). Standard Catalog of World Paper Money, General Issues, 1368–1960. F+W Media. p. 1058\. ISBN 978-1-4402-4267-0. "Sarawak was recognised as a separate state by the United States (1850) and Great Britain (1864), and voluntarily became a British protectorate in 1888."
36. ^ James, Stuart Olson (1996). Historical Dictionary of the British Empire, Volume 2. Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 982\. ISBN 978-0-313-29367-2. "Brooke and his successors enlarged their realm by successive treaties of 1861, 1882, 1885, 1890, and 1905."
37. ^ "Chronology of Sarawak throughout the Brooke Era to Malaysia Day". The Borneo Post. 16 September 2011. Archived from the original on 6 February 2015.
38. ^ Lim, Kian Hock (16 September 2011). "A look at the civil administration of Sarawak". The Borneo Post. Archived from the original on 6 February 2015.
39. ^ Frans, Welman (2011). Borneo Trilogy Sarawak: Volume 1. Bangkok, Thailand: Booksmango. p. 177\. ISBN 978-616-245-082-2.
40. ^ a b c d e f Ooi, Keat Gin (2013). Post-war Borneo, 1945–50: Nationalism, Empire and State-Building. Routledge. p. 7\. ISBN 978-1-134-05803-7.
41. ^ Rujukan Kompak Sejarah PMR (Compact reference for PMR History subject) (in Malay). Arah Pendidikan Sdn Bhd. 2009. p. 82\. ISBN 978-983-3718-81-8.
42. ^ "Bintulu – Places of Interest". Bintulu Development Authority. Archived from the original on 19 November 2016. Retrieved 19 July 2015.
43. ^ Marshall, Cavendish (2007). World and Its Peoples: Eastern and Southern Asia, Volume 9. Bangladesh: Marshall Cavendish. p. 1182\. ISBN 978-0-7614-7642-9.
44. ^ a b Gullick, J. M. (1967). Malaysia and Its Neighbours, The World studies series. Taylor & Francis. pp. 148–149\. ISBN 978-0-7100-4141-8.
45. ^ Lewis, Samuel Feuer (1 January 1989). Imperialism and the Anti-Imperialist Mind. Transaction Publishers. ISBN 978-1-4128-2599-3. "Brooke made it his life task to bring to these jungles "prosperity, education, and hygiene"; he suppressed piracy, slave-trade, and headhunting, and lived simply in a thatched bungalow."
46. ^ "The Borneo Company Limited". National Library Board. Archived from the original on 12 October 2015. Retrieved 25 January 2016.
47. ^ Sendou Ringgit, Danielle (5 April 2015). "The Bau Rebellion: What sparked it all?". The Borneo Post. Archived from the original on 22 March 2016. "The Rajah then came back days later with a bigger army and bigger guns aboard the Borneo Company steamer, the Sir James Brooke together with his nephew, Charles Brooke."
48. ^ "石隆门华工起义 (The uprising of Bau Chinese labourers)" (in Chinese). 国际时报 [International Times (Sarawak)]. 13 September 2008. Archived from the original on 24 January 2013.
49. ^ Ting, John. "Colonialism and Brooke administration: Institutional buildings and infrastructure in 19th century Sarawak" (PDF). University of Melbourne. Archived (PDF) from the original on 4 March 2016. Retrieved 13 January 2016. "Brooke also indigenised himself in terms of housing – his first residence was a Malay house. (page 9) ... Government House (Fig. 3) was built after Brooke's first house was burnt down during the 1857 coup attempt. (page 10)"
50. ^ a b c Simon, Elegant (13 July 1986). "SARAWAK: A KINGDOM IN THE JUNGLE". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 2 November 2015.
51. ^ Saiful, Bahari (23 June 2015). "Thrill is gone, state museum stuck in time – Public". The Borneo Post. Archived from the original on 2 October 2015.
52. ^ "History of Sarawak". Brooke Trust. Archived from the original on 29 November 2016. Retrieved 29 November 2016.
53. ^ "Centenary of Brooke rule in Sarawak – New Democratic Constitution being introduced today". The Straits Times (Singapore). 24 September 1941. Archived from the original on 11 December 2015. Retrieved 4 January 2017.
54. ^ L, Klemen. "The Invasion of British Borneo in 1942". Archived from the original on 8 April 2023. Retrieved 27 March 2021.
55. ^ "The Japanese Occupation (1941 – 1945)". The Sarawak Government. Archived from the original on 8 October 2015. Retrieved 3 November 2015.
56. ^ Gin, Ooi Keat (1 January 2013). "Wartime Borneo, 1941–1945: a tale of two occupied territories". Borneo Research Bulletin. Archived from the original on 22 December 2015. Retrieved 3 November 2015. "Occupied Borneo was administratively partitioned into two-halves, namely Kita Boruneo (Northern Borneo) that coincided with pre-war British Borneo (Sarawak, Brunei, and North Borneo) was governed by the IJA, ..."
57. ^ Kratoska, Paul H. (13 May 2013). Southeast Asian Minorities in the Wartime Japanese Empire. Routledge. pp. 136–142\. ISBN 978-1-136-12506-5.
58. ^ Ooi, Keat Gin. "Prelude to invasion: covert operations before the re-occupation of Northwest Borneo, 1944–45". Journal of the Australian War Memorial. Archived from the original on 22 February 2017. Retrieved 3 November 2015.
59. ^ Australia in the War of 1939-1945. Series 1 - Army - Volume VII - The Final Campaigns (1st edition, 1963) - Chapter 20 - Securing British Borneo. Australia: The Australian War Memorial. 1963. p. 491\. Archived from the original on 21 August 2017. Retrieved 18 June 2017.
60. ^ "Historical Monument – Surrender Point". Official Website of Labuan Corporation. Labuan Corporation. Archived from the original on 17 November 2015. Retrieved 3 November 2015.
61. ^ Rainsford, Keith Carr. "Surrender to Major-General Wootten at Labuan". Australian War Memorial. Archived from the original on 17 November 2015. Retrieved 3 November 2015.
62. ^ "HMAS Kapunda". Royal Australian Navy. Archived from the original on 27 March 2016. Retrieved 12 June 2016.
63. ^ Patricia, Hului (12 September 2016). "Celebrating Batu Lintang Camp liberation day on Sept 11". The Borneo Post. Archived from the original on 11 December 2018. Retrieved 18 June 2017.
64. ^ "British Military Administration (August 1945 – April 1946)". The Sarawak Government. Archived from the original on 8 October 2015. Retrieved 3 November 2015.
65. ^ "Sarawak as a British Crown Colony (1946–1963)". The Official Website of the Sarawak Government. Archived from the original on 4 August 2017. Retrieved 7 November 2015.
66. ^ Thomson, Mike (14 March 2012). "The stabbed governor of Sarawak". BBC News. Archived from the original on 7 February 2021. Retrieved 21 June 2018.
67. ^ a b "Anthony Brooke". The Daily Telegraph. 6 March 2011. Archived from the original on 9 March 2011. Retrieved 5 April 2018.
68. ^ a b Tai, Yong Tan (2008). "Chapter Six: Borneo Territories and Brunei". Creating "Greater Malaysia": Decolonization and the Politics of Merger. Institute of Southeast Asian Studies. pp. 154–169\. ISBN 978-981-230-747-7. "Underlying this was a general fear that without strong political institutions, ... (page 155)"
69. ^ "Formation of Malaysia 16 September 1963". National Archives of Malaysia. Archived from the original on 7 March 2016. Retrieved 8 November 2015.
70. ^ JC, Fong (16 September 2011). "Formation of Malaysia". The Borneo Post. Archived from the original on 16 July 2014. Retrieved 4 January 2017.
71. ^ Vernon L. Porritt (1997). British Colonial Rule in Sarawak, 1946–1963. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-983-56-0009-8. Retrieved 7 May 2016.
72. ^ Philip Mathews (28 February 2014). Chronicle of Malaysia: Fifty Years of Headline News, 1963–2013. Editions Didier Millet. p. 15\. ISBN 978-967-10617-4-9.
73. ^ "Trust and Non-self governing territories". United Nations. Archived from the original on 3 May 2011. Retrieved 2 April 2016.
74. ^ "United Nations Member States". United Nations. 3 July 2006. Archived from the original on 5 March 2016.
75. ^ Ishikawa, Noboru (15 March 2010). Between Frontiers: Nation and Identity in a Southeast Asian Borderland. Ohio University Press. pp. 86–87\. ISBN 978-0-89680-476-0.
76. ^ "Brunei Revolt breaks out – 8 December 1962". National Library Board (Singapore). Archived from the original on 22 December 2015. Retrieved 9 November 2015.
77. ^ United Nations Treaty Registered No. 8029, Manila Accord between Philippines, Federation of Malaya and Indonesia (31 July 1963) Archived 11 October 2010 at the Wayback Machine. Retrieved on 12 August 2011.
78. ^ United Nations Treaty Series No. 8809, Agreement relating to the implementation of the Manila Accord Archived 12 October 2011 at the Wayback Machine. Retrieved on 12 August 2011.
79. ^ James, Chin (9 March 2006). "Book Review: The Rise and Fall of Communism in Sarawak 1940–1990". Kyoto Review of South East Asia. Archived from the original on 17 November 2015. Retrieved 10 November 2015.
80. ^ Chan, Francis; Wong, Phyllis (16 September 2011). "Saga of communist insurgency in Sarawak". The Borneo Post. Archived from the original on 24 December 2013. Retrieved 4 January 2017.

* v
* t
* e

History of East Malaysia

Common
history1|

* Bruneian Sultanate (1368–1888)
* Japanese occupation
* Battle of Borneo (1941–1942)
* Borneo campaign
* British Military Administration
* Indonesia–Malaysia confrontation
* Malaysia Agreement
* Proclamation of Malaysia
* 2019 federal constitution amendment (on hold) ★ first tabling
* 2020 Malaysia coronavirus pandemic
* 2021 federal constitution amendment (passed) ★ second tabling

History of
Sabah|

* Brunei Civil War
* Sultanate of Sulu
* Sabah conflict (1771)
* Austrian colony
* North Borneo Chartered Company
* North Borneo
* Antanum
* Mat Salleh
* Madrid Protocol
* Jesselton revolt
* Sandakan camp
* Sandakan Death Marches
* Battle of North Borneo
* Crown Colony of North Borneo
* Self-government of North Borneo
* Cobbold Commission
* 20-point agreement
* Keningau Oath Stone
* Double Six Crash
* Cross border attacks from the Philippines
* 1985 Lahad Datu ambush
* 2000 Sipadan kidnappings
* 2013 Lahad Datu standoff
* 1986 Sabah riots
* 1991 Sabah political arrests
* Project IC
* Sabah State Water Department corruption probe
* 2020 Sabah coronavirus pandemic

History of
Sarawak|

* Sultanate of Sarawak
* Raj of Sarawak
* Rentap
* Liu Shan Bang
* Syarif Masahor
* Crown Colony of Sarawak
* Anti-cession movement of Sarawak
* Communist insurgency in Sarawak
* Self-government of Sarawak
* Cobbold Commission
* 18-point agreement
* 1966 Sarawak constitutional crisis
* 1987 Ming Court Affair
* 1997 Sarawak HFMD outbreak
* Sarawak rabies outbreak (2017–present)
* 2020 Sarawak coronavirus pandemic

History of
Labuan|

* Crown Colony of Labuan
* North Borneo Chartered Company
* North Borneo (1890–1904)
* Straits Settlements (1907–46)
* Battle of North Borneo
* Battle of Labuan
* Colony of Singapore (1946)
* Crown Colony of North Borneo (1946–63)
* Cobbold Commission
* 20-point agreement
* Sabah (1963–84)
* Federal territory (1984–)

1 Covers the three territories

* v
* t
* e

State of Sarawak

Capital: Kuching

History|

* Santubong Kingdom (500 AD)
* Malano Kingdom (700 AD–1400 AD)
* Bruneian Empire (1368–1888)
* Sultanate of Sarawak (1599–1641)
* Raj of Sarawak (1841–1946)
* Empire of Japan (1941–1945)
* Crown Colony of Sarawak (1946–1963)
* Sarawak (1963–present)

Topics|

* Index
* History
* Constitution
* Elections
* Government
* Executive
* Governor
* Premier
* Legislature
* Geography
* Sarawakians
* Symbols
* Anthem
* Coat of arms
* Flag
* Tourist attractions

Society|

* Culture
* Crime
* Cuisine
* Demographics
* Economy
* Education
* Politics

Administrative
divisions|

| Divisions|

* Betong
* Bintulu
* Kapit
* Kuching
* Limbang
* Miri
* Mukah
* Samarahan
* Sarikei
* Serian
* Sibu
* Sri Aman

|

Districts|

* Asajaya
* Bau
* Belaga
* Beluru
* Betong
* Bintulu
* Bukit Mabong
* Dalat
* Daro
* Gedong
* Julau
* Kabong
* Kanowit
* Kapit
* Kuching
* Lawas
* Limbang
* Lubok Antu
* Lundu
* Marudi
* Matu
* Meradong
* Miri
* Mukah
* Pakan
* Pusa
* Samarahan
* Saratok
* Sarikei
* Sebauh
* Sebuyau
* Selangau
* Serian
* Sibu
* Siburan
* Simunjan
* Song
* Sri Aman
* Subis
* Tanjung Manis
* Tatau
* Tebedu
* Telang Usan

Municipalities|

* Padawan

Cities|

* Kuching
* Miri

Towns|

* Asajaya
* Ba'kelalan
* Balingian
* Bario
* Batu Kawa
* Batu Niah
* Bau
* Bekenu
* Beladin
* Belaga
* Belawai
* Betong
* Biawak
* Bintangor
* Bintulu
* Dalat
* Daro
* Debak
* Engkilili
* Igan
* Julau
* Kanowit
* Kapit
* Kota Samarahan
* Lawas
* Limbang
* Lingga
* Lubok Antu
* Lundu
* Maludam
* Marudi
* Matu
* Mukah
* Oya
* Pakan
* Pusa
* Sadong Jaya
* Saratok
* Sarikei
* Sebauh
* Sebuyau
* Selangau
* Sematan
* Serian
* Serikin
* Sibu
* Siburan
* Simunjan
* Song
* Spaoh
* Simanggang
* Tanjung Kidurong
* Tanjung Manis
* Tatau
* Tebedu

* Commons
* Wikisource
* Category

* v
* t
* e

Borneo

Political
divisions|

| Brunei Darussalam|

* Brunei-Muara
* Belait
* Tutong
* Temburong

|

Kalimantan (Indonesia)|

* West Kalimantan
* Central Kalimantan
* South Kalimantan
* East Kalimantan
* Nusantara
* North Kalimantan

East Malaysia (Malaysia)|

* Labuan
* Sabah
* Sarawak

Eco-regions|

* Borneo lowland rain forests
* Borneo montane rain forests
* Borneo peat swamp forests
* Kinabalu montane alpine meadows
* Southwest Borneo freshwater swamp forests
* Sundaland heath forests
* Sunda Shelf mangroves

Environment|

* Biodiversity
* Flora
* Fauna
* Mammals
* Geological history of Borneo
* Sundaland

| Deforestation|

* Deforestation in Borneo
* Deforestation in Malaysia
* Deforestation in Indonesia
* Mega Rice Project
* Southeast Asian haze

|

Conservation|

* Betung Kerihun National Park
* Bornean Sun Bear Conservation Centre
* Borneo Orangutan Survival
* Bukit Perai Protection Forest
* Bukit Baka Bukit Raya National Park
* Danum Valley Conservation Area
* Gunung Berau Nature Reserve
* Heart of Borneo
* Kayan Mentarang National Park
* Kutai National Park
* Kinabalu Park
* Kulamba Wildlife Reserve
* Lamandau Nature Reserve
* Lake Sentarum National Park
* Lanjak Entimau Wildlife Sanctuary
* Mount Palung National Park
* Sepilok Orangutan Rehabilitation Centre
* Silabukan Protection Forest Reserve
* Sabangau National Park
* Tanjung Puting National Park
* Usun Apau National Park

History|

* History of Brunei
* History of Sabah
* History of Sarawak
* British Borneo
* Sultanate of Banjar
* Sultanate of Bulungan
* Kutai
* Lanfang Republic
* Mempawah Kingdom
* Negara Dipa
* Negara Daha
* Pontianak Sultanate
* Sultanate of Sambas
* Sintang
* Tanjungpura Kingdom

People|

| Ethnic groups|

* Banjar
* Bisaya
* Dayak
* Bahau
* Bidayuh
* Iban
* Kayan
* Kenyah
* Ma'anyan
* Ngaju
* Lawangan
* Ot Danum
* Punan
* Indigenous peoples of Brunei
* Belait
* Bisaya (Borneo)
* Bruneian Malays
* Dusun (Brunei)
* Kedayan
* Murut (Brunei)
* Tutong
* Kadazan-Dusun
* Kadazan
* Dusun
* Melanau
* Orang Ulu
* Malay
* Brunei
* Berau
* Kutei
* Sarawak
* West Kalimantan
* Murut
* Lun Bawang/Lundayeh
* Rungus
* Tidung

|

Festivities|

* Aruh Bawanang
* Erau
* Gawai Dayak
* Kaamatan
* Kaul
* Magahau
* Manyanggar
* Mecaq Undat
* Nahunan
* Iraw Tengkayu
* Kalimaran
* Pakanan Batu
* Pakanan Sahur Lewu

Languages|

* Greater North Borneo languages
* Barito languages
* Malayic languages
* Languages of Kalimantan

* Category
* Commons

*[c.]: circa
*[v]: View this template
*[t]: Discuss this template
*[e]: Edit this template