Immigration to Colombia

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The largest concentration of foreign immigrants in Colombia is in Barranquilla, which was the main entrance port into Colombia, it also received the name "Puerta de Oro de Colombia" (Colombia's golden gate)Part of a series on the

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Immigration to Colombia during the early 19th and late 20th Century, is what makes it one of the most diverse countries in the world, above other countries in the Latin region.[1] Colombia inherited from the Spanish Empire harsh rules against immigration, first in the Viceroyalty of New Granada and later in the Colombian Republic. The Constituent Assembly of Colombia and the subsequent reforms to the national constitution were much more open to the immigrants and the economic aperture. However citizenship through naturalization of foreigners, with the exception of those children of Colombians born abroad, is still difficult to acquire because 'Jus soli' law is not allowed by the government, and only 'Jus sanguinis' law is accepted. Immigration in Colombia is managed by the "Migración Colombia" agency.

Colombia is experiencing large waves of immigration from other Latin American countries, Europe, East Asia, and North America over the past five years.[2][3] due to improvements in quality of life, security, and economic opportunities.[4]

## History

[edit]

### Colonial period

[edit]

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European immigration in Colombia began in 1510 with the colonization of San Sebastián de Urabá. In 1526, settlers founded Santa Marta, the oldest Spanish city still in existence in Colombia. Many Spaniards began their explorations searching for gold, while others Spaniards established themselves as leaders of the native social organizations, teaching natives the Christian faith and the ways of their civilization. Catholic priests would provide education for Native Americans that otherwise was unavailable. Within 100 years after the first Spanish settlement, nearly 95 percent of all Native Americans in Colombia had died.[5] The majority of the deaths of Native Americans were the cause of diseases such as measles and smallpox, which were spread by European settlers.

European (Spanish and French colonist) settlement focused mainly in the Andean highlands and Lebanese for the Caribbean coast, but little European settlement took place in the Chocó department of the Pacific coast and the Amazonian plains. Out of all Spanish nationalities, the Castilians and the Basques were the most represented. Over time, Europeans intermarried often with the Amerindian peoples (i.e. the Chibchas), and to produce a mixed-race population which are the majority of people in Colombia today. [citation needed]

### European immigration

[edit]

See also: European immigration to the Americas

Colombia was one of the early focus of Basque immigration.[6][7] Between 1540 and 1559, 8.9 percent of the residents of Colombia were of Basque origin. It has been suggested that the present-day incidence of business entrepreneurship in the Antioquia Department is attributable to the Basque immigration and Basque character traits.[8] Few Colombians of distant Basque descent are aware of their Basque ethnic heritage.[8] In Bogotá, there is a small colony of thirty to forty families who emigrated as a consequence of the Spanish Civil War or because of different opportunities.[8] Basque priests were the ones that introduced handball into Colombia.[9] Basque immigrants in Colombia were devoted to teaching and public administration.[9] In the first years of the Andean multinational company, Basque sailors navigated as captains and pilots on the majority of the ships until the country was able to train its own crews.[9] In December 1941 the United States government estimated that there were 10,000 Germans living in Colombia.[10] There were some Nazi agitators in Colombia, such as Barranquilla businessman Emil Prufurt.[10] Colombia invited Germans who were on the U.S. blacklist to leave. However, most German inhabitants arrived in the late 19th century as farmers and professionals. One such entrepreneur was Leo Siegfried Kopp, the founder of the brewery Bavaria.[10] SCADTA, a Colombian-German air transport corporation which was established by German expatriates in 1919, was the first commercial airline in the western hemisphere.[11]

### Arab immigration

[edit]

Main article: Arab Colombians

Many Colombians have origins in the Western Asian countries of Lebanon, Jordan, Syria and Palestine, It is estimated that Arab Colombians represent 3.2 million people. Many moved to Colombia to escape the repression of the Turkish Ottoman Empire and/or financial hardships. When they were first processed in Colombia's ports, they were classified as "Turks" or "Turcos" in Spanish. It is estimated that Colombia has a Lebanese population of 700,000 direct descendants and 1,500,000 who have partial ancestry. Meanwhile, the Palestine population is estimated between 100,000 and 120,000. Most Syrian-Lebanese immigrants established themselves in the Caribbean Region of Colombia in the towns of Santa Marta, Santa Cruz de Lorica, Fundación, Aracataca, Ayapel, Calamar, Ciénaga, Cereté, Montería, Cartagena and Barranquilla near the basin of the Magdalena River, in La Guajira Department, notably in Maicao and in the Archipelago of San Andrés, Providencia and Santa Catalina in but also large populations in the interior of the country such as Bogotá and Cali. Many Arab-Colombians adapted their names and surnames to the Spanish language to assimilate more quickly in their communities. Some Colombian surnames of Arab origin include: Guerra (originally Harb), Cure (Originally Khoury) Domínguez (Ñeca), Matuk(Originally Maatouk), Durán (Dahir), Lara (Labdah), Cristo (Saliba), among other surnames.

Consequently, there were other immigrants from the Western Asia, including a number of Armenian, Turkish, Georgian and Cypriot immigrants who arrived in the country during the early 20th century.

### East Asian immigration

[edit]

The Eastern Asian communities in Colombia were not very numerous compared to Brazil or Peru, but still some groups of thousands of migrants arrived from the 20th century with the Japanese and Koreans until the 21st century with the Chinese.[12] It is estimated that the first groups of Asian immigrants arrived in Buenaventura and Barranquilla between 1910-1940[13] Many Chinese have immigrated to Colombia in recent decades.[14]

## Immigration by origin

[edit]

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### Africa

[edit]

Main article: Afro-Colombians

Enslaved Africans began being trafficked to Colombia by the beginning of the 16th century. Cartagena de Indias was the main port of entry of slaves into the country during the colonial period and during its highest boom it turned out to be the most lucrative business in the city, trafficking over 1 million enslaved beings through its port.[15] Slavery wouldn't be abolished in Colombia until 1851; although by this point enslaved beings only accounted for 0.76% of the population, since most Afro Colombians were free people of colour.[16]

According to the 2018 national census, 9.34% of Colombians are of full or parcial Black African ancestry, with the largest concentration in the department of Chocó, where they represent 82.1% of the population.[17][18] However, external sources estimates Afro-Colombians are between 15% and 26% of total population.[19][20][21][22][23][24][25] Genetic research shows Subsaharan African admixture in general Colombian population ranges between 0.5% and 20%.[26][27][28]

### Western Asia and North Africa

[edit]

Many Arab immigrants have arrived in Colombia from Egypt, Lebanon, Syria, Iraq, Jordan and Palestine. The Arabs settled mostly in the northern coast, in cities such as Barranquilla, Cartagena, Santa Marta, and Maicao. Gradually they began to settle inland too (except for Antioquia). Many Colombians of Arab descent derive their origins from Catholics/Maronites from Lebanon or Syria.

Due to the Arab Spring, many Arabs arrived in Colombia seeking political asylum, particularly from Syria.[29]

### Chinese

[edit]

The city of Cali has the largest Asian community because of its proximity to the Pacific Coast;[citation needed] they also live around the nation in other cities such as Barranquilla, Bucaramanga, Bogotá and Medellín. The DANE says the Chinese population is growing 10% every year. In recent years, particularly Chinese restaurants have experienced a surge and have become popular businesses in nearly every Colombian city. [citation needed]

There is a large gap in knowledge of the Chinese diaspora in Colombia in the period from the beginning of the 20th century until 1970–1980. The century began with the political upheavals in China that led to the creation of two political factions among the Chinese in and outside China, and eventually caused the communist revolution and the founding of the two separate Chinese states, one on the mainland and one in Taiwan. The effect for the Chinese diaspora was the creation not only of political but also more differentiation between migrants and distinguished by locality of origin, language, and history of migration. Thus, until today, in terms of organization, they are, on the one hand, the "Overseas Chinese Association", founded by Chinese who migrated to Colombia in the 1980s, and on the other, the Chinese Cultural Centre in Bogotá, founded in 1988 by a Taiwanese government institution (Zhang 1991).

Moreover, it is known that in 1970 there were over 6,000 Chinese living in Colombia, which means that they kept coming to this country. It can be assumed that the anti-immigrant atmosphere in many countries was the major cause of continued Chinese immigration to Colombia. The migration did not come from China, because during the first three decades of the People's Republic of China, emigration was severely restricted. In fact, it is known that in the early 20th century, due to xenophobia in the United States, a large number of Chinese migrated to Colombia. Restrepo (2001) states that at that time various groups of immigrants settled in Barranquilla. [citation needed]

The end of Chinese anti-immigration laws in the United States during the 1980s allowed many Chinese to emigrate from Colombia to the United States. [citation needed] As a result, of the 5,600 people of Chinese origin reported in 1982 (Poston and Yu 1990) in the 1990s were only 3,400, most of whom live in Bogota, Barranquilla, Cali, Cartagena, Medellin, Santa Marta, Manizales, Cucuta, and Pereira. All these movements flow of people around the world support the notion that the "Chinese diaspora" is far from staying in a country, take an identity, or "assimilate". Political, economic, social, and personal issues contributed to the circulation of the Chinese movement between various locations. These factors also have an important influence in the forms of residence and, more recently, in human trafficking.[30]

### North American

[edit]

About 3,000 North Americans arrived in Barranquilla during the late 19th century. By 1958, American immigrants comprised 10% of all immigrants living in Colombia. There are now 60,000[31] United States citizens living in Colombia, many of whom are Colombian emigrants to the United States who chose to return to Colombia. [citation needed] The barrios El Prado, Paraiso, and some others were created by Americans, also schools and universities were built by American architects such as the Universidad del Norte, the American School and many more.

When enumerated by citizenship, many Americans are from families that emigrated to the United States and then repatriated.[citation needed]

### Jewish

[edit]

Main article: History of the Jews in Colombia

Early Jewish settlers were converted Jews, known as Marranos, from Spain. In the years prior to World War II, there was a second wave of Jewish immigrants fleeing persecution from the Nazis. Most Colombian Jews live in Bogotá, Medellín, Cali and Barranquilla where are Jewish schools such as: Colegio Colombo Hebreo,[32] Theodo Hertlz,[33] Colegio Hebreo Unión.[34]

As of the 21st century, approximately 8,000 practicing Jews live in Colombia. Most of them are concentrated in Bogotá, with about 3,500 members, and Cali, with about 1,000 members. Others communities are also found in Barranquilla and Medellín. Very few Jews practice religious observance; among those who do, the majority are Orthodox. German Jewish communities in Bogota and Cali also preserve much of their traditions.

### Romani people

[edit]

The Romani people came during colonial times, often forced by the Spanish to move to South America. Romani people also came during World War I and World War II. Most of them settled in the metropolitan area of Barranquilla.[citation needed]

### Spanish

[edit]

Spanish immigration in what is now Colombia was massive and continuous throughout the colonial period. Spanish descendants, a majority of which mixed to varying degrees with indigenous peoples over the centuries, form the bulk of the Colombian population. After a brief period in which it stopped abruptly following independence, immigration slowly resumed albeit at a much lower level. In the 20th century there was another wave of Spanish immigrants fleeing persecution from the Franquistas during and after the Spanish Civil War. Migration also spiked as a result of economic hardships in Spain during the 50s. Due to high unemployment in Spain, several hundreds of Spaniards have immigrated to Colombia for better working prospects in recent years (2008 onwards). Furthermore, several thousands of Colombians who emigrated to Spain from 1990 to 2010 (about 280,000 people) now return to Colombia, and sometimes have dual citizenship.

### Italians

[edit]

Main article: Italian Colombian

Italian immigration in Colombia has had place in the XIX and XX centuries.[3] The Italian immigrant population in Colombia, is mostly located in cities such as Cartagena, Barranquilla, Santa Marta, Montería, Cali, Medellin and Bogotá. The Italians have left some imprint in Colombian Spanish[35] and gastronomy. The Italian government estimated in 2018 that around 2 million Colombians have Italian ancestry.[36]

### Germans

[edit]

Particularly in the 19th century, but also in the 20th century.[37] Many Colombians of German heritage arrived in Colombia via Venezuela, where 19th-century German settlements have existed. They traditionally settled as farmers or professional workers in the states of Boyacá and Santander, but also in Cali, Bogotá and Barranquilla. One famous German immigrant of the 19th century was German-Jewish entrepreneur Leo Siegfried Kopp who founded the brewery Bavaria. Other German groups arrived in Colombia later: after World War I (many opticians and other professional businesses in Bogotá were founded by German immigrants in the 1910s), and after World War II, some of them Nazis or on the black list. Many of them changed their surnames for common surnames of the region.

### Russians

[edit]

In the 19th and 20th centuries many Russians went to Antioquia and Risaralda, escaping from communism and the Soviet government. The former USSR (1917-1991) included other nations like Lithuania and Ukraine.[38][39]

### Irish

[edit]

During the independence of Colombia, More than 8.000 Irish soldiers fought to give independence to the country, many were recruited from Dublin, London and other cities to fight with Simón Bolívar's troops to liberate Colombia from Spain. Subsequently, post-independence Irish immigrants continued to arrive, especially to the departments of Antioquia, Caldas and Risaralda.[40] In the first half of 20th century, Irish people arrived in Colombia for a new life and as missionaries to expand the Catholic faith in the country. In the last years of the 20th century and first years of 21st century, some Irish people came to Colombia. Some came to work in the many multinational companies but a few of them were involved with terrorist groups like the FARC.[41]

### French

[edit]

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There is an important French community in Colombia, mainly concentrated in the coastal cities of Barranquilla, Cartagena, and Santa Marta, as well as in Bogotá.[42] French immigration began in a regular pattern during the 18th and 19th century and highly influenced the country's economic and political systems (the Betancourt family is of French descent) and entertainment industry. Another example is Atanasio Girardot who was a Colombian revolutionary leader. Some WWII refugees from France came to Colombia, but often for a temporary time. Nowadays, Colombia has also become a cheap tourist or retirement destination for French citizens. Contrary to common perceptions, the frequent Colombian surname Betancourt does not signal French descent but rather descent from the Canary Islands (Spain), where it is common since the islands were conquered and submitted by Frenchman Juan de Betancourt for the Spanish crown in the 16th century. French surnames such as Lafaurie, Chaux, Lamouroux, Betancourt and many more are frequently deeply rooted in Colombian society.[43][44][45][46]

### Venezuelans

[edit]

The Venezuelan population in Colombia is estimated at 2,250,000, due to political instability, corruption and crime in Venezuela. Large populations of Venezuelans are found in Bogotá, Cali, Medellín, Bucaramanga, Barranquilla, Cartagena and Cúcuta. Previously Colombians had emigrated to Venezuela due to political unrest. However, during the last decade the trend has reversed and Venezuelans increasingly immigrate to Colombia.[citation needed] A Venezuelan refugee crisis began in 2014; as of 2021, about 1.7 million Venezuelans displaced by the crisis are currently in Colombia, most of whom are either undocumented or are on temporary visas.[47]

### Ecuadorians

[edit]

The history of Colombia and Ecuador is strongly related. Many people of South Colombia (specially, the Nariño, Putumayo and Cauca Departments) share traditions with the Ecuadorian people. This has led to migration between both countries. Many Ecuadorians have come to the major cities of Colombia (Bogotá, Medellin, Cali, Bucaramanga) as merchants.[citation needed]

### Number of people with permanent Colombian residence by nationality

[edit]

Note: only people that have lived in Colombia for at least 5 years can acquire permanent residence.

Place | Country | 2013

|
|

1 |  Venezuela | 5.338
2 |  United States | 3.693
3 |  Spain | 2.370
4 |  Mexico | 1.711
5 |  China | 1.428
6 |  Argentina | 1.117
7 |  Peru | 1.056
8 |  Germany | 1.006
9 |  Brazil | 915
10 |  Ecuador | 885
11 |  France | 884
12 |  India | 858
13 |  Portugal | 800
14 |  Italy | 747
15 |  Cuba | 695
16 |  Nicaragua | 651
17 |  Rest of the world | 6.338
Source: OAS (2013)[48]

### Number of people living in Colombia by Nationality 2017 - 2020

[edit]

Place | Country  | Population  | 2020[49]

|
|
|

2017  | 2019
1 |  Venezuela | 48,714  | 1,048,714  | 1,780,486
2 |  United States | 20,140  | 20,140  | 20,810
3 |  Ecuador | 15,212  | 15,212  | 19,180
4 |  Spain | 7,086  | 7,086  | 17,122
5 |  Peru | 5,391  | 5,391  | 5,680
6 |  Argentina | 3,419  | 3,419  | 5,719
7 |  Mexico | 3,050  | 3,050  | 5,641
8 |  Italy | 3,001  | 3,001  | 3,225
9 |  Germany | 2,523  | 2,523  | 2,156
10 |  Brazil | 2,496  | 2,496  | 4,685
11 |  Panama | 2,208  | 2,208  | 3,123
12 |  France | 2,203  | 2,203  | 3,180
13 |  China | 2,176  | 2,176  | 1,584
14 |  Chile | 2,162  | 2,162  | 4,732
15 |  Cuba | 1,945  | 1,945  | 2,534
16 |  United Kingdom | 1,322  | 1,322  | 1,686
17 |  Lebanon | 1,253  | 1,253  |
18 |  Costa Rica | 1,128  | 1,128  | 1,828
19 |  Canada | 1,051  | 1,051  | 1,715
20 |  Bolivia | 874  | 874  | 1,129
21 |  Japan | 771  | 771  | 689
22 |  Switzerland | 725  | 725  | 782
23 |  Russia | 719  | 719  | 646
24 |  Nicaragua | 611  | 611  |
25 |  Israel | 500  | 500  |
26 |  Guatemala | 490  | 490  | 857
27 |  Belgium | 464  | 464  |
28 |  Uruguay | 464  | 464  | 662
29 |  Dominican Republic | 410  | 410  | 1,046
30 |  El Salvador | 409  | 409  | 782
31 |  Honduras | 376  | 376  | 690
32 |  Netherlands | 376  | 376  | 635
33  |  South Korea | 292  | 292  |
34  |  Poland | 272  | 272  |
35  |  Ukraine | 241  | 241  |
36  |  Romania | 236  | 236  |
37  |  Australia | 234  | 234  |
38  |  Paraguay | 231  | 231  |
39  |  Austria | 222  | 222  |
40  |  Vanuatu | 221  | 221  |
41  |  North Korea | 213  | 213  |
42  |  Sweden | 194  | 194  |
43  |  Jordan | 190  | 190  |
44  |  India | 153  | 153  |
45  |  Hungary | 149  | 149  |
46  |  Egypt | 149  | 149  |
47  |  Syria | 145  | 145  |
48  |  Ireland | 139  | 139  |
49  |  Iran | 125  | 125  |
50  |  Greece | 124  | 124  |
51  |  Haiti | 122  | 122  |
52  |  Afghanistan | 122  | 122  |
53  |  Portugal | 121  | 121  |
54  |  Philippines | 102  | 102  |
|  Equatorial Guinea | 100  | 100  |
|  Maldives | 90  | 90  |  |  |
|  |  |  |
|  |  |  |
Country | 2017  |

|
|

Jamaica | 63
Trinidad and Tobago | 39
Puerto Rico | 50
Saint Lucia | 38
Barbados | 30
Antigua and Barbuda | 20
Saint Kitts and Nevis | 10
Belize | 20
Curaçao | 40
Aruba | 20
Total | 7.348
Source: MacroDatos (2017)[50]

South America

Country | 2017

|

Guyana | 20
Suriname | 35
Total | 79.098
Source: MacroDatos (2017)[50]

Europe

Country | 2017

|

Luxembourg | 23
Czech Republic | 41
Slovenia | 30
Croatia | 60
Albania | 52
Bulgaria | 90
Lithuania | 48
Latvia | 20
Estonia | 22
Finland | 50
Norway | 87
Andorra | 49
Malta | 30
Iceland | 30
Slovakia | 80
Serbia | 85
Georgia | 30
Cyprus | 30
Bosnia and Herzegovina | 40
North Macedonia | 20
San Marino | 30
Total | 21.104
Source: MacroDatos (2017)[50]

Asia

Country | 2017

|

Turkey | 50
Armenia | 40
Iraq | 23
Saudi Arabia | 74
United Arab Emirates | 42
Pakistan | 43
Indonesia | 88
Bangladesh | 50
Sri Lanka | 30
Timor-Leste | 30
Yemen | 30
Mongolia | 70
Thailand | 74
Hong Kong | 70
Vietnam | 74
Total | 6.660
Source: MacroDatos (2017)[50]

Africa

Country | 2017

|

Algeria | 26
Morocco | 74
Nigeria | 49
Angola | 56
South Africa | 56
Mali | 40
Senegal | 35
Cameroon | 30
Democratic Republic of the Congo | 20
Cape Verde | 40
Sierra Leone | 35
Guinea | 30
Ghana | 38
Gambia | 30
Somalia | 60
Ethiopia | 40
Eritrea | 30
Ivory Coast | 40
Liberia | 28
Republic of the Congo | 50
Total | 928
Source: MacroDatos (2017)[50]

Oceania

Country | 2017

|

Australia | 234
Vanuatu | 221
New Zealand | 54
Total | 509
Source: MacroDatos (2017)[50]

Total 138,920

## See also

[edit]

* Colombian diaspora
* Demographics of Colombia
* Emigration from Colombia

## References

[edit]

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3. ^ a b Vidal Ortega, Antonino; D’Amato Castillo, Giuseppe (2015-12-01). "Los otros, sin patria: italianos en el litoral Caribe de Colombia a comienzos del siglo XX". Caravelle. Cahiers du monde hispanique et luso-brésilien (in French) (105): 153–175\. doi:10.4000/caravelle.1822. ISSN 1147-6753. Archived from the original on 2022-10-06. Retrieved 2021-12-18.
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8. ^ a b c Amerikanuak: Basques in the New World by William A. Douglass, Jon Bilbao, P.167
9. ^ a b c Possible paradises: Basque emigration to Latin America by José Manuel Azcona Pastor, P.203
10. ^ a b c Latin America during World War II by Thomas M. Leonard, John F. Bratzel, P.117
11. ^ Watson, Jim. "SCADTA Joins the Fight". www.stampnotes.com. Archived from the original on 24 September 2015. Retrieved 16 April 2018.
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14. ^ Radio, Blu (2018-09-09). "Chinos en Colombia: así es la vida de inmigrantes asiáticos en el país". Blu Radio (in Spanish). Archived from the original on 2021-12-18. Retrieved 2021-12-18.
15. ^ Tracy (2015-07-04). "History of Cartagena, Colombia: Spanish America's Biggest Slave Port". Atlanta Black Star. Archived from the original on 2021-09-08. Retrieved 2021-09-08.
16. ^ República, Subgerencia Cultural del Banco de la. "La Red Cultural del Banco de la República". www.banrepcultural.org (in Spanish). Archived from the original on 2021-05-01. Retrieved 2021-09-08.
17. ^ "La visibilización estadística de los grupos étnicos colombianos" (PDF) (in Spanish). Archived (PDF) from the original on 2010-11-13. Retrieved 2021-09-08.
18. ^ "Colombia: People 2019, DANE" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 2021-07-29. Retrieved 2022-11-02.
19. ^ "Afro-Colombians". Minority Rights Group. 19 June 2015. Archived from the original on 2022-11-29. Retrieved 2021-09-08.
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21. ^ "Perfiles sociodemográficos de la población afrocolombiana en contextos urbano-regionales del país a comienzos del siglo XXI" (PDF). Centro de Investigaciones y Documentación Socioeconómica. 2001. p. 13\. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2022-06-18. Retrieved 2022-11-09.
22. ^ "Geografia Humana de Colombia" (PDF). Universidad del Área Andina. p. 20\. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2023-01-06. Retrieved 2022-11-09.
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24. ^ Lizcano Fernández, Francisco (2005). "Composición Étnica de las Tres Áreas Culturales del Continente Americano al Comienzo del Siglo XXI" [Ethnic Composition of Three Cultural Areas of the Americas at Beginning of the XXI Century] (PDF). Convergencia (in Spanish). 38 (May–August): 185–232\. ISSN 1405-1435. Archived from the original (PDF) on September 20, 2008: see table on page 218May–August&rft.pages=185-232&rft.date=2005&rft.issn=1405-1435&rft.aulast=Lizcano+Fernández&rft.aufirst=Francisco&rft_id=http://convergencia.uaemex.mx/rev38/38pdf/LIZCANO.pdf&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:Immigration+to+Colombia" class="Z3988">`{{cite journal}}`: CS1 maint: postscript (link)
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## External links

[edit]

* http://www.colarte.com/recuentos/Colecciones/ETNIAS/xNorteamericanos.htm Archived 2007-12-15 at the Wayback Machine
* University of the North
* Colegio Marymount
* Colegio Karl C. Parrish
* Colegio Americano de Barranquilla
* http://www.delasalle.edu.co/Biffi_Salle/index.asp[permanent dead link]
* http://www.delasalle.edu.co/InstitutoLaSalle/index.asp[permanent dead link]
* http://lablaa.org/blaavirtual/revistas/credencial/julio2005/vuelo.htm Archived 2008-09-17 at the Wayback Machine
* http://www.vanguardia.com/unidad/uni090504.htm [dead link]

## Further reading

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* Massey, Douglas S., Arango, Joaquín, Graeme, Hugo, Kouaouci, Ali, Pellegrino, Adela and Taylor, J. Edward (2005), Worlds in Motion: Understanding International Migration at the End of the Millennium, New York: Oxford University Press, ISBN 0-19-928276-5.

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