Indian literature

See also: Indian English literature

For the journal, see Indian Literature (journal).

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Indian literature refers to the literature produced on the Indian subcontinent until 1947 and in the Republic of India thereafter. The Eighth Schedule to the Constitution of India has 22 officially recognised languages. Sahitya Akademi, India's highest literary body, also has 24 recognised literary languages.

The earliest works of Indian literature were orally transmitted. Sanskrit literature begins with the oral literature of the Rig Veda, a collection of literature dating to the period 1500–1200 BCE. The Sanskrit epics Ramayana and Mahabharata were subsequently codified and appeared towards the end of the 2nd millennium BCE. Classical Sanskrit literature developed rapidly during the first few centuries of the first millennium BCE,[1] as did the Pāli Canon and Tamil Sangam literature.[citation needed] Ancient Meitei appeared in the 1st century CE with sacred musical compositions like the Ougri,[2] and heroic narratives like the Numit Kappa.[3] In the medieval period, literature in Kannada and Telugu appeared in the 9th and 10th centuries, respectively.[4] Later, literature in Marathi, Gujarati, Bengali, Assamese, Odia, and Maithili appeared. Thereafter literature in various dialects of Hindi, Persian and Urdu began to appear as well. In 1913, Bengali poet Rabindranath Tagore became India's first Nobel laureate in literature.[5][verification needed]

## In archaic and ancient Indian languages

[edit]

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### Sanskrit literature

[edit]

#### Vedic literature

[edit]

Main article: Vedas

Examples of early works written in Vedic Sanskrit include, the core Vedas and Upanishads. Other examples include the Sulba Sutras, which are some of the earliest texts on geometry.[citation needed][verification needed]

#### Epic Sanskrit literature

[edit]

Main article: Indian epic poetry

Ved Vyasa's Mahabharata and Valmiki's Ramayana, written in Epic Sanskrit, are regarded as the greatest Sanskrit epics.[citation needed][verification needed]

#### Classical Sanskrit literature

[edit]

Main article: Sanskrit literature

The famous poet and playwright Kālidāsa wrote one epic: Raghuvamsha (Dynasty of Raghu); it was written in Classical Sanskrit rather than Epic Sanskrit. Other examples of works written in Classical Sanskrit include the Pāṇini's Ashtadhyayi, which standardised the grammar and phonetics of Classical Sanskrit. The Laws of Manu (मनुस्मृति) is a famous text in Hinduism. Kālidāsa is often considered to be the greatest playwright in Sanskrit literature and one of the greatest poets in Sanskrit literature; his Recognition of Shakuntala (अभिज्ञानशाकुन्तलम्) and Meghaduuta are Kalidasa's most famous play and poem respectively. Other famous plays include Mricchakatika by Shudraka, Svapna Vasavadattam by Bhasa, and Ratnavali by Sri Harsha. Later poetic works include Gita Govinda by Jayadeva. Some other famous works are Chanakya's Arthashastra and Vatsyayana's Kamasutra.[citation needed][verification needed]

#### Classical Odia literature

[edit]

### Ancient Meitei literature

[edit]

Main article: Ancient Meitei literature

> "The beginning of this old Manipuri literature (as in the case of Newari) may go back to 1500 years, or even 2000 years, from now."[6]

—Suniti Kumar Chatterji, Padma Vibhushan awardee Indian scholar

Some of the ancient literature of Meitei language (also known as Manipuri language) include the Ougri (c. 1st century CE musical composition),[2] the Numit Kappa (c. 1st century CE narrative work),[3] the Poireiton Khunthok (c. 3rd century CE narrative work),[7] the Khencho (pre-7th century CE musical composition),[8] 6th-7th century CE copper plate inscriptions of king Khongtekcha,[9] the Panthoibi Khonggul (c. 8th century CE narrative work),[10] the Loiyumpa Silyel (c. Written Constitution drafted in 429 CE, and finalised in 11th-12th century CE), etc.[11]

### Prakrit literature

[edit]

Many of Aśvaghoṣa's plays were written in Shauraseni as were a sizable number of Jain works and Rajasekhara's Karpuramanjari. Canto 13 of the Bhaṭṭikāvya[12] is written in what is called "like the vernacular" (bhāṣāsama), that is, it can be read in two languages simultaneously: Prakrit and Sanskrit.[13]

### Pali literature

[edit]

Main articles: Pali Canon and Pali literature

The canonical Pali literature includes Buddhist discourses (suttas), Abhidharma works, poetry, works on monastic discipline (vinaya), and the Jataka tales.[citation needed][verification needed]

### Tamil literature

[edit]

#### Sangam literature

[edit]

Main article: Sangam literature

The Sangam literature (Tamil: சங்க இலக்கியம், Sanga ilakkiyam) is the ancient Tamil literature of the period in the history of south India (known as the Thamizhagam or the Tamilagam) spanning from c. 300 BCE to 300 CE (Akananuru (1, 15, 31, 55, 61, 65, 91, 97, 101, 115, 127, 187, 197, 201, 211, 233, 251, 265, 281, 311, 325, 331, 347, 349, 359, 393, 281, 295), Kurunthogai (11), Natrinai (14, 75) are dated before 300 BCE).[14][15][16][17][18] This collection contains 2381 poems in Tamil composed by 473 poets, some 102 of whom remain anonymous.[19]

Most of the available Sangam literature is from the Third Sangam,[20] this period is known as the Sangam period, which refers to the prevalent Sangam legends claiming literary academies lasting thousands of years, giving the name to the corpus of literature.[21][22][23] The Only religious poems among the shorter poems occur in paripaatal. The rest of the corpus of Sangam literature deals with human relationship and emotions.[24]

Sangam literature deals with emotional and material topics such as love, war, governance, trade and bereavement.[25] Some of the greatest Tamil scholars, like Thiruvalluvar, who wrote on ethics, and on the various issues of life like virtue, wealth and love, or the Tamil poet Mamulanar, who explored historical incidents that happened in India, lived during the Sangam period.[26][27]

#### Bhakti literature

[edit]

The Bhakti movement was a significant religious movement in medieval Hinduism[28]: 1  that sought to bring religious reforms to all strata of society by adopting the method of devotion to achieve salvation.[29] Originating in Tamilakam during 6th century CE,[30][31][32][33] it gained prominence through the poems and teachings of the Vaishnava Alvars and Shaiva Nayanars before spreading northwards.[28]: 1  It swept over east and north India from the 15th century onwards, reaching its zenith between the 15th and 17th century CE.[28]: 1–2  From the 14th to the 18th centuries, India's literary traditions went through a period of drastic change because of the spread of the Bhakti movement in the northern parts of India, resulting in the emergence of devotional poets like Kabīr, Tulsīdās, and Guru Nānak. This period was characterised by a varied and wide spectrum of thought and expression; as a consequence, medieval Indian literary works differed significantly from classical traditions.[34]

## In modern Indian languages

[edit]

### Sahitya Akademi recognised & scheduled languages

[edit]

Further information: Sahitya Akademi § Recognised literary languages, and Scheduled languages of India

#### Assamese literature

[edit]

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Main article: Assamese literature

See also: Category:Assamese-language books, Buranjis, and Assamese poetry

Lakshminath Bezbaroa, Assamese poet, novelist and playwright of modern Assamese literature

The Buddhist Charyapadas are often cited as the earliest example of Assamese literature. The Charyapadas are Vajrayana Buddhist songs composed in the 8th to 12th centuries.[35][36] These writings bear similarities to Oriya and Bengali languages as well. The phonological and morphological traits of these songs, some of which are extant, bear very strong resemblance to Assamese.[citation needed][verification needed]

A comprehensive introductory book Assamese Language-Literature & Sahityarathi Lakshminath Bezbaroa originally authored by leading Assamese littérateur of Awahon-Ramdhenu Era and pioneer Assam economist Bhabananda Deka together with his three deputies, Parikshit Hazarika, Upendra Nath Goswami and Prabhat Chandra Sarma, was published in 1968. This book was officially released in New Delhi on 24 Nov 1968 by then President of India Zakir Husain in commemoration of the birth centenary celebration of doyen of Assamese literature Lakshminath Bezbaroa. After almost half a century, this historic book has been recovered and re-edited by Assamese award-winning short-story writer & novelist Arnab Jan Deka, which was published by Assam Foundation-India in 2014.[37]

#### Bengali literature

[edit]

Main article: Bengali literature

See also: Bengali novels, Bengali poetry, and Bengali science fiction

Rabindranath Tagore, the author of many works, including Gitanjali and India's national anthem 'Jana Gana Mana'. He was awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature in 1913 for "his profoundly sensitive, fresh and beautiful verse, by which, with consummate skill, he has made his poetic thought, expressed in his own English words, a part of the literature of the West." He was the first person of non-European lineage to win a Nobel Prize. Bankim Chandra Chatterjee, the author of India's National Song 'Vande Mataram'.

The first evidence of Bengali literature is known as Charyapada or Charyageeti, which were Buddhist hymns from the 8th century. Charyapada is in the oldest known written form of Bengali. The famous Bengali linguist Hara Prasad Shastri discovered the palm leaf Charyapada manuscript in the Nepal Royal Court Library in 1907. The most internationally famous Bengali writer is Nobel laureate Rabindranath Tagore, who received the Nobel Prize for Literature in 1913 for his work "Gitanjali". He wrote the national anthem of India and Bangladesh namely, "Jana Gana Mana" and "Amar Sonar Bangla", respectively. He was the first Asian who won the Nobel Prize. Rabindranath has written an enormous number of poems, songs, essays, novels, plays and short stories. His songs remain popular and are still widely sung in Bengal.[citation needed][verification needed]

#### Hindi literature

[edit]

Main article: Hindi literature

Hindi literature started as religious and philosophical poetry in medieval periods in dialects like Avadhi and Brij. The most famous figures from this period are Kabir and Tulsidas. In modern times, the Dehlavi dialect of the Hindi Belt became more prominent than Sanskrit.[citation needed][verification needed]

#### Gujarati literature

[edit]

Main article: Gujarati literature

Suresh Joshi is known as father of modern Gujarati literature.

Gujarati literature's history may be traced to 1000 CE.[citation needed][verification needed]

#### Kannada literature

[edit]

Kannada writer and Jnanpith Award winner for the year 1994, U. R. Ananthamurthy

Main article: Kannada literature

See also: Medieval Kannada literature and Kannada poetry

The oldest existing record of Kannada prose is the Halmidi inscription of 450 CE, and poetry in tripadi metre is the Kappe Arabhatta record of 700 CE. The folk form of literature began earlier than any other literature in Kannada. Gajashtaka (800 CE) by King Shivamara II, Chudamani (650 CE) by Thumbalacharya are examples of early literature now considered extinct. Kavirajamarga by King Nripatunga Amoghavarsha I (850 CE) is the earliest existing literary work in Kannada. It is a writing on literary criticism and poetics meant to standardise various written Kannada dialects used in literature in previous centuries. The book makes reference to Kannada works by early writers such as King Durvinita of the 6th century and Ravikirti, the author of the Aihole record of 636 CE. An early extant prose work, the Vaddaradhane by Shivakotiacharya of 900 CE provides an elaborate description of the life of Bhadrabahu of Shravanabelagola. Since the earliest available Kannada work is one on grammar and a guide of sorts to unify existing variants of Kannada grammar and literary styles, it can be safely assumed that literature in Kannada must have started several centuries earlier.[38] Pampa who popularised Champu style in Karnataka wrote the epic "Vikramarjuna Vijaya". He also wrote "Adipurana". Other famous poets like Ponna wrote "shantinatapurana", "Bhuvanaikaramabhyudaya", "Jinaksharamale", and "gatapratyagata". Ranna wrote "Shantipurana" and "Ghadayudha". The Jain poet Nagavarma II wrote "Kavyavalokana", "Karnatabhashabhushana" and "Vardhamanapurana" . Janna was the author of "Yashodhara Charitha". Rudhrabhatta and Durgashima wrote "Jagannatha Vijaya" and "Panchatantra" respectively. The works of the medieval period are based on Jain and Hindu principles. The Vachana Sahitya tradition of the 12th century is purely native and unique in world literature.[39]

#### Kashmiri literature

[edit]

Main article: Kashmiri literature

#### Konkani literature

[edit]

Konkani is a language with a complex and much-contested history. It is one of the few Indian languages to be written in five scripts—Roman, Nagari, Kannada, Persian-Arabic and Malayalam-and also has an extensive oral literature.[citation needed][verification needed]

#### Malayalam literature

[edit]

Main article: Malayalam literature

Even up to 500 years since the start of the Malayalam calendar which commenced in 825 CE, Malayalam literature remained in preliminary stage. During this time, Malayalam literature consisted mainly of various genres of songs.[citation needed][verification needed]

#### Maithili literature

[edit]

Main article: Maithili literature

Maithili literature is the entire collection of poetry, novels, short stories, documents and other writings in the Maithili language.

The Maithili script, Mithilakshara or Tirhuta as it is popularly known, is of a great antiquity. The Lalitavistara mentions the Vaidehi script. Early in the latter half of the 7th century CE, a marked change occurred in the northeastern alphabet, and the inscriptions of Adityasena exhibit this change for the first time. The eastern variety develops and becomes the Maithili script, which comes into use in Assam, Bengal, and Nepal. The earliest recorded epigraphic evidence of the script is found in the Mandar Hill Stone inscriptions of Adityasena in the 7th century CE, now fixed in the Baidyanath temple of Deoghar.[40]

The language of the Buddhist dohas is described as belonging to the mixed Maithili—Kamrupi language.[41]

#### Modern Meitei literature

[edit]

Not to be confused with § Ancient Meitei literature.

Main article: Modern Meitei literature

Further information: Meitei language in Bangladesh

Modern Meitei literature, the descendant of Ancient Meitei literature, is written in modern Meitei language (also known as Manipuri language), composed by writers from Manipur, Assam, Tripura, Myanmar and Bangladesh. The history of Meitei literature can be traced back to thousands of years with the flourish of Meitei civilization. Khamba Thoibi Sheireng (Meitei for 'Epic of Khamba Thoibi'), the third longest Indian epic poem, next to the Mahabharata and the Ramayana, is a Meitei epic poem, based on the classic tale of Khamba and Thoibi,[42] having 39,000 lines, is regarded as the national epic of the Manipuris.[43]

#### Marathi literature

[edit]

Main article: Marathi literature

Marathi literature began with saint-poets like Dnyaneshwar, Tukaram, Ramdas, and Eknath. Modern Marathi literature was marked by a theme of social reform.[citation needed][verification needed]

#### Nepali literature

[edit]

Main article: Nepali literature

#### Odia literature

[edit]

Main article: Odia literature

Odia is another ancient and rich language among the various language groups in the Indian subcontinent. Ashokan Inscriptions of 3rd cenctury BC at Dhauli and Jaugarh is the ancient unchanged evidence of Odia language. Odia language literary history started with the Kharavel's Hatigumpha inscription (40 B.C.) was the real evidence of past Odia cultural, political, ritual and social status and it is the first poetic stake inscription.[44][45] Though Ashoka created many rock edicts and inscriptions before Kharavela, his instructions for administration were written in a rude and chocked language. On the other hand, the Hatigumpha inscriptions show the flexibility of a language in a sweet flow.[46][47][48][49] The buddhist charyapadas written in the 7th century CE on the period of Bhauma-Kara dynasty . Odia has a rich literary heritage, the medieval period dating back to the 13th century. Sarala Das who lived in the 14th century is known as the Vyasa of Odisha. He translated the Mahabharata into Odia.[citation needed][verification needed]

#### Punjabi literature

[edit]

Main article: Punjabi literature

[citation needed][verification needed]The first work considered to be Punjabi literature is the 16th century biography of Guru Nanak, Janam-sakhi, written by his companion Bhai Bala. However, some say that Punjabi literature may have evolved much earlier, perhaps in the 9th or 10th centuries, based on the high level of Punjabi poetry written by Baba Farid, Guru Nanak, and Bhai Gurdas. Baba Farid (1173–1266) is often considered the first major Punjabi poet, and his Sufi poetry was compiled after his death in the Adi Granth.

Wikipedia

#### Sindhi literature

[edit]

Main article: Sindhi literature

#### Tamil literature

[edit]

Main article: Tamil literature

Tamil literature has a rich and long literary tradition spanning more than 2500 years (Sangam period: 5th century BCE-3rd century CE.) Tolkaappiyam (3rd century BCE) has been credited as the oldest work in Tamil available today.[citation needed][verification needed]

#### Telugu literature

[edit]

Main article: Telugu literature

Telugu, the Indian language with the third largest number of speakers (after Hindi & Bengali), is rich in literary traditions. Literature has existed from 300 BCE in the form of inscriptions. The earliest written literature dates back to the 7th century CE.[citation needed][verification needed]

#### Urdu literature

[edit]

Main article: Urdu literature

Among other traditions, Urdu poetry is a fine example of linguistic and cultural synthesis. Arab and Persian vocabulary based on the Hindi language resulted in a vast and popular class of ghazal literature, usually written by Muslims in contexts ranging from romance and society to philosophy and Tassawuf (Sufism).[citation needed][verification needed]

### Sahitya Akademi recognised but non scheduled languages

[edit]

Further information: Sahitya Akademi § Recognised literary languages, and Scheduled languages of India

#### Indian English literature

[edit]

Main article: Indian English literature

Further information: Indian English

In the 20th century, several Indian writers have distinguished themselves not only in traditional Indian languages but also in English, a language inherited from the British. As a result of British colonisation, India has developed its own unique dialect of English known as Indian English.[citation needed][verification needed]

#### Rajasthani literature

[edit]

Main article: Rajasthani literature

### Non Sahitya Akademi recognised & non scheduled languages

[edit]

Further information: Sahitya Akademi § Recognised literary languages, and Scheduled languages of India

#### Bhojpuri literature

[edit]

Main article: Bhojpuri literature

#### Chhattisgarhi literature

[edit]

Literature in Chhattisgarh reflects the regional consciousness and the evolution of an identity distinct from others in Central India.[citation needed][verification needed]

#### Kodava literature

[edit]

When Kodava was written, it was usually with Kannada script, sometimes with minor modifications.[citation needed][verification needed]

#### Mizo literature

[edit]

Main article: Mizo literature

Mizo literature is the literature written in Mizo ṭtawng, the principal language of the Mizo peoples, which has both written and oral traditions. It has undergone a considerable change in the 20th century. The language developed mainly from the Lushai language, with significant influence from Pawi language, Paite language and Hmar language, especially at the literary level.[50]

#### Nagpuri literature

[edit]

Main article: Nagpuri literature

Nagpuri literature refers to literature in the Nagpuri language, the language of Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh and Odisha. The earliest literature started in the nagpuri language when the Nagvanshi king and king of Ramgarh Raj started writing poetry in the 17th century. Since then, various literature has been written.[51] Although in the present century, Nagpuri was never considered worthy of literary development, a small but dedicated writers have engaged in writing short stories, plays and poetry.[52]

#### Tripuri literature

[edit]

Main article: Tripuri literature

Tripuri(Kokborok/Tiprakok) is the native language of Tripuri people in present Tripura state in North East of India.[citation needed][verification needed]

#### Tulu literature

[edit]

Main article: Tulu literature

The written literature of Tulu is not as large as the literature of other literary Dravidian languages such as Tamil.[citation needed][verification needed]

## In foreign languages

[edit]

### Indian Persian literature

[edit]

Main article: Persian language in the Indian subcontinent

During the early Muslim period, Persian became the official language of the northern part of Indian subcontinent, used by most of the educated and the government. The language had, from its earliest days in the 11th century CE, been imported to the subcontinent by various culturally Persianised Central Asian Turkic and Afghan dynasties.[53]

## Literature from North East India

[edit]

Main article: Literature from North East India

Further information: § Ancient Meitei literature, § Assamese literature, and § Modern Meitei literature

Literature from North East India included Assamese literature, Meitei or Manipuri literature, Naga literature, among others. Ancient India has many intensive examples, like that of the incredible verses translated from the Ramayana, named Saptakanda Ramayana. Choral songs known as Oja-Pali,[54] and theater performances, known as Panchali, were also an extensive part of Assamese literature.[55]

## Awards

[edit]

In contemporary Indian literature, there are two major literary awards; these are the Sahitya Akademi Fellowship and the Jnanpith Award. Eight Jnanpith Awards each have been awarded in Hindi and Kannada, followed by five in Bengali and Malayalam, four in Odia, Gujarati, Marathi, Telugu and Urdu,[56][57] two each in Assamese, Konkani and Tamil, and one each in Sanskrit and Kashmiri۔[citation needed][verification needed]

* Sahitya Akademi Fellowship
* Jnanpith Award
* Sahitya Akademi Award
* Vyas Samman
* Saraswati Samman

## See also

[edit]

* India portal
* Literature portal

* Indian epic poetry
* Indian Literature (journal)
* Indian poetry
* List of ancient Indian writers
* Literature from North East India
* Stephanian school of literature
* List of countries and territories where Hindustani is an official language

## Footnotes

[edit]

1. ^ Narayanrao, H.L. "A Brief on Indian Literature and Languages". Journal of Education and Practice. 2 (3): 46. ISSN 2222-288X.
2. ^ a b —Ayyappappanikkar (1997). Medieval Indian Literature: Surveys and selections. Sahitya Akademi. p. 326\. ISBN 978-81-260-0365-5.
—Singh, Khelchandra Ningthoukhongjam. "Ougri". History of Old Manipuri Literature (in Manipuri). Manipur University Library; North Eastern States Libraries. India: Digital Library of India; Internet Archive. pp. 81, 82, 83.
—Singh, Ch Manihar (1996). "The Early Period (Ritual Songs) : Ougri". A History of Manipuri Literature. India: Sahitya Akademi. pp. 13, 14, mni. ISBN 978-81-260-0086-9. "Again from amongst the songs mentioned above, 'Ougri' and 'Khencho', in view of their more archaic diction and much advanced historical allusions, may be considered earlier than the rest. ... 'Ougri' is referred to as sung at the coronation of Nongdā Lāiren Pākhangbā, which took place in 33 A.D. ..."
—Ayyappappanikkar (1997). Medieval Indian Literature: Surveys and selections. Sahitya Akademi. p. 329\. ISBN 978-81-260-0365-5.
3. ^ a b —Wouters, Jelle J. P.; Subba, Tanka B. (30 September 2022). The Routledge Companion to Northeast India. Taylor & Francis. p. 473\. ISBN 978-1-000-63699-4. "... Numit Kappa, a Meitei text from the 1st century CE, is particularly relevant and insightful in examining this peculiar relationship between power and violence. The text is recited as incantations during chupsaba, a cleansing ritual for 'violent' death..."
—"Shooting the Sun: A Study of Death and Protest in Manipur". Economic and Political Weekly. 44 (40). Austin, USA. 3 October 2009 – via University of Texas. "... Numit Kappa gives one such version. Considered one of the earliest known literary compositions in Meitei script, it is dated to the first century AD..."
—Singh, Khelchandra Ningthoukhongjam. "Numit Kappa". History of Old Manipuri Literature (in Manipuri). Manipur University Library; North Eastern States Libraries. India: Digital Library of India; Internet Archive. pp. 95, 96.
—Kshetrimayum, Jogendro (2009). "Shooting the Sun: A Study of Death and Protest in Manipur". Economic and Political Weekly. 44 (40): 48–54\. ISSN 0012-9976. JSTOR 25663656.
4. ^ "Kannada literature", Encyclopædia Britannica, 2008. Quote: "The earliest literary work is the Kavirajamarga (c. AD 900), a treatise on poetics based on a Sanskrit model."
5. ^ "The Nobel Prize in Literature 1913". NobelPrize.org. Retrieved 23 February 2024.
6. ^ —Indian Literature – Volume 14 – Page 20 (Volume 14 – Page 20 ed.). Sahitya Akademi. 1971. p. 20\. "The beginning of this old Manipuri literature (as in the case of Newari) may go back to 1500 years, or even 2000 years, from now."
—Siṃha, Niṃthaukhoṃjama Khelacandra (1975). Manipuri Language: Status and Importance. N. Tombi Raj Singh. pp. 34, mni. "The beginning of this old Manipuri literature (as in the case of Newari) may go back to 1500 years, or even 2000 years, from now..."
—Sanajaoba, Naorem (1988). Manipur, Past and Present: The Heritage and Ordeals of a Civilization. Mittal Publications. p. 290\. ISBN 978-81-7099-853-2.
7. ^ —Singh, Khelchandra Ningthoukhongjam. "Poireiton Khunthokpa". History of Old Manipuri Literature. Manipur University Library, Imphal. India: Digital Library of India. pp. 121, 122, mni. "The Poireiton Khunthokpa, is the most conspicuous one of all pre-Garibniwaz manuscripts. From a linguistic point of view, it seems to be much earlier than any of the books yet come under our view. Circumstantial and other incidental evidences would confirm that the book might have been of the time of the third century A. D. It describes the colonization of the valley by a band of people from the land of Death under Poireiton. They first established their colony near the Langol Hill; probably the vast area between the Koubru Hill and the Langol Hill was their kingdom. --Report on the Archaeological studies in Manipur Bulletin No. 1-by W. Yumjao Singh, pp 18-19."
—Bhaṭṭācāryya, Haridāsa (1953). The Cultural Heritage of India: Languages and literatures. University of Michigan. India: Ramakrishna Mission, Institute of Culture. p. 663\. "... The beginnings of this Old Manipuri literature may go back to 1,500 years or even 2,000 years from now. ... Poireiton Khunthok, a prose work describing the settlement of some Meithei tribes, is the oldest work in Manipuri going back to the third century A.D. ..."
8. ^ —Singh, Khelchandra Ningthoukhongjam. "Khencho". History of Old Manipuri Literature (in Manipuri). Manipur University Library; North Eastern States Libraries. India: Digital Library of India; Internet Archive. pp. 97, 98.
—Ayyappappanikkar (1997). Medieval Indian Literature: Surveys and selections. Sahitya Akademi. p. 330\. ISBN 978-81-260-0365-5.
—Singh, Ch Manihar (1996). "The Early Period (Ritual Songs)". A History of Manipuri Literature. India: Sahitya Akademi. pp. 14, 15, mni. ISBN 978-81-260-0086-9. "... 'Khencho' is quite obscure and entirely unintelligible to the present generation though it forms an inseparable element of the daily proceedings of the festival. ..."
9. ^ —"মণিপুরি ভাষা ও লিপি – এল বীরমঙ্গল সিংহ | আপনপাঠ ওয়েবজিন" (in Bengali). 16 September 2021.
—Devi, Yumlembam Gopi (16 June 2019). Glimpses of Manipuri Culture. Lulu.com. p. 25\. ISBN 978-0-359-72919-7.
—Paniker, K. Ayyappa (1997). Medieval Indian Literature: Surveys and selections (Assamese-Dogri). Sahitya Akademi. p. 325\. ISBN 978-81-260-0365-5.
—Sen, Sipra (1992). Tribes and Castes of Manipur: Description and Select Bibliography. Mittal Publications. p. 28\. ISBN 978-81-7099-310-0.
10. ^ —Devi, Dr Yumlembam Gopi (16 June 2019). Glimpses of Manipuri Culture. Lulu.com. p. 119\. ISBN 978-0-359-72919-7. "... the text Panthoibi Khongul generally believed to have been written by Akoijam Tomboy during the reign of King Khongtekcha Yoiremba (763 A.D.) ..."
—Mukherjee, Sujit (1998). A Dictionary of Indian Literature: Beginnings-1850. Orient Blackswan. p. 280\. ISBN 978-81-250-1453-9. "Panthoibi khongul ( ? C; Manipuri ) : prose narrative, the original of which was believed to have been composed in ancient Meitei language in first half of 8th century AD ..."
—"The relationship between Thang-Ta & Meitei Pung maintained by our Ancient ..." (PDF). ccrtindia.gov.in. Ministry of Culture, Government of India. Centre for Cultural Resources and Training. p. 4.`{{cite web}}`: CS1 maint: others (link)
11. ^ —Sanajaoba, Naorem (1993). Manipur: Treatise & Documents. Mittal Publications. p. 2\. ISBN 978-81-7099-399-5. "Manipur, known as 'Meetei Leipak' or 'Kangleipak' in the two millennia old Meetei manuscripts had experienced some form of constitutional government under a proto-Constitution in 429 A.D. which was reduced to a final format in 1110 A.D. Constitution entitled 'Loiyamba Shinyen' during the regime of King Loyumba."
—Singh, Khelchandra Ningthoukhongjam. "Loiyumba Shinyen – Waayen Pathaap". History of Old Manipuri Literature (in Manipuri). Manipur University Library; North Eastern States Libraries. India: Digital Library of India; Internet Archive. p. 142.
—Sanajaoba, Naorem (1991). Law and Society: Strategy for Public Choice, 2001. Mittal Publications. p. 304\. ISBN 978-81-7099-271-4. "The constitutionalism had developed with the adoption of a prototype of a constitution in 429 A.D. which was finally moulded into the written constitution in 1110 A.D., called 'Loyumba Shinyen' till it was substituted by Manipur State Constitution Act, 1947 which operated till Manipur's merger with India on 15 October 1949."
12. ^ Fallon, Oliver. 2009. Bhatti's Poem: The Death of Rávana (Bhaṭṭikāvya). New York: Clay Sanskrit Library[1] Archived 7 July 2019 at the Wayback Machine. ISBN 978-0-8147-2778-2 | ISBN 0-8147-2778-6 |
13. ^ Narang, Satya Pal. 2003. An Analysis of the Prākṛta of Bhāśā-sama of the Bhaṭṭi-kāvya (Canto XII). In: Prof. Mahapatra G.N., Vanijyotih: Felicitation Volume, Utkal University, *Bhuvaneshwar.
14. ^ There are some who claim earlier dates (up to 600 BCE). Others cite as late as 2BCE. The date of 300 BCE may represent a middle-of-the road consensus view; e.g. see the well-received textbook Ancient India, Upinder Singh, 2009, p. 15. However, it is quite likely that the songs existed in oral tradition well before this date.
15. ^ Kamil Veith Zvelebil, Companion Studies to the History of Tamil Literature, p. 12
16. ^ K.A. Nilakanta Sastry, A History of South India, OUP (1955) p. 105
17. ^ Classical Tamil[usurped]
18. ^ T.S. Subramanian (10 July 2009). "Jain History of Tamil Nadu vandalised". Retrieved 3 June 2011. "The six Tamil-Brahmi inscriptions of the 2nd century B.C. on the brow of five caverns on the Kazhugumalai hill near Mankulam, 38 km from Madurai, are the most ancient ones in Tamil Nadu and establish the historical facts that the Pandyan king Nedunchezhiyan ruled in the 2nd century B.C. and that Sangam literature dates back to the same period."
19. ^ George L. Hart III, The Poems of Ancient Tamil, U of California P, 1975.
20. ^ Iḷaṅkōvaṭikaḷ (1 January 1965). Shilappadikaram: (The Ankle Bracelet). New Directions Publishing. ISBN 9780811200011.
21. ^ Irayanaar Agapporul dated to c. 750 CE first mentioned the Sangam legends. An inscription of the early tenth century CE mentions the achievements of the early Pandya kings of establishing a Sangam in Madurai. See K.A. Nilakanta Sastry, A History of South India, OUP (1955) p. 105
22. ^ "The latest limit of Ettutokai and Pattupattu may be placed around 700 AD...." – Vaiyapuri Pillai, History of Tamil language and literature p. 38.
23. ^ "...the Tamil language of these brief records achieved a flowering during the first centuries of the Common Era, culminating in the emergence of a poetic corpus of very high quality [...] To this corpus the name sangam poetry was added soon afterwards...." Burton Stein, A History of India (1998), Blackwell p. 90.
24. ^ See K.A. Nilakanta Sastri, A History of South India, OUP (1955) pp. 330–335
25. ^ Chera, Chola, Pandya: Using Archaeological Evidence to Identify the Tamil Kingdoms of Early Historic South India – Abraham, Shinu Anna, Asian Perspectives – Volume 42, Number 2, Fall 2003, pp. 207–223 University of Hawaii Press
26. ^ Morality and Ethics in Public Life by Ravindra Kumar p.92
27. ^ Essays on Indian Society by Raj Kumar p.71
28. ^ a b c Schomer, Karine; McLeod, W. H., eds. (1987). The Sants: Studies in a Devotional Tradition of India. Motilal Banarsidass. ISBN 9788120802773.
29. ^ India Today Web Desk New (24 January 2019). "CBSE Class 12 History #CrashCourse: Bhakti movement's emergence and influence". India Today.
30. ^ Pillai, P. Govinda (4 October 2022). "Chapter 11". The Bhakti Movement: Renaissance or Revivalism?. Taylor & Francis. pp. Thirdly, the movement had blossomed first down south or the Tamil country. ISBN 978-1-000-78039-0.
31. ^ Hawley, John (2015). A Storm of Songs: India and the Idea of the Bhakti Movement. Harvard University Press. p. 87\. ISBN 978-0-674-18746-7.
32. ^ Padmaja, T. (2002). Temples of Kr̥ṣṇa in South India: History, Art, and Traditions in Tamil nāḍu. Abhinav Publications. ISBN 978-81-7017-398-4.
33. ^ Nair, Rukmini Bhaya; de Souza, Peter Ronald (20 February 2020). Keywords for India: A Conceptual Lexicon for the 21st Century. Bloomsbury Publishing. ISBN 978-1-350-03925-4.
34. ^ Das 2005.
35. ^ "The writers of the Charyapada, the Mahasiddhas or Siddhacharyas, belonged to the various regions of Assam, Bengal, Orissa and Bihar". sites.google.com. Retrieved 14 July 2020.
36. ^ Shaw, Miranda; Shaw, Miranda (1995). Passionate Enlightenment::Women in Tantric Buddhism. Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-01090-8.
37. ^ Sentinel, The (4 December 2014). "Documentary film, books on Bhabananda–Nalini Prava". Archived from the original on 24 September 2015. Retrieved 24 December 2014.
38. ^ Jyotsna Kamat. "History of the Kannada Literature-I". Kamat's Potpourri, 4 November 2006. Kamat's Potpourri. Retrieved 25 November 2006.
39. ^ "Declare Kannada a classical language". The Hindu. Chennai, India. 27 May 2005. Archived from the original on 5 January 2007. Retrieved 29 June 2007.
40. ^ Choudhary, R. (1976). A survey of Maithili literature. Ram Vilas Sahu.
41. ^ Barua, K. L. (1933). Early history of Kamarupa. Shillong: Published by the Author.
42. ^ —KanglaOnline (4 April 2011). "The great Meitei Reconciliation Process: Revisiting the classical folklore on "Emoinu Chakhong Ngahongbi" by Late Shri Ningomabam Angouton Meetei – KanglaOnline". Retrieved 12 November 2023. "... The folklore of Emoinu Celebration from the story "Washak Ngakpa" meaning Keeping the Promise, written by Late Shri Ningombam Angouton Meetei and the classical love story "Khamba -Thoibi" are classical examples of successful reconciliation process of the old Meitei factions..."
—Delhi, All India Radio (AIR), New (17 March 1968). "Some Classics of Manipur". AKASHVANI: Vol. XXXIII, No. 12 ( 17 MARCH, 1968 ). India: All India Radio (AIR), New Delhi. pp. 7, 8.`{{cite book}}`: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
—Bond, Ruskin (14 October 2000). "The Story of Khamba and Thoibi". The Penguin Book of Classical Indian Love Stories and Lyrics. Penguin UK. pp. 3, 4. ISBN 978-93-5118-814-8.
43. ^ —George, K. M. (1992). Modern Indian Literature, an Anthology: Surveys and poems. India: Sahitya Akademi. p. 258\. ISBN 978-81-7201-324-0. "H. Anganghal Singh's Khamba Thoibi Sheireng (Poem on Khamba Thoibi, 1940) is a national epic of the Manipuris based on the story of Khamba and Thoibi of Moirang. The poet composes the whole epic in the Pena Saisak style of folk ballads sung by minstrels or bards popular in Manipur."
—Datta, Amaresh (1988). Encyclopaedia of Indian Literature: Devraj to Jyoti. India: Sahitya Akademi. p. 1186\. ISBN 978-81-260-1194-0.
—Das, Sisir Kumar (2005). A History of Indian Literature: 1911-1956, struggle for freedom : triumph and tragedy. Sahitya Akademi. p. 190\. ISBN 978-81-7201-798-9. "His epic Singel Indu was published in 1938 which was followed by his magnum opus Khamba Thoibi Sheireng (1940), a poem of 39000 lines, considered to be the 'national' epic of the Manipuris, written in the Pena Saisak style of folk ballads."
44. ^ CLASSICL ODIA IN HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE. Sanskruti Bhawan, Bhubaneswar-14, Odisha: Odisha Sahitya Akademi |Government of Odisha. 2015. p. 94\. ISBN 978-81-7586-198-5.`{{cite book}}`: CS1 maint: location (link)
45. ^ Prusty, Subrat Kumar (2007). Odia Bhasa Sahitya Parichaya (1st ed.). Cuttack: A.K. Mishra publishers Pvt. Ltd, Satyabhama, Roxy lane, Badambadi, Cuttack-0, Odisha. pp. 131–8\. ISBN 978-81-921347-1-0.
46. ^ Prusty, Subrat Kumar (2010). BHASA O JATIYATA (1 ed.). Bidyadharpur, Jajpur: with finical assistance by Dept. of Culture, Govt. of Odisha. p. 22.
47. ^ Debi Prasanna Pattanayak; Subrat Kumar Prusty (2013). A Report on classical status of Odia Language (1st ed.). Bhubaneswar, Odisha: Department of Culture, Govt. Of Odisha. p. 90.
48. ^ Debi Prasanna Pattanayak; Subrat Kumar Prusty (2013). "Why not Odia?". CLASSICAL ODIA (1st ed.). D-82, Maitri Vihar, Chandrasekharpur, Bhubaneswar, Odisha, 755001: KIIS Foundation, New Delhi. p. XXI, 33. ISBN 978-81-925616-3-9.`{{cite book}}`: CS1 maint: location (link)
49. ^ CLASSICL ODIA IN HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE. Sanskruti Bhawan, Bhubaneswar-14, Odisha: Odisha Sahitya Akademi. 2015. p. 38\. ISBN 978-81-7586-198-5.`{{cite book}}`: CS1 maint: location (link)
50. ^ "Vanglaini". vanglaini.org. Archived from the original on 13 November 2020. Retrieved 31 July 2019.
51. ^ "Giant new chapter for Nagpuri poetry". telegraphindia. 5 November 2012. Retrieved 6 October 2022.
52. ^ "JOURNAL OF CRITICAL REVIEWS A Study of the Special Features of Nagpuri Language of Jharkhand". research gate. July 2020. Retrieved 6 October 2022.
53. ^ Sigfried J. de Laet. History of Humanity: From the seventh to the sixteenth century UNESCO, 1994. ISBN 9231028138 p 734
54. ^ "Ojapali – A performing art form of Assam". oknortheast.com. Retrieved 22 January 2021.
55. ^ Barua, Hem (1957). "Assamese literature". Indian Literature. 1 (1): 65–68\. ISSN 0019-5804. JSTOR 23328613.
56. ^ "Jnanpith | Home". jnanpith.net. Retrieved 31 July 2019.
57. ^ "Kunwar Narayan to be awarded Jnanpith". The Times of India. 24 November 2008. Archived from the original on 5 December 2012. Retrieved 25 November 2008.

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