Indigenous architecture in North America

Indigenous peoples of North America have established varying styles of contemporary architecture that highlight their culture, emphasizing their histories in a time where their presence in society is often overlooked. Many indigenous nations have embraced modern architecture styles when constructing new cultural centers, memorials, and museums. However, this modern appearance is molded into designs of great symbolism that demonstrate the building’s connection to countless generations of tradition. Adding accents of traditional architecture to modern buildings is symbolism in itself- it demonstrates how Indigenous peoples define themselves by their culture yet strive to become an increasingly visible part of contemporary society.

## American Southwest[edit]

Pueblo architecture is one of the most defining and lasting aspects of Indigenous architecture in the American Southwest. The original Pueblo style was based on the Anasazi people.[1] The Anasazi built cliff dwellings, beginning in about 1150 CE. The cliff dwellings were square, with subterranean and circular ceremonial rooms.[2] [1]Pueblo architecture evolved into construction of permanent, angular homes formed from limestone blocks or adobe (a mixture of clay and water).[1]They were also constructed from thick slabs of quarried sandstone.[3] However, variations in water sources and climate meant that the location that building material was gathered from was often subject to change.[3] Pueblo homes had thick walls and small windows to limit hot temperatures.[2] Houses were often multistoried, with rooms decreasing in size for every level. [1]Pueblos were often inhabited by both nuclear and extended families, with many pueblos having interconnected rooms to support this.[1] Most pueblos contained one or two Kivas belowground, which are large circular rooms used for ceremonial purposes.[2] While pueblos were often built around the periphery of villages, the most central location was reserved for a large courtyard to emphasize community.[1]

### Pueblo architecture in modern society[edit]

While most Indigenous people in modern society only use their traditional architecture for ceremonial purposes, Pueblo architecture is one of the only styles that is still regularly used to this day. In the Southwest, the culture associated with Pueblo architecture is continued through the construction of modern buildings that share many of the same features as traditional Puebloan structures. [4] Though many modern Pueblo-style buildings have slightly more color and larger windows, the traditional box-like shapes of stone and earthen Pueblos are the foundation for even the most modern Puebloan buildings. One of the most prominent examples is that of the Pojoaque Pueblo Council Chambers, designed by sculptor George Rivera. Rivera, who is also the Pueblo’s governor, designed the building using thick, angular earthen walls and a color palette of browns and tans that mirror traditional Pueblo architecture.[4] The Council Chambers serves not only as a cultural center for Puebloan Indigenous peoples, but also as a monument to their long history.[citation needed]

## Great Plains[edit]

The Indigenous peoples of the Great Plains are often recognized by the tepee. Indigenous peoples of the Great Plains were nomadic, following the great herds of bison and other big game as they roamed the Great Plains. The simple collapsible construction of the tepee meant that it could easily be taken down and reassembled, which was complimentary to the nomadic lifestyle of the tribes that constructed them. Additionally, the building materials used in tepees were easy to replace when they wore out.[5] Tepees were conical in shape, consisting of up to 10 poles wrapped in animal skin.[5] Tepees could have an interior ranging anywhere from 80 to 175 square feet, and usually housed one family. A flap in the animal skins served as a doorway, and the hole in the center of the teepee's roof allowed for smoke and heat to escape. In the Lakota culture, the four sides of a teepee represent both space and time. The teepee itself represents the world, with each corner embodying one of the four cardinal directions.[6] Each quadrant of the teepee represents one of four seasons. Together, the combination of four directions and four seasons represents the cyclical, constant nature of time's passage.[7]

Though not as well-known as the tepee, tribes on the Great Plains also built more permanent structures known as earth lodges. Though still conical in shape, earth lodges were much larger and more permanent than tepees.[6] Earth lodges were protected by wooden poles, and a deer-hoof rattle served as a knocker on each door.[6] Earth lodges typically housed three-generation families and usually belonged to the women of each household.[8]

On the southern plains, grass houses were also constructed. Similar in shape to wickiups (see "East Coast Indigenous Architecture"), grass houses could be up to 40 feet tall.[5] Constructed from thatched switchgrass covering a hemispherical wooden frame, these residences were mainly constructed by the Caddo Nation.[6]

### Teepee architecture in modern society[edit]

Though not typically commonplace amongst Indigenous peoples of the Great Plains in current society, tepees still hold a role as a cultural symbol. Indigenous buildings of cultural importance are often still constructed with the typical conical shape of a tepee. For example, the Shakopee Mdekwakanton Community Center is a large building with an external structure of cloth-like material segmented by large supporting beams, all forming the conical structure of a tepee.[9] Four Winds School on Spirit Lake Reservation in North Dakota also bases its architecture around that of the tepee. The school consists of several rooms all extending from a tall, triangular room. The central room has a skeleton of crisscrossing beams resembling the appearance of a tepee, and at the center of the building there is a real tepee used for ceremonial purposes. Another example of such a structure is the Mystic Lake Casino. On the roof of the casino, spotlights arranged in a circle project beams of light up into the sky at a slight angle. The beams all cross over each other at the same point, just as the beams of a tepee do.[9] Pointing the tepee-shaped projection up at the stars is especially symbolic, as the opening to a circle of tepees was often oriented to align with the rising sun.

## Northwest Coast[edit]

Indigenous People of the Northwest Coast constructed massive plank longhouses. They were often up to 100 feet long and 25 feet wide. The walls of the longhouse were formed from stacked planks of Cedar wood, which was cut using beaver teeth and stone axes.[5] The longhouses had low, pitched roofs in order to efficiently disperse heat, and a single door at each end.[9] There were no windows.[9] Chiefs were in charge of assigning families to various parts of the longhouse. When the longhouse owner died, the house was either incinerated or given away to a new family.[5]

### Modern society[edit]

Cedar plank longhouses are still constructed to this day, with most now using a concrete skeleton for increased stability. The Makah nation's Neah Bay cultural center in Washington State is constructed of cedar planks to match the more traditional longhouses on their reservation. The Native American student center at Oregon State University is another example of contemporary longhouse construction, with its architecture symbolizing the close-knit community aspects of longhouse living. While modern longhouses often serve as large-group spaces, they are also built on a smaller scale. Lawrence Joe of the Upper Skagit Reservation built a longhouse as a healing space, using the building to help disturbed youths become better accustomed to higher-quality living.[10]

## East Coast[edit]

While longhouses of Northwest coast Indigenous peoples were mainly constructed from parallel cedar planks, longhouses built by East coast tribes were made from tree saplings tied together at their tops to form a gridded, domed structure. This served as the skeleton of the longhouse, which was then covered with shingles or panels of bark. Multiple families inhabited each longhouse, although they were often split into compartments at right angles. Fire pits in the longhouse's central aisle were communal and were used for both cooking and heating. An open hole in the roof served as a chimney. [5]

Wickiups, known by some as wigwams, were also used by tribes of the Eastern American coast. Wickiups were constructed from the same materials as east-coast longhouses. However, wickiups were hemispherical in shape. They typically housed one family, and could range anywhere from 15 to 20 feet in diameter.[5]

## Contemporary Indigenous architecture[edit]

Through creating modern works of architecture that also highlight long-standing traditions, Indigenous peoples are able to highlight their presence in modern society and showcase their history. Colonialism, invasion, and relocation have all largely diminished the ability of Indigenous peoples to define themselves by their architectural practices. Indigenous architecture serves as a reminder to all that the culture that it is rooted in is far older than any oppression Indigenous peoples have faced.[11] It is a symbol of survival, experience, and everlasting tradition. By combining modern building practices with unique, traditional architecture styles, Indigenous tribes are able to use architecture to demonstrate both their individuality and their presence in society.[9]

Due to many years of underrepresentation, many Americans have a skewed perspective on the Indigenous peoples that inhabit North America. Additionally, many museums have failed to educate the public on how the architecture of Indigenous peoples intertwines with their traditions.[12] Work is currently being done to create architecture-specific exhibits on Indigenous peoples, with the primary goal of such exhibits being that the general public will be able to directly associate various architectural features with the cultural aspects that it embodies.[12] At the Indian Pueblo Cultural Center, a LiDAR–generated interactive display called iArchitecture allows visitors to virtually explore specific buildings connected to the Pueblo people of the region. Modern advancements rooted in education on tradition through architecture will play a crucial role in illustrating to the public how important architecture is to the culture of the Indigenous peoples it represents.

While still used by many Indigenous people, Indigenous architecture has made a transition from being more spiritually based to being more practical.[12] Though the use of Indigenous architecture as a part of modern society ensures that its influence lives on, the transition into less culturally based architecture means that the people who inhabit such buildings often lose sight of the culture that such structures originated from. This is especially true for Pueblo architecture. At the University of New Mexico's Indigenous Design and Planning Institute, techniques such as 3-D imaging and laser-generated modeling are being implicated for the purposes of not only teaching aspiring Indigenous architects, but for use in museums. The goal of the Institute is for technological advancements to play a role in engaging the public in learning more about Indigenous architecture.[12]

## Schooling[edit]

A crucial part of preserving Indigenous architecture is ensuring that there are enough institutions that have programs for it.[13] Prominent Indigenous architects such as Tamarah Begay, Rau Hoskins, Daniel Glenn, Kevin O'Brien and Rewi Thompson have been working to promote curriculums on Indigenous Architecture across North America. Under Article 12 of the Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples, Indigenous Peoples have a right to their own traditions and customs. Part of upholding this right is ensuring that there are enough educational opportunities for Indigenous architects, as the architecture of Indigenous peoples is directly linked to their culture. The University of New Mexico and the University of Saskatchewan are both institutions with undergraduate programs on Indigenous Architecture, and continued advocacy for such programs indicates that more institutions are likely to begin offering such programs in the near future.[13]

## Prominent Indigenous architects[edit]

### Tamarah Begay[edit]

Tamarah Begay has spent over 10 years working with Indigenous tribes on societal improvement projects. She is also the founder of an architectural firm owned by Navajo women. Known for incorporating sustainability into her architecture, Ms. Begay is also a founding member of the American Indian Council of Architects and Engineers.[14]

### Kevin O'Brien[edit]

Kevin O'Brien is one of the most well-known Indigenous architects operating in North America. He is known for forging a deep connection between his projects and the Earth, as well as for promoting Indigenous culture through architecture.[15] In 2018 O'Brien joined BVN Architects as a principal. One of his most famous projects, called Blak Box, is an aluminum rectangle with no floor. Used for Indigenous storytelling, its lack of a base creates a physical connection to the ground it stands on.[15]

### Tammy Eagle Bull[edit]

A member of the Lakota nation and the first ever Indigenous U.S. licensed architect, Tammy Eagle Bull owns her own architecture firm and is a former president of AIA Nebraska.[16] She was largely inspired by her father, who helped her learn to see the world from a 3D perspective and make sense of how she could combat the many injustices she observed through a path in architecture. She strives to increase the influence Indigenous peoples have in creating their own architecture, as it will allow for native peoples to decide how they want their own societies to look. Through her work, Tammy Eagle Bull has helped Indigenous peoples across North America illustrate their histories and culture through architecture.[16]

### Sam Olbekson[edit]

Sam Olbekson is an Indigenous architect with the mission of using his talents to establish greater equality for Indigenous peoples. With over 25 years of experience, Olbekson works on architectural projects for Indigenous communities. He was inspired to become an architect by the disparities he observed from growing up in a poor, largely Indigenous neighborhood.[15] He is a citizen of the White Earth Nation in Minnesota. He is the founder and CEO of the firm Full Circle Indigenous Planning and Design.[17]

### Wanda Dalla Costa[edit]

With almost 20 years of experience as an Indigenous architect in North America, Wanda Dalla Costa was the first First Nations woman to become a Canadian architect. She was inspired to become an architect after traveling the world and seeing countless Indigenous tribes living in unoriginal, generic houses. She strives to help Indigenous communities highlight their unique traditions through architectural practices.[15] She owns Redquill Architecture, based in Arizona.[18] She is also a member of the American Indian Council of Architects & Engineers (AICAE) and the American Indian Science & Engineering Society (AISES).

## Notable works[edit]

### Seneca-Cayuga Administration Centre - Miami, Oklahoma (1977)[edit]

The Seneca-Cayuga Administration Centre has a rectangular frame, with the top of this frame depicting a repeated pattern of pixelated human figures holding hands. This symbolizes the treaties made between the Seneca nation and colonial America. The beaded pattern of the art represents Wampum, ornamental jewelry often worn by young warriors.[19]

### Four Winds School - North Dakota (1983)[edit]

The Four Winds School consists of a large circular building split into four equal quadrants. In the Lakota culture, each of the four direction represents a different wind.[20] Each wind is associated with a new, cleansing aspect of life. Together, they form the circle of life.[20]

### Seneca-Iroquois National Museum - Salamanca, New York (1977)[edit]

The Seneca-Iroquois National Museum has a longhouse-shaped central room, symbolizing the peace and sense of community associated with the multi-family living conditions of a longhouse.[9]

### The Shakopee Mdewakanton Community Centre[edit]

The main structure of this community centre is shaped like a massive Tipi, complete with wooden structural beams and an outer shell with a cloth-like appearance similar to the outer covering of a real Tipi. The Tipi, which symbolizes home and community, represents the sense of community offered by this building.[9]

### UBC Longhouse, Vancouver[edit]

The UBC Longhouse resembles a traditional longhouse in shape. It is aligned with the direction of the sun's path, so that the rising sun will face directly towards its ceremonial entrance. Tribal members were involved in the creation of this building from its first days of construction. As a result, the building contains multiple symbolisms and design aspects that stem from multiple tribes in the region.[21]

### Mystic Lake Casino[edit]

The Mystic Lake Casino has 12 spotlights on its roof that all point upwards towards a central point. The lights form the same shape as a Tipi's structural poles, which each spotlight representing one pole.[5] Visible from up to 30 miles away, the eye-catching pattern in the sky represents the pride Indigenous peoples have in their culture, and their ability to make a statement showcasing their traditions.

## References[edit]

1. ^ a b c d e f Mindeleff, Victor. A Study of Pueblo Architecture. U.S. Government Printing Office. ISBN 9781555678180. Retrieved 2023-10-06.
2. ^ a b c Morrow, Baker (1997). Anasazi Architecture and American Design. UNM Press. ISBN 9780826317797.
3. ^ a b Fewkes, J. Walter (September 19, 1915). "The Origin of Pueblo Architecture". JSTOR 24521055.
4. ^ a b Ancalmo, Colin; Baez, Hannah; Budris, Noah; Spielman, Alexander, Pueblo Influence on New Mexican Contemporary Architecture [full citation needed]
5. ^ a b c d e f g h Grant, Elizabeth; Greenop, Kelly; Refiti, Albert L.; Glenn, Daniel J. (2018). The Handbook of Contemporary Indigenous Architecture. Springer. ISBN 978-981-10-6904-8.
6. ^ a b c d Olson, Paul (October 1999). "Reading Space as Time in Great Plains Recollective Architecture". Department of English: Faculty Publications.
7. ^ Reading Space as Time in Great Plains Recollective Architecture (unl.edu)
8. ^ Linton, Ralph (1924). "The Origin of the Plains Earth Lodge". American Anthropologist. 26 (2): 247–257. doi:10.1525/aa.1924.26.2.02a00070. JSTOR 660399.
9. ^ a b c d e f g Wanas, A; El-Fiki, Sherif (April 2007). "The Influence of Native Symbolism and Mythology upon Contemporary American Architecture".
10. ^ "Contemporary Native American Architecture (article)". Khan Academy. Retrieved 2023-10-07.
11. ^ The_Influence_of_Native_Symbolism_and_My.pdf [full citation needed]
12. ^ a b c d "University of New Mexico School of Architecture and Planning".
13. ^ a b Stewart, Patrick (2015). Indigenous Architecture Through Indigenous Knowledge (Thesis). University of British Columbia. doi:10.14288/1.0167274.
14. ^ Begay, Tamarah. "Tamarah Begay, AIA , NCARB, AICAE, CDT, LEED AP BD+C".
15. ^ a b c d O'Brien, Kevin. "BVN biography - Kevin O'Brien".
16. ^ a b Crawford, Michelle (July 11, 2022). "Architect Tammy Eagle Bull: An advocate for culturally relevant and responsible indigenous architecture".
17. ^ Gomez-Upegui, Salome (March 28, 2022). "Shaping Contemporary Indigenous Design: An interview with Sam Olbekson".
18. ^ Sussman, Deborah (March 21, 2018). "Groundbreaking indigenous architect signs on to ASU faculty".
19. ^ Woodward, Ashbel (November 26, 2007). Wampum.
20. ^ a b "St. Joseph Indian School - History".
21. ^ Scriver, Peter (28 February 2012). "Edge of Empire or Edge of Asia?: 'Placing' Australia in the Expanding Mid-twentieth Century Discourse on Modern Architecture" (PDF).