History of the Red Terror (Ethiopia)

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Women statue in front of the "Red Terror" Martyrs' Memorial Museum in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.

The History of the Red Terror refers to the political repression launched by the Derg military junta in Ethiopia from 1976 to 1978, resulting in the deaths of more than 10,000 people.

## Terminology

[edit]

The government officially uses the term "Red Terror" to refer to these events.[1][2]

## Urban opposition

[edit]

During the 1960s and early 1970s, the Haile Selassie government faced heavy criticism, particularly from the educated class, including university students who supported left-wing ideologies. These students harbored deep resentment toward their living and studying conditions, as well as the limited career opportunities available to them after graduation. This dissatisfaction ultimately led to the adoption of hostile methods to overthrow the government.[3]

Students' songs praised figures like Ho Chi Minh and Che Guevara, and a popular slogan at the time was "Through Bale, not Bole." This slogan reflected the expectation of revolution through rural insurgency (as in Bale) rather than through returning exiles who arrived in Addis Ababa via Bole International Airport.[4][1]

Soon after, opposition movements shifted toward radical elements, leading to the formation of the Ethiopian People's Revolutionary Party (EPRP) and the All-Ethiopia Socialist Movement (known by its Amharic acronym, MEISON). While these groups had tactical differences, particularly regarding the status of Eritrea, their overarching political ideology was rooted in Marxism.[5][6]

By 1976, the primary distinction between them was that MEISON supported the military government as a means to achieve communism, whereas the EPRP opposed the government.[5][7]

In mid-1976, in response to government crackdowns on its student members and opposition, the EPRP began assassinating senior Derg officials and members of its affiliated institutions. The group was also suspected of attempting a coup d'état against the government in July 1976.[8][9] As a result, 21 coup plotters were executed, and mass arrests of EPRP members began in August.[1]

On 23 September 1976, the first of nine suspects was implicated in an attempted assassination of Mengistu Haile Mariam.[10] On 2 October, the EPRP assassinated Fikre Merid, a prominent MEISON member and government cadre.[11] Over the following two months, ten senior government officials and 15 members of the secret service were killed. Public assassinations continued throughout 1977.[12]

## First wave

[edit]

The killing of individuals suspected of being affiliated with the EPRP began in September 1976. On 21 October, 21 people were executed, and the deaths of an additional 17 individuals were announced on 18 November.[13] However, it was not until February 1977, following the execution of General Tafari Benti by Mengistu Haile Mariam, that the Red Terror was officially declared, marking the beginning of mass killings.[14]

Mengistu labeled the EPRP's sporadic campaign of assassinations as the "White Terror," while Lt. Col. Atnafu Abate vowed that "for every revolutionary killed, a thousand counter-revolutionaries would be executed."[15][16] However, this was not followed strictly in practice. Instead, Atnafu organized the "Defense of the Revolution Squads," arming loyal members of the Addis Ababa kebeles.

On 17 April 1977, Mengistu delivered a speech at Meskel Square, issuing a stark warning against the "enemies of the revolution." To symbolize the destruction of imperialism, feudalism, and bureaucratic capitalism, he dramatically smashed three bottles filled with blood-like liquid.[17]

On 26 February 1977, 44 prisoners were taken outside Addis Ababa and executed.[18] On 2 March 1977, several individuals were executed by the government for distributing EPRP literature during a pro-government demonstration.[1]

May Day became a significant revolutionary event, with large rallies organized in support of the EPRP's plans.[19] On the night of 29 April 1977, the Defense Squads arrived in the capital, and together with local kebele officials, they began a massacre of suspected EPRP supporters.[20]

On 7–8 May 1977, a daytime curfew was imposed, and house-to-house searches were conducted, resulting in thousands being detained by the Defense Squads and soldiers.

On 17 May, the Secretary-General of the Swedish Save the Children Fund reported that "one thousand children have been massacred in Addis Ababa, and their bodies, lying in the streets, are ravaged by roving hyenas."[21][22] He also estimated that between 100 and 500 young people—some as young as 12—were killed every night.

On 4–5 June, approximately 400 students were killed. In total, 2,500 people were killed in the first phase of the terror.[2]

## Second and third waves

[edit]

Initially, the EPRP penetrated Addis Ababa during the first phase but later retreated to a rural base in Tigray.[23] Haile Fida, the leader of MEISON and a confidant and ideologue of Mengistu, was detained in August 1977.[24] After spending several months in prison, he disappeared, while many MEISON cadres were arrested shortly afterward.[25][12]

In October 1977, the second phase of the terror began, resulting in an estimated 3,000 to 4,000 deaths.[14] The massacres were largely attributed to a civil war between MEISON and the remnants of the EPRP.[26] By the end of 1977, MEISON members had been thoroughly purged from the ranks of government and the higher offices of the kebeles.[16] However, many remained at lower levels, particularly in the provinces.

The third wave of violence took place between December 1977 and February 1978, during which 300 people were killed on the night of 16 December.[12] On 21 December, Defense Squads attacked a mosque with machine guns. By the end of the year, Amnesty International estimated that 30,000 political prisoners were held in central prisons and detention centers across the 291 kebeles of Addis Ababa. It is estimated that around 5,000 were killed in Addis Ababa during these months, with more casualties in provincial towns.[4]

## Campaign against the merchants

[edit]

Traders and shopkeepers were significant victims of the massacre. By 1975, grain traders had become targets of the Derg. However, the campaign against merchants, unlike that against landlords, was not officially part of the Red Terror.[27]

As the Derg's political radicalism became more apparent, merchants were blamed for causing the famines of 1972–1974 and were viewed as class enemies of the revolution. Many prominent merchants aligned themselves with conservative parties, such as the Ethiopian Democratic Union (EDU), which was militarily active in Tigray and Gondar.[2]

In 1973, 90% of all marketed grain was sold by an estimated 20,000–30,000 grain merchants. A small minority of 25 merchants dominated the supply to Addis Ababa, collectively owning a storage capacity of 100,000 tonnes. This group was capable of mitigating shortages in the city; however, their primary contribution to the famine of 1973 was exporting grain from famine-stricken Wollo to the more prosperous Addis Ababa. This led to a 20% increase in food prices during the scarcity.

The Special Penal Code of November 1974 further prohibited economic actions deemed harmful to the state. Article 27 of the code was drafted in a vague manner, and the Special Court Martial enforced it in a draconian way, completely outlawing any economic activities considered "illegal."[2]

## In provinces

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While most detentions and executions took place in Addis Ababa, there were also numerous massacres across the country, particularly in 1978. Cities such as Asmara, Gondar, Bahir Dar, and Jimma suffered heavily during this period.[1][2]

## References

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1. ^ a b c d e Evil Days: 30 Years Of War And Famine In Ethiopia (PDF). Africa Watch. September 1991. Retrieved 19 August 2022.
2. ^ a b c d e "6. The Red Terror" (PDF). Evil Days: 30 Years Of War And Famine In Ethiopia. Africa Watch. September 1991. pp. 101–110. Retrieved 19 August 2022.101-110&rft.pub=Africa+Watch&rft.date=1991-09&rft_id=https://www.hrw.org/reports/pdfs/e/ethiopia/ethiopia.919/c6terror.pdf&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:History+of+the+Red+Terror+(Ethiopia)" class="Z3988">
3. ^ Kebede, Messay (2006). "The Roots and Fallouts of Haile Selassie's Educational Policy" (PDF). University of Dayton. Retrieved 19 August 2022.
4. ^ a b de Waal, Alexander (1991). Evil Days: Thirty Years of War and Famine in Ethiopia. Human Rights Watch. p. 101\. ISBN 978-1-56432-038-4.
5. ^ a b Gilkes, Patrick (June 1982). "Building Ethiopia's Revolutionary Party". MERIP. Retrieved 19 August 2022.
6. ^ Seyoum, Ayenew Mammo (2021). "The Ethiopian Peoples' Revolutionary Party (E.P.R.P.) - Formation, Structure and Program". World Research of Political Science Journal. 4 (2): 1–10\. doi:10.18576/WRPSJ/040201 (inactive 1 November 2024). Retrieved 19 August 2022.1-10&rft.date=2021&rft_id=info:doi/10.18576/WRPSJ/040201&rft.aulast=Seyoum&rft.aufirst=Ayenew+Mammo&rft_id=https://www.naturalspublishing.com/download.asp?ArtcID=24683&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:History+of+the+Red+Terror+(Ethiopia)" class="Z3988">`{{cite journal}}`: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of November 2024 (link)
7. ^ Molyneux, Maxine & Halliday, Fred (15 June 1982). "Ethiopia's Revolution from Above". MERIP. Retrieved 19 August 2022.
8. ^ "Ethiopia - Socialist Ethiopia (1974–91)". Britannica.com. Retrieved 19 August 2022.
9. ^ Ethiopia: Ethnic Federalism and Its Discontents (PDF) (Report). International Crisis Group. 4 September 2009. Retrieved 19 August 2022.
10. ^ "27 More Dissidents Executed In Ethiopia". The New York Times. 19 November 1976. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved 19 August 2022.
11. ^ Ottaway, Marina (1978). "Democracy and New Democracy: The Ideological Debate in the Ethiopian Revolution". African Studies Review. 21 (1): 19–31\. doi:10.2307/523761. ISSN 0002-0206. JSTOR 523761. S2CID 143119991.19-31&rft.date=1978&rft.issn=0002-0206&rft_id=https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:143119991#id-name=S2CID&rft_id=https://www.jstor.org/stable/523761#id-name=JSTOR&rft_id=info:doi/10.2307/523761&rft.aulast=Ottaway&rft.aufirst=Marina&rft_id=https://www.jstor.org/stable/523761&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:History+of+the+Red+Terror+(Ethiopia)" class="Z3988">
12. ^ a b c de Waal, Alexander (1991). Evil Days: Thirty Years of War and Famine in Ethiopia. Human Rights Watch. p. 101\. ISBN 978-1-56432-038-4.
13. ^ World Peace Foundation (7 August 2015). "Ethiopia: Red Terror and Famine". Mass Atrocity Endings. Retrieved 19 August 2022.
14. ^ a b United States Bureau of Citizenship and Immigration Services (28 December 1999). "Ethiopia: Background Information on the Mengistu Regime during the Red Terror". Refworld (UNHCR). Retrieved 19 August 2022.
15. ^ "The Mengistu Regime and Its Impact". Ethopia. Library of Congress Country Studies. 1991. Retrieved 19 August 2022.
16. ^ a b "6. The Red Terror - The Urban Opposition". Evil Days: 30 Years Of War And Famine In Ethiopia. Africa Watch. September 1991. p. 102. Retrieved 19 August 2022 - via 1library.net.
17. ^ Tiruneh, Andargachew (June 1990). The Ethiopian Revolution (1974 to 1984) (PDF) (Ph.D). London School of Economics. Retrieved 19 August 2022.
18. ^ Campbell, Ian (July 2017). "9. Roman Justice". The Addis Ababa Massacre: Italy's National Shame. Hurst. pp. 239–278\. ISBN 978-1-84904-692-3. Retrieved 19 August 2022.239-278&rft.pub=Hurst&rft.date=2017-07&rft.isbn=978-1-84904-692-3&rft.aulast=Campbell&rft.aufirst=Ian&rft_id=https://academic.oup.com/book/35100/chapter/299169324&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:History+of+the+Red+Terror+(Ethiopia)" class="Z3988">
19. ^ Gupta, Vijay (1978). "The Ethiopian Revolution: Causes and Results". India Quarterly. 34 (2): 158–174\. doi:10.1177/097492847803400203. ISSN 0974-9284. JSTOR 45071379. S2CID 150699038.158-174&rft.date=1978&rft.issn=0974-9284&rft_id=https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:150699038#id-name=S2CID&rft_id=https://www.jstor.org/stable/45071379#id-name=JSTOR&rft_id=info:doi/10.1177/097492847803400203&rft.aulast=Gupta&rft.aufirst=Vijay&rft_id=https://www.jstor.org/stable/45071379&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:History+of+the+Red+Terror+(Ethiopia)" class="Z3988">
20. ^ "6. The Red Terror - The Urban Opposition". Evil Days: 30 Years Of War And Famine In Ethiopia. Africa Watch. September 1991. p. 103. Retrieved 19 August 2022 - via 1library.net.
21. ^ Horst, Ian Scott (2020). Like Ho Chi Minh! Like Che Guevara!: The Revolutionary Left in Ethiopia, 1969-1979. Paris: Foreign Languages Press. p. 336\. ISBN 978-2-491182-27-4. Retrieved 19 August 2022.
22. ^ Barker, Bill (31 October 1981). "In defense of human rights". The Bowdoin Orient. p. 2.
23. ^ Young, John (September 1994). Peasants and revolution in Ethiopia : Tigray 1975-1989 (PDF) (Ph.D.). Simon Fraser University. Retrieved 19 August 2022.
24. ^ Ottaway, Marina (1978). "Democracy and New Democracy: The Ideological Debate in the Ethiopian Revolution". African Studies Review. 21 (1): 19–31\. doi:10.2307/523761. ISSN 0002-0206. JSTOR 523761. S2CID 143119991.19-31&rft.date=1978&rft.issn=0002-0206&rft_id=https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:143119991#id-name=S2CID&rft_id=https://www.jstor.org/stable/523761#id-name=JSTOR&rft_id=info:doi/10.2307/523761&rft.aulast=Ottaway&rft.aufirst=Marina&rft_id=https://www.jstor.org/stable/523761&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:History+of+the+Red+Terror+(Ethiopia)" class="Z3988">
25. ^ Wiebel, Jacob (2014). Revolutionary Terror Campaigns in Addis Ababa, 1976-1978 (Ph.D.). St Cross College, Oxford. Retrieved 19 August 2022.
26. ^ "The Red Terror in Ethiopia". 19 August 2022. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.882.4645.
27. ^ Wells, Karen (1998). International and Domestic Sources of State Stability and Regime Collapse: Merchant Capital in Ethiopia, 1974-1995 (PDF) (PhD). London School of Economics and Political Science. Retrieved 19 August 2022.