Indigenous science

Indigenous knowledge engaged with the scientific method

Indigenous science is the application and intersection of Indigenous knowledge and science. In ecology, this is sometimes termed traditional ecological knowledge.[1][2][3] Indigenous science involves the knowledge systems and practices of Indigenous peoples, which are rooted in their cultural traditions and relationships to their indigenous context. It follows the same methods of Western science including (but not limited to): observation, prediction, interpretation, questioning.[4] The knowledge and information that Indigenous people have was often devalued by white European and American scientists and explorers.[5] However, there has been a growing recognition of the benefits of incorporating Indigenous perspectives and knowledge particularly in fields such as ecology and environmental management.[6][7]

## Traditional and scientific

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Indigenous knowledge and experiences are often passed down orally from generation to generation.[8][9] Indigenous knowledge has an empirical basis and has traditionally been used to predict and understand the world.[10][11][12] Such knowledge has informed studies of human management of natural processes.[13][14]

## In ecology

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Main article: traditional ecological knowledge

Culturally modified trees (CMTs) are when resources from a tree are used in a way that does not kill the tree itself. Illustration of fish weir, designed to guide salmon in the enclosure to be hand selected as a way to manage the salmon population to ensure healthy runs the following year.

Indigenous science is related to the term "traditional ecological knowledge" or "TEK" which is specific category of Indigenous science.[15]

The study of ecology focuses on the relationships and patterns between organisms in their environment.[16] TEK is place-based, so the information and understanding are context-dependent.[17] One example of such work is ethnobiology which employs Indigenous knowledge and botany to identify and classify species.[18] TEK has been used to provide perspectives on matters such as how a declining fish population affects nature, the food web, and coastal ecosystems.[19]

Indigenous science has helped to address ecological challenges including the restoration of salmon,[20] management of seabird harvests,[21] outbreaks of hantavirus,[22] and addressing wildfires.[23]

## Place based sciences

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Indigenous science may offer a different perspective from what is traditionally thought of as "science".[24] In particular, Indigenous science is tied to territory, cultural practices, and experiences/teachings in explicit ways that are often absent in normal scientific discourse.[25]

Collaboration between Indigenous communities and research scientists has been described as a kind of "indigenizing" of the scientific method with Indigenous-led projects and community work enacted as a starting point for the collaborations.[26]

Climatology studies have made use of traditional knowledge (Qaujimajatuqangit) among the Inuit when studying long-term changes in sea ice.[27][28]

As well as in ecology, Indigenous knowledge has been used in biological areas including animal behaviour, evolution, physiology, life history, morphology, wildlife conservation, wildlife health, and taxonomy.[29][better source needed]

## Indigenous technologies

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The definition of technology is "the application of scientific knowledge for practical purposes, especially in industry.".[30] Examples of Indigenous technologies that were developed for specific use based on their location and culture include: clam gardens, fish weirs, and culturally modified trees (CMTs).[31] Indigenous technologies are available in a wide range of subjects such as: agri\- and mari-culture, fishing, forest management and resource exploitation, atmospheric, and land based management techniques.[31] Chaco Canyon is an example of land-based Indigenous technologies which show keen insight into the scientific and mathematical underpinnings.[32]

### Technology by area

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#### The American Southeast

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Agriculture in the southeast was based on a mixed-crop, shifting cultivation system[33] growing corn, beans, and squash together in the same mounds; an inter-cropping system known as the three sisters.[34] In this horticultural technique, each plant offers something to the others, thus improving the crop yield. Corn is a high-caloric food, supported by the beans, which provide nitrogen from nitrogen-fixing bacteria that live on their roots, and squash provide ground cover (suppresses weeds and keeps soil moist).[34] Other crops incorporated in the inter-cropping system included sunflowers or grains like barley or maygrass.[35]

## Notable scholars

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* Nancy C. Maryboy
* Karlie Noon
* Lydia Jennings
* Ian Saem Majnep
* Robin Wall Kimmerer

## References

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1. ^ Cajete, Gregory (2000). Native science : natural laws of interdependence. Clear Light Publishers. ISBN 1-57416-035-4. OCLC 610678710.
2. ^ Huntington, Henry P. (2000). "Using Traditional Ecological Knowledge in Science: Methods and Applications". Ecological Applications. 10 (5): 1270–1274. doi:10.1890/1051-0761(2000)010[1270:UTEKIS]2.0.CO;2. ISSN 1051-0761.
3. ^ Cajete, Gregory A. (17 November 2020). "Indigenous Science, Climate Change, and Indigenous Community Building: A Framework of Foundational Perspectives for Indigenous Community Resilience and Revitalization". Sustainability. 12 (22): 9569. doi:10.3390/su12229569. ISSN 2071-1050.
4. ^ Henri, Dominique A.; Provencher, Jennifer F.; Bowles, Ella; et al. (April 2021). "Weaving Indigenous knowledge systems and Western sciences in terrestrial research, monitoring and management in Canada: A protocol for a systematic map". Ecological Solutions and Evidence. 2 (2). Bibcode:2021EcoSE...2E2057H. doi:10.1002/2688-8319.12057. ISSN 2688-8319. S2CID 235519593. Archived from the original on 17 April 2023. Retrieved 17 April 2023.
5. ^ Kimmerer, Robin Wall (2013). Braiding sweetgrass (1st ed.). Minneapolis, Minnesota. ISBN 978-1-57131-335-5. OCLC 829743464. Archived from the original on 17 April 2023. Retrieved 17 April 2023.`{{cite book}}`: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
6. ^ Battiste, Marie (2005). Hsieh, Jolan (ed.). "Indigenous Knowledge: Foundations for First Nations". International Journal of Indigenous Education Scholarship. 1. Archived from the original on 15 April 2023. Retrieved 17 April 2023.
7. ^ Berkes, Fikret (29 March 2012). Sacred Ecology (1st ed.). Routledge. doi:10.4324/9780203123843. ISBN 978-1-136-34173-1. Archived from the original on 17 April 2023. Retrieved 17 April 2023.
8. ^ Reynolds, Nathaniel; Romano, Marc (2013). "Traditional Ecological Knowledge: Reconstructing Historical Run Timing and Spawning Distribution of Eulachon through Tribal Oral History". Journal of Northwest Anthropology. 47 (1): 47–70.
9. ^ Nimmo, Evelyn R.; Carvalho, Alessandra I. de; Laverdi, Robson; Lacerda, André E. B. (2020). "Oral history and traditional ecological knowledge in social innovation and smallholder sovereignty: a case study of erva-mate in Southern Brazil". Ecology and Society. 25 (4): art17. doi:10.5751/ES-11942-250417. ISSN 1708-3087. S2CID 228904326. Archived from the original on 7 August 2022. Retrieved 7 August 2022.
10. ^ Stevenson, Marc G. (1996). "Indigenous Knowledge in Environmental Assessment". Arctic. 49 (3): 278–291. doi:10.14430/arctic1203. hdl:10535/2681. ISSN 0004-0843. JSTOR 40512004.
11. ^ Traditional ecological knowledge : concepts and cases. Julian Inglis, International Program on Traditional Ecological Knowledge, International Development Research Centre, International Association for the Study of Common Property. Meeting, Common Property Conference. Ottawa, Ont., Canada. 1993. ISBN 9780889366831. OCLC 137342338. Archived from the original on 17 April 2023. Retrieved 7 August 2022.`{{cite book}}`: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link) CS1 maint: others (link)
12. ^ Kadykalo, Andrew N.; Cooke, Steven J.; Young, Nathan (2021). "The role of western-based scientific, Indigenous and local knowledge in wildlife management and conservation". People and Nature. 3 (3): 610–626. Bibcode:2021PeoNa...3..610K. doi:10.1002/pan3.10194. ISSN 2575-8314. S2CID 233643643. Archived from the original on 17 April 2023. Retrieved 7 August 2022.
13. ^ Colorado, Pam (1 January 1988). "Bridging Native and Western Science". Convergence. 21 (2). ProQuest 1437894282. Archived from the original on 9 April 2023. Retrieved 7 August 2022 - via ProQuest.
14. ^ Johnson, Jay T.; Howitt, Richard; Cajete, Gregory; Berkes, Fikret; Louis, Renee Pualani; Kliskey, Andrew (2016). "Weaving Indigenous and sustainability sciences to diversify our methods". Sustainability Science. 11 (1): 1–11. Bibcode:2016SuSc...11....1J. doi:10.1007/s11625-015-0349-x. ISSN 1862-4065. S2CID 131199874.
15. ^ Snively, Gloria; Corsiglia, John (2000). "Discovering indigenous science: Implications for science education". Science Education. 85 (1): 6–34. doi:10.1002/1098-237x(200101)85:1<6::aid-sce3>3.0.co;2-r. ISSN 0036-8326. Archived from the original on 17 April 2023. Retrieved 17 April 2023.
16. ^ Odum, Eugene (1971). Fundamentals of Ecology (Vol. 3 ed.). Saunders Philadelphia.
17. ^ Alexander, Steven M.; Provencher, Jennifer F.; Henri, Dominique A.; Nanayakkara, Lushani; Taylor, Jessica J.; Berberi, Albana; Lloren, Jed Immanuel; Johnson, Jay T.; Ballard, Myrle; Cooke, Steven J. (July 2021). "Bridging Indigenous and Western sciences in freshwater research, monitoring, and management in Canada". Ecological Solutions and Evidence. 2 (3). Bibcode:2021EcoSE...2E2085A. doi:10.1002/2688-8319.12085. ISSN 2688-8319. S2CID 237787345.
18. ^ Johnson, Jay T.; Howitt, Richard; Cajete, Gregory; Berkes, Fikret; Louis, Renee Pualani; Kliskey, Andrew (1 January 2016). "Weaving Indigenous and sustainability sciences to diversify our methods". Sustainability Science. 11 (1): 1–11. Bibcode:2016SuSc...11....1J. doi:10.1007/s11625-015-0349-x. ISSN 1862-4057. S2CID 131199874.
19. ^ Díaz, Sandra; Demissew, Sebsebe; Carabias, Julia; Joly, Carlos; Lonsdale, Mark; Ash, Neville; Larigauderie, Anne; Adhikari, Jay Ram; Arico, Salvatore; Báldi, András; Bartuska, Ann; Baste, Ivar Andreas; Bilgin, Adem; Brondizio, Eduardo; Chan, Kai MA (1 June 2015). "The IPBES Conceptual Framework — connecting nature and people". Current Opinion in Environmental Sustainability. Open Issue. 14: 1–16. Bibcode:2015COES...14....1D. doi:10.1016/j.cosust.2014.11.002. hdl:11336/56765. ISSN 1877-3435. S2CID 14000233.
20. ^ Footen, Brian. "Darkness to Dawn: Columbia River Native Tribes' Science and Salmon Restoration Success". Native Case Studies. Archived from the original on 7 August 2022. Retrieved 7 August 2022.
21. ^ Moller, H.; Berkes, F.; Lyver, P. O. B.; Kislalioglu, M. (2004). "Combining science and traditional ecological knowledge: monitoring populations for co-management". Ecology and Society. 9 (3). doi:10.5751/ES-00675-090302. hdl:10535/2996. JSTOR 26267682.
22. ^ Stumpff, Linda. "Hantavirus and the Navajo Nation: A Double Jeopardy Disease". Native Case Studies. Archived from the original on 4 July 2022. Retrieved 7 August 2022.
23. ^ Stumpff, Linda. "Your Tribal Land is Not Secure: Traditional Knowledge and Science Face Wildfire in the Valley of the Wild Roses". Native Case Studies. Archived from the original on 7 August 2022. Retrieved 7 August 2022.
24. ^ Anto., Johnson, Peter, Indigenous North American cosmological and astronomical knowledge : perspectives & teachings, ISBN 978-1-77369-702-4, OCLC 1333224828, retrieved 17 April 2023`{{citation}}`: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
25. ^ Aikenhead, Glen S.; Ogawa, Masakata (1 July 2007). "Indigenous knowledge and science revisited". Cultural Studies of Science Education. 2 (3): 539–620. Bibcode:2007CSSE....2..539A. doi:10.1007/s11422-007-9067-8. ISSN 1871-1510. S2CID 144674577. Archived from the original on 17 April 2023. Retrieved 17 April 2023.
26. ^ Hernandez, Jessica; Spencer, Michael (2022). "Weaving Indigenous Science into Ecological Sciences: Culturally Grounding Our Indigenous Scholarship". Human Biology. doi:10.1353/hub.2017.0088. ISSN 1534-6617. S2CID 263508192.
27. ^ Nicholas, George (21 February 2018). "When Scientists "Discover" What Indigenous People Have Known For Centuries". Smithsonian. Archived from the original on 12 August 2022. Retrieved 12 August 2022.
28. ^ "Enabling Resiliency in the Face of Climate Change: SmartICE is an award-winning technological innovation for the North". SmartIce. Archived from the original on 4 August 2022. Retrieved 12 August 2022. "We are the worldʼs first climate change adaptation tool to integrate traditional knowledge of sea ice with advanced data acquisition and remote monitoring technology. Our system combines these approaches to provide invaluable, data-driven insights into sea ice thickness and local ice conditions, in near real-time."
29. ^ Jessen, Tyler D; Ban, Natalie C; Claxton, Nicholas XEMŦOLTW; Darimont, Chris T (15 November 2021). "Contributions of Indigenous Knowledge to ecological and evolutionary understanding". Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment. 20 (2). Wiley: 93–101. doi:10.1002/fee.2435. hdl:1828/13751. ISSN 1540-9295. S2CID 244164214.
30. ^ "Oxford.". Oxford Dictionary of National Biography. Oxford Dictionary of National Biography (online ed.). Oxford University Press. 5 January 2012. doi:10.1093/ref:odnb/91810. (Subscription or UK public library membership required.)
31. ^ a b Gumbo, Mishack T. (2015), Williams, P John; Jones, Alister; Buntting, Cathy (eds.), "Indigenous Technology in Technology Education Curricula and Teaching", The Future of Technology Education, Singapore: Springer, pp. 57–75, doi:10.1007/978-981-287-170-1_4, ISBN 978-981-287-170-1, archived from the original on 17 April 2023, retrieved 17 April 2023
32. ^ Hudson, Dee T. (20 August 1972). "Anasazi Measurement Systems at Chaco Canyon, New Mexico". Kiva. 38 (1): 27–42. doi:10.1080/00231940.1972.11757770. JSTOR 30247773.
33. ^ Foster, I. H. T (2010). "Risk Management among Native American Horticulturalists of the Southeastern United States (1715-1825)". Journal of Anthropological Research. 66: 69–96. doi:10.3998/jar.0521004.0066.104. S2CID 163611138.
34. ^ a b Ngapo, Tania M.; Bilodeau, Pauline; Arcand, Yves; Charles, Marie Thérèse; Diederichsen, Axel; Germain, Isabelle; Liu, Qiang; MacKinnon, Shawna; Messiga, Aimé J.; Mondor, Martin; Villeneuve, Sébastien; Ziadi, Noura; Gariépy, Stéphane (3 March 2021). "Historical Indigenous Food Preparation Using Produce of the Three Sisters Intercropping System". Foods. 10 (3): 524. doi:10.3390/foods10030524. ISSN 2304-8158. PMC 8001537. PMID 33802384.
35. ^ Scarry, C Margaret; Scarry, John F (2005). "Native American 'garden agriculture' in southeastern North America". World Archaeology. 37 (2): 259–274. doi:10.1080/00438243500095199. ISSN 0043-8243. S2CID 132869989. `{{cite journal}}`: Unknown parameter `|data=` ignored (`|date=` suggested) (help)