History of the United States Senate

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Senators in the 110th Congress, January 2007 This article is part of a series on the

United States Senate
Great Seal of the United States Senate
History of the United States Senate
Members

* Current members

* (by seniority
* by class)

* Former members
* Hill committees

* (DSCC
* NRSC)

* Women in the Senate

* * *

* President of the Senate (list)
* President pro tempore (list)
* Presiding officer

* * *

* Party leaders
* Party leadership of
the United States Senate

* Democratic Caucus
* Republican Conference

Politics and procedure

* Advice and consent
* Blue slip
* Closed session (list)
*     * Cloture
* Committees (list)

*     * Executive session
* Morning business

*     * Filibuster
* Journal
* Nuclear option

* Recess appointment
*     * Quorum
* Quorum call
* Salaries

*     * Saxbe fix
* Seal
* Holds

*     * Senatorial courtesy
* Standing Rules

*     * Traditions
* Unanimous consent

* Vice presidential tie-breaking votes

Places

* United States Capitol
* Senate chamber
* Old Senate Chamber
* Senate Reception Room
* Senate office buildings

* (Dirksen
* Hart
* Russell)

* v
* t
* e

Historical graph of party control of the Senate and House as well as the Presidency[1]

The United States Senate is one of the two chamber of the bicameral United States Congress, which serves as the legislative branch of the federal government. It is considered the upper house, while the U.S. House of Representatives is regaded as the lower house. Like its counterpart, the United States Constitution established the Senate and held its first session on March 4, 1789, at Federal Hall in New York City.

The Senate's origins trace back to the 1787 Constitutional Convention, where James Madison's Virginia Plan proposed a bicameral national legislature. The structure was ultimately shaped by the contentious Connecticut Compromise—a narrow 5–4 vote, which granted smaller states disproportionate representation in the Senate.[2]

## Constitutional creation

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The U.S. Senate, named after the ancient Roman Senate, was designed to be a more deliberative body than the U.S. House. Edmund Randolph called for its members to be "less than the House of Commons to restrain, if possible, the fury of democracy." According to James Madison, "The use of the Senate is to consist in proceeding with more coolness, with more system, and with more wisdom than the popular branch." Unlike the house, where members serve two-year terms, senators serve six-year terms, giving them more authority to ignore mass sentiment in favor of the country's broad interests. The smaller number of members and staggered terms also give the Senate a greater sense of stability.[3]

Despite their past grievances with specific ruling British governments, many among the Founding Fathers of the United States who gathered for the Constitutional Convention had retained a great admiration for the British system of governance. Alexander Hamilton called it "the best in the world," and said he "doubted whether anything short of it would do in America." In his Defense of the Constitutions of Government of the United States, John Adams stated, "the English Constitution is, in theory, both for the adjustment of the balance and the prevention of its vibrations, the most stupendous fabric of human invention." In general, they viewed the Senate to be an American version of the House of Lords.[4] John Dickinson said the Senate should "consist of the most distinguished characters, distinguished for their rank in life and their weight of property, and bearing as strong a likeness to the British House of Lords as possible."[5]

### Apportionment showdown

[edit]

The apportionment scheme of the Senate was by far the most controversial debate of the Constitutional Convention.[6] Hamilton, who was joined in opposition to equal suffrage by Madison, said equal representation despite population differences "shocks too much the ideas of justice and every human feeling."[7] Referring to those who demanded equal representation, Madison called for the Convention "to renounce a principle which was confessedly unjust."[citation needed]

The delegates representing a majority of Americans might have carried the day, but at the Constitutional Convention, each state had an equal vote, and any issue could be brought up again if a state desired it. The state delegations originally voted 6-5 for proportional representation[a][citation needed], but small states without claims of western lands reopened the issue and eventually turned the tide towards the status quo from the Articles of Confederation (one state, one vote). On the final vote, the five states in favor of equal apportionment in the Senate , Connecticut, North Carolina, Maryland, New Jersey, and Delaware, only represented one-third of the nation's population. The four states that voted against it—Virginia, Pennsylvania, South Carolina, and Georgia represented almost twice as many people as the proponents.[8] Convention delegate James Wilson wrote, "Our Constituents, had they voted as their representatives did, would have stood as 2/3 against equality, and 1/3 only in favor of it".[9] One reason a couple large states voted for the Connecticut Compromise was a fear that the small states would either refuse to join the Union, or, as Gunning Bedford Jr. of Delaware threatened, "the small ones [would] find some foreign ally of more honor and good faith, who will take them by the hand and do them justice".[10] Senate historian Daniel Wirls cites the poor writing of the main alternative, the Virginia Plan, as contributing to its failure.[6]

Gunning Bedford Jr. of Delaware later admitted that he only favored equal representation because it advanced the interests of his state. "Can it be expected that the small states will act from pure disinterestedness? Are we to act with greater purity than the rest of mankind?"[11]

In Federalist No. 62, James Madison, the "Father of the Constitution," openly admitted that the equal suffrage in the Senate was a compromise, a "lesser evil," and not born out of any political theory. "[I]t is superfluous to try, by the standard of theory, a part of the Constitution which is allowed on all hands to be the result, not of theory, but 'of a spirit of amity, and that mutual deference and concession which the peculiarity of our political situation rendered indispensable.'"[citation needed]

Since 1789, differences in population between states have become more pronounced. At the time of the Connecticut Compromise, the largest state, Virginia, had only twelve times the population of the smallest state, Delaware. As of 2020, the largest state, California, has a population that is seventy times greater than the population of the smallest state, Wyoming. In 1790, it would take a theoretical 30% of the population to elect a majority of the Senate; today, it would take 17%.[citation needed]

Once the issue of equal representation had been settled, the delegates addressed the size of the body: to how many senators would each state be entitled? Giving each state one senator was considered insufficient, as it would make the achievement of a quorum more difficult. A proposal from the Pennsylvania delegates for each state to elect three senators was discussed, but the resulting greater size was deemed a disadvantage. When the delegates voted on a proposal for two senators per state, all states supported this number.[12]

## 1789-1865

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The Congress of the United States, established by the new Constitution, met for the first time at New York City’s Federal Hall on March 4, 1789. The Senate originally met in secret, in a room that allowed no spectators. For five years, no notes were published on its proceedings.[13]

A procedural issue of the early Senate was what role the vice president, the President of the Senate, should have. The first vice president was allowed to craft legislation and participate in debates, but those rights were taken away relatively quickly. John Adams seldom missed a session, but later vice presidents made Senate attendance a rarity. Although the founders intended the Senate to be the slower legislative body, in the early years of the Republic, it was the House that took its time passing legislation. Alexander Hamilton's Bank of the United States and Assumption Bill (he was then the Treasury Secretary), both of which were controversial, easily passed the Senate, only to meet opposition from the House.[citation needed]

In 1797, Thomas Jefferson began the vice presidential tradition of only attending Senate sessions on special occasions. Despite his frequent absences, Jefferson did make his mark on the body with the Senate book of parliamentary procedure, his 1801 Manual of Parliamentary Practice for the Use of the Senate of the United States, which is still used.[14]

The decades before the American Civil War are thought of as the "Golden Age" of the Senate. Backed by public opinion and President Jefferson, in 1804, the House voted to impeach Supreme Court Justice Samuel Chase, 73–32. The Senate voted against conviction, 18–16.[15]

Aaron Burr, as vice president, presided over the impeachment trial. After the trial Burr said:

> This House is a sanctuary; a citadel of law, of order, and of liberty; and it is here–in this exalted refuge; here if anywhere, will resistance be made to the storms of political phrensy and the silent arts of corruption.[16]

Debate over Compromise of 1850 in the Old Senate Chamber. Digitally restored.

In the following decades, the Senate played an increasingly visible role in national political debates. John C. Calhoun, Daniel Webster, Thomas Hart Benton, Stephen A. Douglas, and Henry Clay played roles in national policy discussions. Sir Henry Maine called the Senate "the only thoroughly successful institution which has been established since the tide of modern democracy began to run." William Ewart Gladstone said the Senate was "the most remarkable of all the inventions of modern politics".[17]

The Webster–Hayne debate of January 1830 is often cited as a significant moment in Senate history, pitting the sectional interests of Daniel Webster's New England against Robert Y. Hayne's South.[citation needed]

Debates over slavery were a central issue in the Senate during the pre-Civil War decades, with the House consistently opposed to slavery. Since the banning of slavery north of the Mason–Dixon line, effort went into maintaining equal numbers of slave and free states to preserve the southern states' ability to preserve slavery.[citation needed] In the Missouri Compromise of 1820, brokered by Henry Clay, Maine was admitted to the Union as a free state to counterbalance Missouri. The Compromise of 1850, brokered by Henry Clay and Stephen Douglas, may have also helped postpone the Civil War. [18]

## 1865-1913

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Reformers like Joseph Keppler depicted the Senate being controlled by giant moneybags which represented the financial trusts and monopolies.

In the post-Civil War era, the Senate dealt with great national issues such as Reconstruction and monetary policy. Given the strong political parties of the Third Party System, the leading politicians controlled enough support in state legislatures to be elected Senators. In an age of unparalleled industrial expansion, entrepreneurs had the prestige previously reserved to victorious generals, and many were elected to the Senate.[citation needed]

In 1870, Hiram Revels became the first Black U.S. senator. Mississippi rejoined the Senate that year, and state Republicans, pressured by Black state senators, elected Revels to fill an unexpired term for the two months remaining to it. Civil rights advocate Senator Henry Wilson presented Revels to the Senate where other senators immediately tried to block Revels from being seated. After a debate, the Senate voted 48-8 to seat him, where he used the office to champion civil rights and protest racial segregation. In 1874, Mississippi's state senate again appointed a Black senator, Blanche Bruce, and this time it was to a full term. He ended up presiding over the Senate in 1879. Bruce was the last Black senator until 1967.[19]

In 1890–1910 a handful of Republicans controlled the chamber, led by Nelson Aldrich (Rhode Island), Orville H. Platt (Connecticut), John Coit Spooner (Wisconsin), William Boyd Allison (Iowa), along with national party leader Mark Hanna (Ohio). Aldrich designed all the major tax and tariff laws of the early 20th century, including the Federal Reserve System. Among the Democrats Arthur Pue Gorman of Maryland stood out.[citation needed]

From 1871 to 1898, the Senate did not approve any treaties. The Senate scuttled a long series of reciprocal trade agreements, blocked deals to annex the Dominican Republic and the Danish West Indies, defeated an arbitration deal with Britain, and forced the renegotiation of the pact to build the Panama Canal. Finally, in 1898, the Senate nearly refused to ratify the treaty that ended the Spanish–American War.[citation needed]

In 1907, Charles Curtis became the first Native American senator. He served as a senator for Kansas, and was a registered member of the Kaw Nation, with Osage and Potawatomi heritage. As chair of the Indian Affairs Committee, he pushed for the controversial policy of cultural assimilation for Native Americans, and authored laws that limited tribal sovereignty.[20]

## 1913-1945

[edit]

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The Senate underwent several significant changes during the presidency of Woodrow Wilson, the most profound of which was the ratification of the Seventeenth Amendment in 1913, which provided for election of senators by popular vote rather than appointment by the state legislatures.

Another change was the limitation of the filibuster through the cloture vote. The filibuster was first used in the early Republic, but was seldom seen during most of the 19th century. It was limited as a response to the filibuster of the arming of merchant ships in World War I. At that time, the public, the House, the great majority of the Senate, and the president wanted merchant ships armed, but less than 20 Senators, led by William Jennings Bryan fought to keep US ships unarmed. Wilson denounced the group as a "group of willful men".

The post of Senate Majority Leader was also created during the Wilson presidency. Before this time, a Senate leader was usually a committee chairman, or a person of great eloquence, seniority, or wealth, such as Daniel Webster and Nelson Aldrich. However, despite this new, formal leadership structure, the Senate leader initially had virtually no power, other than priority of recognition from the presiding officer. Since the Democrats were fatally divided into northern liberal and southern conservative blocs, the Democratic leader had even less power than his title suggested.

Rebecca Felton was sworn in as a Senator for Georgia on November 21, 1922, and served one day; she was the first woman to serve in the Senate.[21] In 1928, Octaviano Larrazolo became the first Latino senator elected to the Senate, where he served a three-month unexpired term. As a politician, he advocated for education equality for Spanish speakers and civil rights.[22]

Joseph T. Robinson of Arkansas, the Democratic leader from 1923 to 1937, saw it as his responsibility not to lead the Democrats, but to work the Senate for the president's benefit, no matter who the president was. When Coolidge and Hoover were president, he assisted them in passing Republican legislation. Robinson helped end government operation of Muscle Shoals, helped pass the Hoover Tariff, and stymied a Senate investigation of the Power Trust. Robinson switched his own position on a drought relief program for farmers when Hoover made a proposal for a more modest measure. Alben Barkley called Robinson's cave-in "the most humiliating spectacle that could be brought about in an intelligent legislative body." When Franklin Roosevelt became president, Robinson followed the new president as loyally as he had followed Coolidge and Hoover. Robinson passed bills in the Hundred Days so quickly that Will Rogers joked "Congress doesn't pass legislation any more, they just wave at the bills as they go by."[23]

In 1932 Hattie Caraway of Arkansas became the first woman elected to the Senate. She was appointed to the post as a Democrat after the death of her husband, and was re-elected twice.[24][25][26] In 1935, Dennis Chávez became the first Latino to be elected to a full term in the Senate.[27]

In 1937 the Senate opposed Roosevelt's "court packing" plan and successfully called for reduced deficits.

In its early history, the Senate majority leader had few formal powers. But in 1937, the rule giving majority leader right of first recognition was created. With the addition of this rule, the Senate majority leader enjoyed far greater control over the agenda of which bills to be considered on the floor.

## Since 1945

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This section needs to be updated. Please help update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information. (January 2021)

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The most infamous Senate drama of the early 1950s was Wisconsin Senator Joseph McCarthy's investigations of alleged communists. After years of unchallenged power, McCarthy fell as a result of producing little evidence for his claims and the claims becoming more elaborate, even questioning the leadership of the United States Army. McCarthy was censured by the Senate in 1954.

During Lyndon Baines Johnson's tenure as Senate leader, the leader gained new powers over committee assignments.[28] Johnson, himself a Southerner and former key member of the Southern caucus, first as Senate Majority leader[29] and then as President[30] used his knowledge of Senate people and processes to push through civil rights legislation that had previously been blocked in the Senate by powerful Southern Democrats working as part of the Senate's dominant cross party conservative coalition.

In 1959, Hiram Fong became the first Asian-American senator, joining as one of Hawaii's first senators when it became a state. He advocated for civil rights and voting reform to reduce discrimination against Asian Americans.[31]

In 1966, Edward W. Brooke became the first Black person to win a popular election to the Senate, as a liberal Republican from Massachusetts. He was the first Black senator since the Reconstruction era and served two terms.[32]

In 1971, Paulette Desell was appointed by Senator Jacob K. Javits as the Senate's first female page.[33]

In 1992, Carol Mosely Braun became the first Black woman elected to the Senate, where she served one term as a Democrat from Illinois. She advocated for education reform and gun control.[34]

In 2009, Kathie Alvarez became the Senate's first female legislative clerk.[35]

In 2012, Tammy Baldwin was elected to the Senate as its first openly gay member.[36]

In 2013, Mazie Hirono became the first Asian-American woman senator, serving for Hawaii.[37]

In 2017, Catherine Cortez Masto became the first Latina and Mexican-American woman senator.[38]

## See also

[edit]

External videos

Booknotes interview with Donald Ritchie on Press Gallery, July 7, 1991, C-SPAN

* History of the United States House of Representatives
* List of United States Congresses
* Party divisions of United States Congresses
* Resignation from the United States Senate

## Bibliography

[edit]

### Notes

[edit]

1. ^ "A Visual Guide".
2. ^ "U.S. Senate: About the Senate & the U.S. Constitution | Equal State Representation". www.senate.gov. Retrieved 2025-04-06.
3. ^ "U.S. Senate: About the Senate & the U.S. Constitution | Senate Classes". www.senate.gov. Retrieved 2025-04-26.
4. ^ Rosenfeld, May 2004, p. 26.
5. ^ Rosenfeld, May 2004, p. 42.
6. ^ a b Wirls, Daniel (2004). The Invention of the United States Senate. Stephen Wirls. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. ISBN 0-8018-7438-6. OCLC 51878651.
7. ^ Madison.
8. ^ "3 THE RECORDS OF THE FEDERAL CONVENTION OF 1787, volume 2, p.15 (Max Farrand ed., 1911)". Archived from the original on May 30, 2022.
9. ^ Rosenfeld, May 2004, p. 36.
10. ^ Chait, August 19–26, 2002.
11. ^ Lee & Oppenheimer, 1999, p. 30.
12. ^ "Senate & US Constitution".
13. ^ "Treasures of Congress: The First Congress". National Archives and Records Administration. Retrieved 2023-10-26.
14. ^ "About the Vice President | Historical Overview". www.senate.gov. Retrieved 2025-06-17.
15. ^ "U.S. Senate: 404 Error Page". www.senate.gov. Retrieved 2025-06-17.[dead link]
16. ^ Caro: Master of the Senate, 2002, p. 14.
17. ^ Caro: Master of the Senate, 2002, p. 23.
18. ^ "Compromise of 1850 (1850)". National Archives. 2021-06-28. Retrieved 2025-03-26.
19. ^ "Senate Stories | Hiram Revels: First African American Senator". United States Senate. 2020-02-25. Retrieved 2025-01-04.
20. ^ Davis, Jennifer (2018-01-26). "Charles Curtis, first Native American Congressional member | In Custodia Legis". The Library of Congress. Retrieved 2025-01-04.
21. ^ Parker, May 14, 2003.
22. ^ "Octaviano Larrazolo: A Featured Biography". United States Senate. Retrieved 2025-01-04.
23. ^ Caro: Master of the Senate, 2002, pp. 354–355.
24. ^ Finkelman, 1999.
25. ^ Caraway bio online.
26. ^ Caraway bio book, 2005.
27. ^ "UNM hosts high school leadership program in partnership with National Hispanic Institute". University of New Mexico. 2023-09-05. Retrieved 2025-01-04.
28. ^ Caro, Robert (2002). "22. The Whole Stack". Master of the Senate: The Years of Lyndon Johnson. New York: Alfred A. Knopf. ISBN 0-394-52836-0.
29. ^ Caro, Robert (2002). "40. Yeas and Nays". Master of the Senate: The Years of Lyndon Johnson. New York: Alfred A. Knopf. ISBN 0-394-52836-0.
30. ^ Robert A. Caro (2014). "Chapter 20. The Johnsons in Johnson City". The Passage of Power: The Years of Lyndon Johnson. ISBN 9780679405078.
31. ^ "Hiram Fong: A Featured Biography". United States Senate. Retrieved 2025-01-04.
32. ^ Wingfield, Sylvia; Pratt, Mark (2015-01-03). "Edward Brooke, 1st black elected US senator, dies". AP News. Retrieved 2025-01-04.
33. ^ Ritchie-Johnson, 2006, p. 13.
34. ^ "Carol Moseley Braun: A Featured Biography". United States Senate. Retrieved 2025-01-04.
35. ^ Fox News, February 13, 2015.
36. ^ Grinberg, Emanuella (2012-11-07). "Wisconsin's Tammy Baldwin is first openly gay person elected to Senate | CNN Politics". CNN. Retrieved 2025-01-04.
37. ^ Morgan, Robin (2013-11-27). "A Personal Interview with Mazie Hirono, Hawaii's First Woman Senator - Women's Media Center". Women's Media Center. Retrieved 2025-01-04.
38. ^ Gamboa, Suzanne (2017-01-03). "'It's About Time': 1st Latina Senator, 7 new Latinos sworn in House". NBC News. Retrieved 2025-01-04.

1. ^ Not to be confused with proportional representation, an electoral system that typically elects multiple members of a party to a legislature based on that party's percentage of a popular vote.

### References linked to notes

[edit]

* "A Visual Guide: The Balance of Power Between Congress and the Presidency, 1945–2008". U.S. Politics. About.com. n.d. [last updated January 5, 2009]. Archived from the original on November 1, 2012. Retrieved September 17, 2012 - via Wayback Machine.
* Chait, Jonathan (August 19–26, 2002). "Rogue State – The Case Against Delaware". The New Republic. Retrieved January 23, 2010.
* "Caraway, Hattie Wyatt". Biographical Directory of the United States Congress (online). U.S. Government Printing Office. Retrieved June 29, 2011.
* "Caraway, Hattie Wyatt". Biographical Directory of the United States Congress, 1774–2005 (book volume). U.S. Government Printing Office. January 3, 2005. p. 784. Retrieved May 28, 2021 - via Google Books. 108th Congress, 2nd Session → Senate Document 108–222 H.Con.Res. 138; LCCN 2004-114224; ISBN 0-1607-3176-3; OCLC 256528124 (all editions).
* Caro, Robert Allan (2013) [1982]. Master of the Senate. Knopf.
1. Vol. 1: The Path to Power (1982) (1st ed.). LCCN 90-201781; ISBN 0-3944-9973-5; OCLC 608805975 (all editions).
2. Vol. 2: Means of Ascent (1990) (1st ed.). LCCN 9005048 9-5048; ISBN 978-0-3945-2835-9, 0-3945-2835-2; OCLC 903356708 (all editions).
3. Vol. 3: Master the of Senate (2002) (1st ed.). LCCN 2002-282796; ISBN 0-3945-2836-0; ISBN 978-1-8479-2613-5, 1-8479-2613-4; OCLC 1103977277 (all editions).
4. Vol. 4: The Passage of Power (2013) (1st ed.). LCCN 201253361 201-253361; ISBN 978-0-6794-0507-8, 0-6794-0507-0; OCLC 794593987 (all editions).
* Hartman, Susan (1999). "Caraway, Hattie Ophelia Wyatt (1 Feb. 1878 – 21 Dec. 1950)". American National Biography. Vol. 4 (of 24). American Council of Learned Societies, by Oxford University Press. pp. 369–370. Retrieved May 28, 2021 - via Internet Archive. LCCN 98-20826; ISBN 0-1952-0635-5, 0-1951-2783-8 (full set & just Vol. 4); OCLC 772374229 (all editions) (Vol. 4).
* Fox News (February 13, 2015) [last update, December 31, 2016]. "Kathie Alvarez, the Senate's First Female Legislative Clerk, Retires". Retrieved February 15, 2015.
* Lee, Frances E.; Oppenheimer, Bruce Ian (1999). "Chapter 2". Sizing Up the Senate: The Unequal Consequences of Equal Representation. University of Chicago Press. p. 33. Retrieved January 3, 2005 - via Google Books. LCCN 99-20500; ISBN 0-2264-7005-9, 978-0-2264-7005-4; ISBN 0-2264-7006-7, 978-0-2264-7006-1; OCLC 246187030 (all editions).
* Madison, James (n.d.). "The Debates in the Federal Convention of 1787" (online). Avalon Project, Lillian Goldman Law Library, Yale Law School. Retrieved January 23, 2010.
* Parker, David Bryce Jr. (May 14, 2003) [last edited July 20, 2020]. "Rebecca Latimer Felton (1835–1930)". New Georgia Encyclopedia (online). University of Georgia Press; University System of Georgia/Georgia Library Learning Online; and the Office of the Georgia Governor. Retrieved February 15, 2015. (the author is from Kennesaw State University).
* Johnson, Michael A. (2006). "Michael A. Johnson: Deputy Assistant Sergeant at Arms" (PDF). "Oral History Interviews" (oral history interview). Interviewed by Ritchie, Donald A. Washington, D.C.: Senate Historical Office. OCLC 173005222. Archived from the original (PDF) on December 13, 2020. → Johnson attended the U.S. Capital Page School (thru 11th grade); graduated from McKinley Technology High School (1974); Cornell (B.S.; 1978); Bowie State University (M.S.).
* Rosenfeld, Richard N. (May 2004). "What Democracy? The Case for Abolishing the United States Senate". Harper's Magazine. Vol. 308, no. 1848\. pp. 36, 42. Retrieved January 3, 2005.
* "The Senate and the United States Constitution". United States Senate. n.d. Retrieved May 21, 2014.

## References not linked to notes

[edit]

### References

[edit]

* Barone, Michael, and Grant Ujifusa, The Almanac of American Politics 1976: The Senators, the Representatives and the Governors: Their Records and Election Results, Their States and Districts (1975); new edition every 2 years, informal practices, and member information)
* Congressional Quarterly  Congress and the Nation: 2001–2004: A Review of Government and Politics: 107th and 108th Congresses  (2005); summary of Congressional activity, as well as major executive and judicial decisions; based on Congressional Quarterly Weekly Report and the annual CQ almanac.
* Congressional Quarterly Congress and the Nation: 1997–2001  (2002)
* Congressional Quarterly Congress and the Nation: 1993–1996  (1998)
* Congressional Quarterly Congress and the Nation: 1989–1992  (1993)
* Congressional Quarterly Congress and the Nation: 1985–1988  (1989)
* Congressional Quarterly Congress and the Nation: 1981–1984  (1985)
* Congressional Quarterly Congress and the Nation: 1977–1980  (1981)
* Congressional Quarterly Congress and the Nation: 1973–1976  (1977)
* Congressional Quarterly Congress and the Nation: 1969–1972  (1973)
* Congressional Quarterly Congress and the Nation: 1965–1968  (1969)
* Congressional Quarterly Congress and the Nation: 1945–1964  (1965), the first of the series

### Institutional studies

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* Brady, David W. and Mathew D. McCubbins, eds. Party, Process, and Political Change in Congress: New Perspectives on the History of Congress (2002)
* Cooper, John Milton, Jr. Breaking the Heart of the World: Woodrow Wilson and the Fight for the League of Nations.  (Cambridge U. Press, 2001).
* Feinman, Ronald L. Twilight of progressivism: the western Republican senators and the New Deal (Johns Hopkins University Press, 1981)
* Feldman, Gabe. "Death of a senator: Life expectancy and causes of death in 20th-century US senators." American journal of public health 93.5 (2003): 771-771. online
* Finley, Keith M. Delaying the Dream: Southern Senators and the Fight Against Civil Rights, 1938-1965 (LSU Press, 2008).
* Goodwin, George. "The seniority system in Congress." American Political Science Review 53.2 (1959): 412-436.
* Gould, Lewis L. The Most Exclusive Club: A History Of The Modern United States Senate (2005) the latest full-scale history by a scholar
* Harmon, F. Martin. Presidents versus Senators: Conflicts and Rivalries That Shaped America (2021) excerpt
* Hernon, Joseph Martin. Profiles in Character: Hubris and Heroism in the U.S. Senate, 1789–1990 (Sharpe, 1997).
* Hoebeke, C. H. The Road to Mass Democracy: Original Intent and the Seventeenth Amendment. (Transaction Books, 1995).
* Hunt, Richard. (1998). "Using the Records of Congress in the Classroom," OAH Magazine of History, 12 (Summer): 34–37.
* Johnson, Robert David. The Peace Progressives and American Foreign Relations.  (Harvard U. Press, 1995). in 1920s and 1930s
* Koger, Gregory. "Cloture reform and party government in the Senate, 1918–1925." Journal of politics 68.3 (2006): 708-719.
* Malsberger, John W. From Obstruction to Moderation: The Transformation of Senate Conservatism, 1938–1952. (Susquehanna U. Press 2000).
* Paulos, Michael Harold and Konden Smith Hansen. The Reed Smoot Hearings: The Investigation of a Mormon Senator and the Transformation of an American Religion (2022) the first Mormon Senator
* Ritchie, Donald A. Press Gallery: Congress and the Washington Correspondents. (Harvard UP, 1991).
* Ritchie, Donald A. The Congress of the United States: A Student Companion (Oxford UP, 2001).
* Ritchie, Donald A. Reporting from Washington: The History of the Washington Press Corps (Oxford UP, 2005).
* Rothman, David J. Politics and power; the United States Senate, 1869-1901 (Harvard UP, 1966) richly detailed scholarly history online
* Swift, Elaine K. The Making of an American Senate: Reconstitutive Change in Congress, 1787–1841. U. of Michigan Press, 1996.
* Wirls, Daniel and Wirls, Stephen. The Invention of the United States Senate (Johns Hopkins UP, 2004) excerpt
* Zelizer, Julian E. On Capitol Hill: The Struggle to Reform Congress and its Consequences, 1948–2000 (2006) online

### Biographical

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* American National Biography (1999) 24 volumes plus 2 supplements; contains scholarly biographies of all politicians no longer alive; online
* Baker, Richard A.. and Roger H. Davidson, eds. First Among Equals: Outstanding Senate Leaders of the Twentieth Century (1992).
* Ashby, LeRoy and Gramer, Rod. Fighting the Odds: The Life of Senator Frank Church. (Washington State U. Press, 1994). Chair of Foreign Relations in the 1970s; Democrat of Idaho
* Barnard, Harry. Independent Man: The Life of Senator James Couzens (Wayne State University Press, 2002), of Michigan.
* Becnel, Thomas A. Senator Allen Ellender of Louisiana: A Biography.  (Louisiana State U. Press, 1995). Democrat online
* Caro, Robert A. Master of the Senate: The Years of Lyndon Johnson Vol. 3 (Vintage, 2009).
* Farrell, John A. Ted Kennedy: A Life (2022) Democrat of Massachusetts
* Fite, Gilbert. Richard B. Russell, Jr., Senator from Georgia (1991) powerful Democrat; online
* Garraty, John A. Henry Cabot Lodge, a biography (1953), Republican of Massachusetts online
* Goldberg, Robert Alan. Barry Goldwater (1995), Rep;ublican of Arizona
* Herman, Arthur. Joseph McCarthy: Reexamining the Life and Legacy of America's Most Hated Senator (Simon and Schuster, 2000), Republican of Wisconsin.
* Houston, G. David. "A Negro Senator." Journal of Negro History 7.3 (1922): 243-256. online; Blanche Bruce Republican of Mississippi
* Johnson, Claudius O. Borah of Idaho (1936) online, Republican
* Johnson, Marc C. Political Hell-Raiser: The Life and Times of Senator Burton K. Wheeler of Montana (University of Oklahoma Press, 2019); Democrat
* Keith, Caroline H. For Hell and a Brown Mule: The Biography of Senator Millard E. Tydings (Madison Books, 1991), Democrat of Maryland
* Laymon, Sherry. Fearless: John L McClellan, United States Senator (2022), Democrat of Arkansas
* Lower, Richard Coke. A Bloc of One: The Political Career of Hiram W. Johnson (Stanford University Press, 1993); Republican of California.
* McFarland, Ernest W. The Ernest W. McFarland Papers: The United States Senate Years, 1940–1952. (Prescott, Ariz.: Sharlot Hall Museum, 1995). Democratic majority leader 1950–1952; of Arizona
* Mann, Robert. The Walls of Jericho: Lyndon Johnson, Hubert Humphrey, Richard Russell and the Struggle for Civil Rights. (Harcourt Brace, 1996).
* Miller, G. Wayne. An Uncommon Man: The Life & Times of Senator Claiborne Pell (UPNE, 2011) Democrat of Rhode Island.
* Norris, George W. Fighting Liberal: The Autobiography of George W. Norris (U of Nebraska Press, 1992) Republican of Nebraska. online
* Fellman, David. "The Liberalism of Senator Norris." American Political Science Review 40.1 (1946): 27-51. online
* Palermo, Joseph A. In His Own Right: The Political Odyssey of Senator Robert F. Kennedy (Columbia UP, 2002) Democrat of New York.
* Patterson, James T. Mr. Republican; a biography of Robert A. Taft (1972) online
* Price, Christopher. "Peace and Progress: The Life and Political Contributions of Senator Jennings Randolph." West Virginia History: A Journal of Regional Studies 14.2 (2020): 1-27. Democrat of West Virginia
* O'Brien, Michael. Philip Hart: The Conscience of the Senate. (Michigan State U. Press 1995) Democrat of Michigan.
* Rice, Ross R. Carl Hayden: Builder of the American West (U. Press of America, 1993). Chair of Appropriations in the 1960s and 1970s; Democrat of Arizona.
* Stephenson, Nathaniel W. Nelson W. Aldrich: A Leader in American Politics (1930), powerful Republican from Rhode Island
* Valeo, Frank. Mike Mansfield, Majority Leader: A Different Kind of Senate, 1961–1976 (Sharpe, 1999). Senate majority leader. Democrat Of Montana.
* Weller, Cecil Edward, Jr. Joe T. Robinson: Always a Loyal Democrat. U. of Arkansas Press, 1998. Majority leader in the 1930s; of Arkansas.
* Winston, Mitch. Senator Daniel Inouye: WW II Hero and America Finest Senator (2022), Democrat of Hawaii

### Official Senate histories (and reviews)

[edit]

* Byrd, Robert C. (1993). Hall, Mary Sharon "Sherry"; Wolff, Wendy (eds.). The Senate, 1789–1989 – Addresses on the History of the United States Senate (Congressional Bicentennial ed.). U.S. Government Printing Office. 100th Congress, 1st Session → Senate Document 100–20 H.Con.Res. 18; LCCN 88-24545; ISBN 0-1600-6405-8, 978-0-1600-6405-0; OCLC 18442225 (all editions).
* Hall (ed.). Vol. 1 – a chronological series of addresses on the history of the Senate (serial no. 13723; Superintendent of Documents No. 052-071-00823-3). ISBN 0-1600-6391-4, 978-0-1600-6391-6

* Wolff (ed.). Vol. 2 – a topical series of addresses on various aspects of the Senate's operation and powers (serial no. 13724; Superintendent of Documents No. 052-071-00856-0). ISBN 0-1600-6405-8, 978-0-1600-6405-0

* Wolff (ed.). Vol. 3 – Classic Speeches, 1830–1993 (serial no. 13725; Superintendent of Documents No. 052-071-01048-3).

* Wolff (ed.). Vol. 4 – Historical Statistics, 1789–1992 (serial no. 13726; Superintendent of Documents No. 052-071-00995-7).

* Video. Senator Robert Byrd (interviewee); Brian Lamb (April 7, 1989). "Book Review: The Senate: 1789–1989". C-Span program → Booknotes (online from a VHS tape). OCLC 34512820. Retrieved December 2, 2011.
* Bob Dole. Historical Almanac of the United States Senate. (stock number 052-071-00857-8).
* Video. Senator Bob Dole (interviewee); Brian Lamb. "Book Review: Historical Almanac of the U.S. Senate". C-Span program → Booknotes (recorded August 7, 1990; broadcast September 9, 1990). OCLC 831351741. Retrieved December 2, 2011.
* Biographical Directory of the United States Congress, 1774–1989, (stock number 052-071-00699-1)
* Mark O. Hatfield, with the Senate Historical Office. Vice Presidents of the United States, 1789–1993. (stock number 052-071-01227-3); essays reprinted online
* The United States Senate

* v
* t
* e

United States Congress

* House of Representatives
* Senate
* Joint session
* (118th → 119th → 120th)
* Lists of the United States Congress

Members and leaders

| Membership|

| Members|

* By length of service
* By shortness of service
* Youngest members
* Non-voting members
* Unseated members

|

Senate|

* Members
* seniority
* Dean
* Former
* Expelled or censured
* Classes
* Born outside the U.S.
* Resigned
* Appointed
* Switched parties

House|

* Members
* seniority
* Dean
* Former
* Expelled, censured, and reprimanded
* Served a single term
* Lost re-election in a primary
* Switched parties
* Elected but did not serve

New members|

* 90th (1967)
* 91st (1969)
* 92nd (1971)
* 93rd (1973)
* 94th (1975)
* 95th (1977)
* 96th (1979)
* 97th (1981)
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* 113th (2013)
* 114th (2015)
* 115th (2017)
* 116th (2019)
* 117th (2021)
* 118th (2023)
* 119th (2025)

Leaders|

| Senate|

* President
* list
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* list
* Leaders
* Democratic Caucus
* Chair
* Secretary
* Policy Committee Chair
* Republican Conference
* Chair
* Vice-Chair
* Policy Committee Chair

|

House|

* Speaker
* list
* Leaders
* Bipartisan Legal Advisory Group
* Democratic Caucus
* Republican Conference

Districts|

* List
* Apportionment
* Gerrymandering

Groups|

| Congressional caucus|

* Caucuses of the United States Congress

|

Ethnic and racial|

* African-American members
* Senate
* House
* Black Caucus
* Arab and Middle Eastern members
* Asian Pacific American members
* Asian Pacific American Caucus
* Hispanic and Latino members
* list
* Hispanic Caucus
* Hispanic Conference
* Jewish members
* Jewish Caucus
* Native American members

Gender and sexual identity|

* LGBTQ members
* Equality Caucus
* Women
* Senate
* House
* Issues Caucus
* current House

Occupation|

* Physicians

Religion|

* Buddhist members
* Hindu members
* Jewish members
* Mormon (LDS) members
* Muslim members
* Quaker members
* Sikh members

Related|

* By length of service historically
* Current members by wealth
* From multiple states
* Died in office
* 1790–1899
* 1900–1949
* 1950–1999
* 2000–present
* Killed or wounded in office
* Party switchers
* Slave owners

Powers, privileges, procedure, committees, history, media

| Powers|

* Article I
* Copyright
* Commerce (Dormant)
* Contempt of Congress
* Declaration of war
* Impeachment
* Inquiries
* Trial
* Naturalization
* "Necessary and Proper"
* Power of enforcement
* Taxing/spending

|

Privileges|

* Salaries
* Franking
* Immunity

Procedure|

* Act of Congress
* list
* Appropriation bill
* Bill
* Budget process
* Censure
* Closed sessions
* House
* Senate
* Cloture
* Concurrent resolution
* Continuing resolution
* Dear Colleague letter
* Discharge petition
* Enrolled bill
* Expulsion
* Joint resolution
* Joint session
* list
* Lame-duck session
* Magic minute
* Majority of the majority (Hastert Rule)
* Multiple referral
* House procedures
* Quorum call
* Reconciliation
* Rider
* Saxbe fix
* Sponsorship
* Suspension of the rules
* Unanimous consent
* Veto
* Line-item veto
* Pocket veto

Senate-specific|

* Advice and consent
* Blue slip (U.S. Senate)
* Classes
* Executive communication
* Executive session
* Filibuster
* Jefferson's Manual
* Senate Journal
* Morning business
* Nuclear option
* Presiding Officer
* Recess appointment
* Reconciliation
* Riddick's Senate Procedure
* Senate hold
* Senatorial courtesy
* Seniority
* Standing Rules
* Tie-breaking votes
* Traditions
* Treaty Clause

Committees|

* Chairman and ranking member
* Of the Whole
* Conference
* Discharge petition
* Hearings
* Markup
* Oversight
* List (Joint)
* List (House)
* List (Senate)
* Select and special
* Standing
* Subcommittees

Items|

* Gavels
* Mace of the House
* Seal of the Senate

History|

* House history
* memoirs
* speaker elections
* Senate history
* election disputes
* memoirs
* Continental Congress
* Federal Hall (1789–1790)
* Congress Hall (1790–1800)
* Old Brick Capitol (1815–1819)
* Biographical Directory
* Divided government
* Party divisions

Media|

* C-SPAN
* Congressional Quarterly
* The Hill
* Politico
* Roll Call

Capitol Complex (Capitol Hill)

| Legislative
offices|

* Congressional staff
* Gov. Accountability Office (GAO)
* Comptroller General
* Architect of the Capitol
* Cap. Police
* Board
* Cap. Guide Service
* Congr. Budget Office (CBO)
* Congr. Workplace Rights (OCWR)
* Library of Congress
* Gov. Publishing Office (GPO)
* Technology Assessment

|

Offices|

| Senate|

* Curator
* Historical
* Library

|

House|

* Congr. Ethics
* Emergency Planning, Preparedness, and Operations
* Interparliamentary Affairs
* Law Revision Counsel
* Legislative Counsel
* Library

Employees|

| Senate|

* Secretary
* Chaplain
* Curator
* Historian
* Librarian
* Pages
* Parliamentarian
* Sergeant at Arms and Doorkeeper

|

House|

* Chaplain
* Chief Administrative Officer
* Clerk
* Doorkeeper
* Floor Operations
* Floor Services Chief
* Historian
* Pages
* Board
* Parliamentarian
* Postmaster
* Reading Clerk
* Sergeant at Arms

Library of
Congress|

* Congressional Research Service
* reports
* Copyright Office
* Register of Copyrights
* Law Library
* Poet Laureate
* THOMAS
* Adams Building
* Jefferson Building
* Madison Building

Gov.
Publishing Office|

* Public Printer
* Congressional Pictorial Directory
* Congressional Record
* Official Congressional Directory
* U.S. Gov. Manual
* Serial Set
* Statutes at Large
* United States Code

Capitol Building|

* List of artwork at the United States Capitol complex
* List of portraits in the United States House of Representatives collection (A-J)
* Brumidi Corridors
* Congressional Prayer Room
* Crypt
* Dome
* Statue of Freedom
* Rotunda
* Hall of Columns
* Statuary Hall
* Visitor Center
* The Apotheosis of Washington
* Statue of Freedom
* Declaration of Independence painting
* Scene at the Signing of the Constitution of the United States
* Apotheosis of Democracy
* Progress of Civilization Pediment
* First Reading of the Emancipation Proclamation of President Lincoln
* Surrender of General Burgoyne
* Surrender of Lord Cornwallis
* George Washington and the Revolutionary War Door
* Revolutionary War Door
* Columbus Doors
* Washington at Princeton
* Westward the Course of Empire Takes Its Way
* VP's Room
* VP Bust Collection

Office
buildings|

| Senate|

* Dirksen
* Hart
* Mountains and Clouds
* Russell

|

House|

* Building Commission
* office lottery
* Cannon
* Ford
* Longworth
* O'Neill
* Rayburn

Other
facilities|

* Botanic Garden
* Health and Fitness Facility
* House Recording Studio
* Senate chamber
* Old Senate Chamber
* Old Supreme Court Chamber
* Power Plant
* Webster Page Residence
* Subway

Related|

* Capitol Hill
* United States Capitol cornerstone laying

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