Impostor syndrome

Psychological pattern

For other uses, see Impostor syndrome (disambiguation).

This article is actively undergoing a major edit for a short while. To help avoid edit conflicts, please do not edit this page while this message is displayed.
This message was added at 15:41, 8 June 2024 (UTC). This page was last edited at 16:17, 8 June 2024 (UTC) (3 seconds ago) - this estimate is cached, update. Please remove this template if this page hasn't been edited for a significant time. If you are the editor who added this template, please be sure to remove it or replace it with {{Under construction}} between editing sessions.

|

Medical condition

Impostor syndrome

Other names| Impostor phenomenon, impostorism
Specialty| Psychiatry

Impostor syndrome, also known as impostor phenomenon or impostorism, is a psychological phenomenon. Those who have it may doubt their skills, talents, or accomplishments. They may have a persistent internalized fear of being exposed as frauds.[1] Despite external evidence of their competence, those experiencing this phenomenon do not believe they deserve their success or luck. They may think that they are deceiving others because they feel as if they are not as intelligent as they outwardly portray themselves to be.[2]

While the term impostor syndrome is known in the public, it is not a recognized psychiatric disorder.[3] As such, it is not included in the DSM or the ICD.[3]

Impostor syndrome can stem from and result in strained personal relationships and can hinder people from achieving their full potential in their fields of interest.[4] The term "impostorization" shifts the source of the phenomenon away from the supposed impostor to institutions whose policies, practices, or workplace cultures "either make or intend to make individuals question their intelligence, competence, and sense of belonging."[5]

## History[edit]

The term impostor phenomenon was introduced in an article published in 1978, titled "The Impostor Phenomenon in High Achieving Women: Dynamics and Therapeutic Intervention" by Pauline R. Clance and Suzanne A. Imes. Clance and Imes defined impostor phenomenon as "an internal experience of intellectual phoniness".[6] In 1985, Clance published a book on the topic, and the phenomenon became widely known.[3] Initially, Clance identified the syndrome with high-achieving professional women, but later studies found that it is widespread in both men and women and in many professional settings.[3]

## Psychopathology[edit]

People with impostor syndrome may see themselves as less ill (less depressed, less anxious) than their peers or other mentally ill people, citing their lack of severe symptoms as the indication of the absence of or a minor underlying issue. People with this mindset often do not seek help for their issues because they see their problems as not worthy of psychiatric attention.[7][8]

Impostor phenomenon is studied as a reaction to particular stimuli and events. It is an experience that a person has, not a mental disorder.[9] Impostor phenomenon is not recognized in the DSM or ICD, although both of these classification systems recognize low self-esteem and sense of failure as associated symptoms of depression.[10]

## Measuring impostor phenomenon[edit]

The examples and perspective in this section may not represent a worldwide view of the subject. You may improve this section, discuss the issue on the talk page, or create a new section, as appropriate. (October 2021) (Learn how and when to remove this message)

|

The first scale designated to measure characteristics of impostor phenomenon was designed by Clance in 1985, called the Clance Impostor Phenomenon Scale (CIPS). The scale can be used to determine if characteristics of fear are present in the person, and to what extent. The aspects of fear include: "fear of evaluation, fear of not continuing success and fear of not being as capable as others."[11] Characteristics of impostor syndrome such as a person's self-esteem and their perspective of how they achieve success are measured by the CIPS. A sample of 1271 engineering college students were studied by Brian F. French, Sarah C. Ullrich-French, and Deborah Follman to examine the psychometric properties of the CIPS. They found that scores of the scales' individual components were not entirely reliable or consistent and suggested that these should not be used to make significant decisions about people with the syndrome.[12]

In her 1985 paper, Clance explained that impostor phenomenon can be distinguished by the following six characteristics, of which a person who has impostorism must experience at least two: [2]

1. The impostor cycle
2. The need to be special or the best
3. Characteristics of superman/superwoman
4. Fear of failure
5. Denial of ability and discounting praise
6. Feeling fear and guilt about success

## Epidemiology[edit]

Impostor syndrome prevalence rates range considerably from 9 to 82%, depending on the screening method and threshold used.[3] Rates are especially high among ethnic minority groups. The syndrome is common among men and women and in people of all ages (from teenagers to late-stage professionals).[3]

Impostor phenomenon is not uncommon for students who enter a new academic environment. Feelings of insecurity can come as a result of an unknown, new environment. This can lead to lower self-confidence and belief in their own abilities.[11]

### Gender differences[edit]

When impostor syndrome was first conceptualised, it was viewed as a phenomenon that was common among high-achieving women. Further research has shown that it affects both men and women; the proportion affected are more or less equally distributed among the genders.[1][13] People with impostor syndrome often have corresponding mental health issues, which may be treated with psychological interventions, though the phenomenon is not a formal mental disorder.[14]

Clance and Imes stated in their 1978 article that, based on their clinical experience, impostor phenomenon was less prevalent in men.[15] However, more recent research has mostly found that impostor phenomenon is spread equally among men and women.[1]

### Settings[edit]

Impostor phenomenon can occur in other various settings. Some examples include a new environment,[2] academic settings,[15] in the workplace,[15] social interactions,[11] and relationships (platonic or romantic).[11]

In relationships, people with impostorism often feel they do not live up to the expectations of their friends or loved ones. It is common for the person with impostorism to think that they must have somehow tricked others into liking them and wanting to spend time with them. They experience feelings of being unworthy, or of not deserving the beneficial relationships they possess.[11]

The worry and emotions the students held, had a direct impact of their performance in the program. Common facets of impostor phenomenon experienced by students include not feeling prepared academically (especially when comparing themselves to classmates),[2] questioning the grounds on which they were accepted into the program,[11] and perceiving that positive recognition, awards, and good grades stemmed from external factors rather than personal ability or intelligence.[11]

Cokley et al. investigated the impact impostor phenomenon has on students, specifically ethnic minority students. They found that the feelings the students had of being fraudulent resulted in psychological distress. Ethnic minority students often questioned the grounds on which they were accepted into the program. They held the false assumption that they only received their acceptance due to affirmative action—rather than an extraordinary application and qualities they had to offer.[16]

Tigranyan et al. (2021) examined the way impostor phenomenon relates to psychology doctoral students. The purpose of the study was to investigate the IP's relationship to perfectionistic cognitions, depression, anxiety, achievement motives, self-efficacy, self-compassion, and self-esteem in clinical and counseling psychology doctoral students. Furthermore, this study sought to investigate how IP interferes with academic, practicum, and internship performance of these students and how IP manifests throughout a psychology doctoral program. Included were 84 clinical and counseling psychology doctoral students and they were instructed to respond to an online survey. The data was analyzed using a Pearson's product-moment correlation and a multiple linear regression. Eighty-eight percent of the students in the study reported at least moderate feelings of IP characteristics. This study also found significant positive correlations between the IP and perfectionistic cognitions, depression, anxiety, and self-compassion. This study indicates that clinical faculty and supervisors should take a supportive approach to assist students to help decrease feelings of IP, in hopes of increasing feelings of competence and confidence.[17]

## Associated factors[edit]

Impostor syndrome is associated with several factors. Some of them are considered to be risk factors, while others are considered to be consequences. However, since the associations are documented in correlational studies, it is not possible to identify cause and effect.

### Risk factors[edit]

* Overprotective parent(s) or legal guardian(s)[18]
* Perfectionism[15]
* Excessive self-monitoring, with an emphasis on self-worth[2]

In people with impostor phenomenon, feelings of guilt often result in a fear of success. The following are examples of common notions that lead to feelings of guilt and reinforce the phenomenon.[19]

* The good education they were able to receive
* Being acknowledged by others for success
* Belief that it is not right or fair to be in a better situation than a friend or loved one

### Implications[edit]

People with impostor syndrome tend to be less satisfied at work and have lower job performance.[3] They also show higher rates of burnout.[3]

## Comorbidity[edit]

People with impostor syndrome have a higher chance to suffer from depression and anxiety.[3]

## Management[edit]

In their 1978 paper, Clance and Imes proposed a therapeutic approach they used for their participants or clients with impostor phenomenon. This technique includes a group setting where people meet others who are also living with this experience. The researchers explained that group meetings made a significant impact on their participants. They proposed that this impact was a result of the realization that they were not the only ones who experienced these feelings. The participants were required to complete various homework assignments as well. In one assignment, participants recalled all of the people they believed they had fooled or tricked in the past. In another take-home task, people wrote down the positive feedback they had received. Later, they would have to recall why they received this feedback and what about it made them perceive it in a negative light. In the group sessions, the researchers also had the participants re-frame common thoughts and ideas about performance. An example would be to change: "I might fail this exam" to "I will do well on this exam".[15]

The researchers concluded that simply extracting the self-doubt before an event occurs helps eliminate feelings of impostorism.[15] It was recommended that people struggling with this experience seek support from friends and family. Although impostor phenomenon is not a pathological condition, it is a distorted system of belief about oneself that can have a powerful negative impact on a person's valuation of their own worth.[18]

Impostor syndrome is not a recognized psychiatric disorder and is not featured in the American Psychiatric Association's Diagnostic and Statistical Manual nor is it listed as a diagnosis in the International Classification of Diseases, Tenth Revision (ICD-10). Thus, clinicians lack information on the prevalence, comorbidities, and best practices for assessing and treating impostor syndrome.[3] However, outside the academic literature, impostor syndrome has become widely discussed, especially in the context of achievement in the workplace.

Other research on therapeutic approaches for impostorism emphasizes the importance of self-worth. People who live with impostor phenomenon commonly relate self-esteem and self-worth to others. A major aspect of other therapeutic approaches for impostor phenomenon focus on separating the two into completely separate entities.[20]

In a study in 2013, researcher Queena Hoang proposed that intrinsic motivation can decrease the feelings of being a fraud that are common in impostor phenomenon.[11] Hoang also suggested that implementing a mentor program for new or entering students will minimize students' feelings of self-doubt. Having a mentor who has been in the program will help the new students feel supported. This allows for a much smoother and less overwhelming transition.

Impostor experience can be addressed with many kinds of psychotherapy.[21][22][23] Group psychotherapy is an especially common and effective way of alleviating the impostor experience.[24][25]

## See also[edit]

* Dunning–Kruger effect - a cognitive bias wherein people of non-average ability (both high and low) inaccurately estimate their own abilities
* Explanatory style - how people typically explain events to themselves
* Illusory superiority - a cognitive bias whereby people overestimate their own qualities and abilities
* Inner critic - a manifestation of the inner voice which demeans and criticises the person it belongs to
* "Fakin' It" (Simon & Garfunkel song) - 1960s-era pop/rock song on the subject
* Inferiority complex
* Jonah complex - the fear of success which prevents the realisation of one's potential
* Poseur
* Self-handicapping
* Setting oneself up to fail - a psychological phenomenon where someone intentionally attempts to prevent their own success at a given task
* Tall poppy syndrome - aspects of a culture where people of high status are resented for having been viewed as superior to their peers

## References[edit]

1. ^ a b c Langford, Joe; Clance, Pauline Rose (Fall 1993). "The impostor phenomenon: recent research findings regarding dynamics, personality and family patterns and their implications for treatment" (PDF). Psychotherapy: Theory, Research, Practice, Training. 30 (3): 495–501. doi:10.1037/0033-3204.30.3.495. "Studies of college students (Harvey, 1981; Bussotti, 1990; Langford, 1990), college professors (Topping, 1983), and successful professionals (Dingman, 1987) have all failed, however, to reveal any sex differences in impostor feelings, suggesting that males in these populations are just as likely as females to have low expectations of success and to make attributions to non-ability related factors."
2. ^ a b c d e Sakulku, J.; Alexander, J. (2011). "The Impostor Phenomenon". International Journal of Behavioral Science. 6: 73–92. doi:10.14456/ijbs.2011.6.
3. ^ a b c d e f g h i j Bravata, Dena M.; Watts, Sharon A.; Keefer, Autumn L.; Madhusudhan, Divya K.; Taylor, Katie T.; Clark, Dani M.; Nelson, Ross S.; Cokley, Kevin O.; Hagg, Heather K. (April 2020). "Prevalence, Predictors, and Treatment of Impostor Syndrome: a Systematic Review". Journal of General Internal Medicine. 35 (4): 1252–1275. doi:10.1007/s11606-019-05364-1. ISSN 0884-8734. PMC 7174434. PMID 31848865.
4. ^ Sandeep Ravindran (2016-11-15). "Feeling Like a Fraud: The Impostor Phenomenon in Science Writing". The Open Notebook. Retrieved 2022-03-30.
5. ^ Gutiérrez, Angélica S.; Cole, Jean Lee (2023-12-23). "Impostorization in the ivory tower: less discussed but more vexing than impostor syndrome". Equality, Diversity and Inclusion: An International Journal. ahead-of-print (ahead-of-print). doi:10.1108/EDI-03-2023-0094. Retrieved 2024-02-27.
6. ^ Clance, Pauline R.; Imes, Suzanne A. (Fall 1978). "The Impostor Phenomenon in High Achieving Women: Dynamics and Therapeutic Intervention" (PDF). Psychotherapy: Theory, Research & Practice. 15 (3): 241–247. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.452.4294. doi:10.1037/h0086006.
7. ^ "Imposter Syndrome and Mental Health". February 19, 2019.
8. ^ "Depression and the Other Type of Impostor Syndrome". 17 April 2023.
9. ^ Gadsby, Stephen, (2021), "Imposter Syndrome and Self-Deception", Australasian Journal of Philosophy. doi:10.1080/00048402.2021.1874445
10. ^ American Psychiatric Association (2000a). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (Fourth Edition, Text Revision: DSM-IV-TR ed.). Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Publishing, Inc. ISBN 978-0-89042-025-6.
11. ^ a b c d e f g h Hoang, Queena (January 2013). "The Impostor Phenomenon: Overcoming Internalized Barriers and Recognizing Achievements". The Vermont Connection. 34, Article 6.
12. ^ French, Brian F.; Ullrich-French, Sarah C.; Follman, Deborah (April 2008). "The psychometric properties of the Clance Impostor Scale". Personality and Individual Differences. 44 (5): 1270–1278. doi:10.1016/j.paid.2007.11.023.
13. ^ Lebowitz, Shana (12 January 2016). "Men are suffering from a psychological phenomenon that can undermine their success, but they're too ashamed to talk about it". businessinsider.com. Business Insider. Retrieved 8 February 2016.
14. ^ Gadsby, Stephen (2021-02-14). "Imposter Syndrome and Self-Deception". Australasian Journal of Philosophy. 100 (2): 247–261. doi:10.1080/00048402.2021.1874445. ISSN 0004-8402. S2CID 233881048.
15. ^ a b c d e f Clance, Pauline R.; Imes, Suzanne A. (Fall 1978). "The Impostor Phenomenon in High Achieving Women: Dynamics and Therapeutic Intervention" (PDF). Psychotherapy: Theory, Research & Practice. 15 (3): 241–247. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.452.4294. doi:10.1037/h0086006.
16. ^ Cokley, Kevin; et al. (2013). "An Examination of the Impact of Minority Status Stress and Impostor Feelings on the Mental Health of Diverse Ethnic Minority College Students". Journal of Multicultural Counseling and Development. 41 (2): 82–95. doi:10.1002/j.2161-1912.2013.00029.x.
17. ^ Tigranyan, Shushan; Byington, Dacoda R.; Liupakorn, Diana; Hicks, Alexis; Lombardi, Sarah; Mathis, Melissa; Rodolfa, Emil (November 2021). "Factors related to the impostor phenomenon in psychology doctoral students". Training and Education in Professional Psychology. 15 (4): 298–305. doi:10.1037/tep0000321. ISSN 1931-3926. S2CID 218827785.
18. ^ a b Ravindran, Sandeep (November 15, 2016). "Feeling Like A Fraud: The Impostor Phenomenon in Science Writing". The Open Notebook.
19. ^ Kumar, S.; Jagacinski, C.M. (2006). "Impostors have goals too: The impostor phenomenon and its relationship to achievement goal theory". Personality and Individual Differences. 40 (1): 147–157. doi:10.1016/j.paid.2005.05.014.
20. ^ Royse Roskowki, Jane C. (2010). "Impostor Phenomenon and Counselling Self-Efficacy: The Impact of Impostor Feelings". Ball State University.
21. ^ Matthews, Gail; Clance, Pauline Rose (February 1985). "Treatment of the impostor phenomenon in psychotherapy clients". Psychotherapy in Private Practice. 3 (1): 71–81. doi:10.1300/J294v03n01_09.
22. ^ Leahy, Robert L. (2005). "Work worries: What if I really mess up?". The worry cure: seven steps to stop worry from stopping you. New York: Harmony Books. pp. 273–290 (274). ISBN 978-1-4000-9765-4. OCLC 57531355. Discusses treatment of impostor syndrome with cognitive therapy.
23. ^ Harris, Russ (2011). The confidence gap: a guide to overcoming fear and self-doubt. Boston: Trumpeter. ISBN 978-1-59030-923-0. OCLC 694394371. Discusses treatment of impostor syndrome with acceptance and commitment therapy.
24. ^ Clance, Pauline Rose; Dingman, Debbara; Reviere, Susan L.; Stober, Dianne R. (June 1995). "Impostor phenomenon in an interpersonal/social context". Women & Therapy. 16 (4): 79–96 (87). doi:10.1300/J015v16n04_07. "One of the most exciting and effective treatment modalities for women struggling with the impostor phenomenon is group psychotherapy."
25. ^ Lowman, Rodney L. (1993). "Fear of success and fear of failure". Counseling and psychotherapy of work dysfunctions. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association. pp. 74–82 (81). doi:10.1037/10133-004. ISBN 978-1-55798-204-9. OCLC 27812757. "Group treatment programs have reported positive results in lowering FOF [fear of failure] (Rajendran & Kaliappan, 1990). The value of groups in countering the so-called impostor phenomenon, in which an individual feels that he or she has succeeded inappropriately and will soon be "found out" to be a fraud, has also been reported (Clance & O'Toole, 1987; J. A. Steinberg, 1986)."

## External links[edit]

Look up impostor syndrome in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.

Portal:

* Psychology

Authority control databases: National |

* Israel
* United States

|