Indo-European copula

Presence of the verb "to be" in Indo-European languages

This article is about Indo-European linguistics. For other uses, see Copula (disambiguation).

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This article contains characters used to write reconstructed Proto-Indo-European words (for an explanation of the notation, see Proto-Indo-European phonology). Without proper rendering support, you may see question marks, boxes, or other symbols instead of Unicode combining characters and Latin characters.

A feature common to all Indo-European languages is the presence of a verb corresponding to the English verb to be.

## General features

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This verb has two basic meanings:

* In a less marked context it is a simple copula (I’m tired; That’s a shame!), a function which in non-Indo-European languages can be expressed quite differently.
* In a more heavily marked context it expresses existence (I think therefore I am); the dividing line between these is not always easy to draw.

Some languages have shared these functions between several verbs: Irish, Spanish and Persian all have multiple equivalents of to be, making a variety of distinctions.

Many Indo-European languages also use the verb "to be" as an auxiliary for the formation of compound (periphrastic) tenses (I’m working; I was bitten). Other functions vary from language to language. For example, although in its basic meanings, to be is a stative verb, English puts it to work as a dynamic verb in fixed collocations (You are being very annoying).

The copula is the most irregular verb in many Indo-European languages. This is partly because it is more frequently used than any other, and partly because Proto-Indo-European offered more than one verb suitable for use in these functions, with the result that the daughter languages, in different ways, have tended to form suppletive verb paradigms.

This article describes the way in which the irregular forms have developed from a series of roots.

## The Proto-Indo-European [PIE] roots

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### *h1es-

[edit]

Look up Reconstruction:Proto-Indo-European/h₁es- in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.

The root *h1es- was certainly already a copula in Proto-Indo-European.

The e-grade *h1es- (see Indo-European ablaut) is found in such forms as English is, Irish is, German ist, Latin est, Sanskrit asti, Persian ast, Old Church Slavonic jestĭ.

The zero grade *h1s- produces forms beginning with /s/, like German sind, Latin sumus, Vedic Sanskrit smas, etc.

In PIE, *h1es- was an athematic verb in -mi; that is, the first person singular was *h1esmi; this inflection survives in English am, Pashto yem, Persian am, Sanskrit asmi, Bengali first-person verb ending -ām, Old Church Slavonic esmĭ, etc.

This verb is generally reconstructed for Proto-Indo-European thus:[1]

Person  | Present
indicative  | Imperfect
indicative  | Subjunctive  | Optative  | Imperative

|
|
|
|
|

1st singular  | *h1és-mi  | *h1és-m̥  | *h1és-oh2 | *h1s-iéh1-m  | —
2nd singular  | *h1és-i  | *h1és  | *h1és-esi  | *h1s-iéh1-s  | *h1és, *h1s-dʰí
3rd singular  | *h1és-ti  | *h1és-t  | *h1és-eti  | *h1s-iéh1-t  | *h1és-tu
1st dual  | *h1s-uós  | *h1s-ué  | *h1és-owos  | *h1s-ih1-wé  | —
2nd dual  | *h1s-tés  | *h1s-tóm  | *h1és-etes  | *h1s-ih1-tóm  | *h1s-tóm
3rd dual  | *h1s-tés  | *h1s-tā́m  | *h1és-etes  | *h1s-ih1-tā́m  | *h1s-tā́m
1st plural  | *h1s-m̥ós  | *h1s-m̥é  | *h1és-omos  | *h1s-ih1-mé  | —
2nd plural  | *h1s-té  | *h1s-té  | *h1és-ete  | *h1s-ih1-té  | *h1s-té
3rd plural  | *h1s-énti  | *h1s-énd  | *h1és-onti  | *h1s-ih1-énd  | *h1s-éntu

### *bʰuH-

[edit]

The root *bʰuH- or *bʰuh₂- (which did not have ablaut variations in the protolanguage[2]) probably meant 'to grow', but also 'to become'.

This is the source of the English infinitive be and participle been. Also, for example, the Scottish Gaelic "future" tense bithidh; the Irish imperative bí, past bhí and future beidh; the Welsh bod (along with the other b- initial forms); Persian imperative bov, past bud and future bâš; and the Slavic infinitive and past, etc. for example Russian быть (byt’), был (byl).

PIE *bʰ became Latin /f/, hence the Latin future participle futūrus and perfect fuī; Latin fīō 'I become' is also from this root, as is the Greek verb φύω (phúō), from which physics and physical are derived.

*bʰuH- was a preterito-present verb, i.e. Imperfect endings for Present, and can be reconstructed as follows:[1]

Person  | Indicative  | Subjunctive  | Optative  | Imperative

|
|
|
|

1st singular  | *bʰúH-m  | *bʰúH-oh2 | *bʰuH-yéh1-m  | —
2nd singular  | *bʰúH-s  | *bʰúH-esi  | *bʰuH-yéh1-s  | *bʰúH, *bʰuH-dʰí
3rd singular  | *bʰúH-t  | *bʰúH-eti  | *bʰuH-yéh1-t  | *bʰúH-tu
1st dual  | *bʰuH-wé  | *bʰúH-owos  | *bʰuH-ih1-wé  | —
2nd dual  | *bʰuH-tóm  | *bʰúH-etes  | *bʰuH-ih1-tóm  | *bʰuH-tóm
3rd dual  | *bʰuH-tā́m  | *bʰúH-etes  | *bʰuH-ih1-tā́m  | *bʰuH-tā́m
1st plural  | *bʰuH-mé  | *bʰúH-omos  | *bʰuH-ih1-mé  | —
2nd plural  | *bʰuH-té  | *bʰúH-ete  | *bʰuH-ih1-té  | *bʰuH-té
3rd plural  | *bʰuH-énd  | *bʰúH-onti  | *bʰuH-ih1-énd  | *bʰuH-éntu

### *h2wes-

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The root *h2wes- may originally have meant "to live",[1] and has been productive in all Germanic languages. The e-grade is present in the German participle gewesen, the o-grade (*wos-) survives in English and Old High German was, while the lengthened e-grade (*wēs-) gives us English were. (The Germanic forms with /r/ instead of /s/ result from grammatischer Wechsel.) See Germanic strong verb: Class 5.

### *h1er-

[edit]

This has been claimed as the origin of the Old Norse and later Scandinavian languages' present stem: Old Norse em, ert, er, erum, eruð, eru; the second person forms of which were borrowed into English as art and are.[3][page needed] It has also been seen as the origin of the Latin imperfect (eram, eras, erat) and future tenses (ero, eris, erit).

However, other authorities link these forms with *h1es- and assume grammatischer Wechsel (/s/→/r/), although this is not normally found in the present stem. Donald Ringe argues that the copula was sometimes unaccented in Pre-Proto-Germanic, which would have then triggered the voicing under Verner's law.[1][page needed] He explains the Germanic first person singular form *immi as such, deriving it from earlier *ezmi, since -zm-, but not -sm-, was assimilated to -mm- in Germanic (for which other evidence exists as well). Furthermore, the third person plural form *sindi (from PIE *h₁sénti) shows that this word, too, was unaccented. If the accent had been preserved, it would have become *sinþi, but that form is not found in any Germanic language. In this view, it is likely that stressed and unstressed varieties of the copula (with corresponding voiceless and voiced fricatives) existed side by side in Germanic, and the involvement of a separate root *h₁er- is unnecessary.

The Latin forms could be explained by rhotacism.

### *steh2-

[edit]

The root *(s)teh2- meant "to stand". From this root comes the present stem of the so-called "substantive verb" in Irish and Scottish Gaelic, tá and tha respectively, as well as taw in Welsh. On the absence of the initial s- in Celtic, see Indo-European s-mobile.

In Latin, stō, stare retained the meaning "to stand", until local forms of Vulgar Latin began to use it as a copula in certain circumstances. Today, this survives in that several Romance languages (Galician-Portuguese, Spanish, Catalan) use it as one of their two copulae, and there is also a Romance tendency for a past participle derived from *steh2- to replace the original one of the copula (this occurs in French, Italian and the main dialects of Catalan). See also Romance copula.

Although in Dutch this verb retains its primary meaning of "stand", it is used in an auxiliary-like function that only has a secondary meaning of "standing", for example: ik sta te koken ("I am cooking", literally "I stand to cook"). While it is not a full copula (it can normally only be used as an auxiliary with another verb), it does have shades of meaning that resemble that of the Italian sto cucinando ("I am cooking"). The intransitive verbs zitten ("to sit"), liggen ("to lie") and lopen ("to walk/run") are used in similar ways.

In Swedish, which usually lacks gerund forms, the corresponding stå is often used similarly, along with sitta ("to sit"), ligga ("to lie") and gå ("to walk").

In Hindustani the past tense of the copula honā "to be" which are «tʰā», «tʰe», «tʰī» and «tʰī̃» are derived from Sanskrit «stʰā». Gujarati has a cognate verb «tʰavũ» "to happen"; cf. Bengali aorist «tʰā-» (to stay) as well.

## The resulting paradigms

[edit]

### Indo-Iranian languages

[edit]

#### Indic languages

[edit]

##### Sanskrit

[edit]

The Vedic Sanskrit root as (to be) is derived from the Indo-European root *h1es-.

Mood/Tense | Indicative | Optative | Imperative

|
|
|

Present | Perfect | Imperfect | Periphrasatic

Future

Voice | Active | Passive
singular  | 1st  | asmi | he | āsa | āsam | asitāsmi | syām | asāni
2nd  | asi | se | āsitha | āsīḥ | asitāsi | syāḥ | edhi
3rd  | asti | ste | āsa | āsīt | asitā | syāt | astu
dual  | 1st  | svaḥ | svahe | āsiva | āsva | asitāsvaḥ | syāva | asāva
2nd  | sthaḥ | sāthe | āsathuḥ | āstam | asitāsthaḥ | syātam | stam
3rd  | staḥ | sāte | āsatuḥ | āstām | asitārau | syātām | stām
plural  | 1st  | smaḥ | smahe | āsima | āsma | asitāsmaḥ | syāma | asāma
2nd  | stha | dhve | āsa | āsta | asitāstha | syāta | sta
3rd  | santi | sate | āsuḥ | āsan | asitāraḥ | syuḥ | santu

bhū (to be) is derived from Indo-European *bʰuH-.

Mood/Tense | Indicative | Conditional | Optative | Aorist | Injunctive | Benedictive | Imperative

|
|
|
|
|
|
|

Present | Perfect | Imperfect | Future | Periphrasatic

Future

Voice | Active | Passive | Active  | Passive  | Active | Passive | Active  | Passive  | Active | Passive | Active | Passive | Active | Passive | Active | Passive
singular | 1st | bhavāmi | bhūye | babhūva | babhūve  | abhavam | abhūye | bhaviṣyāmi | bhaviṣye  | bhavitāsmi | abhaviṣyam | bhaveyam | bhūyeya | abhūvam |  | bhūvam |  | bhūyāsam | bhavāni | bhūyai
2nd | bhavasi | bhūyase | babhūvitha | babhūviṣe  | abhavaḥ | abhūyathāḥ | bhaviṣyasi | bhaviṣyase  | bhavitāsi | abhaviṣyaḥ | bhaveḥ | bhūyethāḥ | abhūḥ |  | bhūḥ |  | bhūyāḥ | bhava | bhūyasva
3rd | bhavati | bhūyate | babhūva | babhūve  | abhavat | abhūyata | bhaviṣyati | bhaviṣyate  | bhavitā | abhaviṣyat | bhavet | bhūyeta | abhūt | abhāvi | bhūt | bhāvi | bhūyāt | bhavatu | bhūyatām
dual | 1st | bhavāvaḥ | bhūyāvahe | babhūviva | babhūvivahe  | abhavāva | abhūyāvahi | bhaviṣyāvaḥ | bhaviṣyāvahe  | bhavitāsvaḥ | abhaviṣyāva | bhaveva | bhūyevahi | abhūva |  | bhūva |  | bhūyāsva | bhavāva | bhūyāvahai
2nd | bhavathaḥ | bhūyethe | babhūvathuḥ | babhūvāthe  | abhavatam | abhūyethām | bhaviṣyathaḥ | bhaviṣyethe  | bhavitāsthaḥ | abhaviṣyatam | bhavetam | bhūyeyāthām | abhūtam |  | bhūtam |  | bhūyāstam | bhavatam | bhūyethām
3rd | bhavataḥ | bhūyete | babhūvatuḥ | babhūvāte  | abhavatām | abhūyetām | bhaviṣyataḥ | bhaviṣyete  | bhavitārau | abhaviṣyatām | bhavetām | bhūyeyātām | abhūtām |  | bhūtām |  | bhūyāstām | bhavatām | bhūyetām
plural | 1st | bhavāmaḥ | bhūyāmahe | babhūvima | babhūvimahe  | abhavāma | abhūyāmahi | bhaviṣyāmaḥ | bhaviṣyāmahe  | bhavitāsmaḥ | abhaviṣyāma | bhavema | bhūyemahi | abhūma |  | bhūma |  | bhūyāsma | bhavāma | bhūyāmahai
2nd | bhavatha | bhūyadhve | babhūva | babhūviḍhve  | abhavata | abhūyadhvam | bhaviṣyatha | bhaviṣyadhve  | bhavitāstha | abhaviṣyata | bhaveta | bhūyedhvam | abhūta |  | bhūta |  | bhūyāsta | bhavata | bhūyadhvam
3rd | bhavanti | bhūyante | babhūvuḥ | babhūvire  | abhavan | abhūyanta | bhaviṣyanti | bhaviṣyante  | bhavitāraḥ | abhaviṣyan | bhaveyuḥ | bhūyeran | abhūvan |  | bhūvan |  | bhūyāsuḥ | bhavantu | bhūyantām

##### Hindi-Urdu

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Main article: Hindi verbs § Verb Paradigm

In modern Hindi-Urdu (Hindustani), the Sanskrit verb अस् (as) (to be) which is derived from the Indo-European root *h1es- has developed into the present indicative forms of the verb होना ہونا (honā) (to be).[4] The infinitive होना ہونا (honā) itself is derived from the Sanskrit verb root भू (bʱū) which is derived from Indo-European root *bhuH-. The indicative imperfect forms of होना ہونا (honā) comes from Sanskrit स्थित (stʰita) "standing, situated" which are derived from the PIE root *steh₂- (“to stand”).[5] होना ہونا (honā) is the only verb in Hindi-Urdu to have the present indicative, imperfect indicative, presumptive mood and the present subjunctive conjugations, and all the other verbs in Hindi-Urdu lack them.[6]

The verb होना / ہونا (honā) can be translated as "to be", "to exist", "to happen" or "to have" depending on the context, and when used in the third person it could also be translated as "there is/are". Many verbs conjugations in Hindi-Urdu are derived from participles and hence are gendered and numbered, and they agree with either the object or the subject of the sentence depending on the grammatical case of the subject of the sentence. When the subject is in the ergative or the dative case (seeː dative construction & quirky subject) the verb agrees in gender and number with the object of the sentence and with the subject when the subject is in the nominative case.

| PERSONAL FORMS of "honā (to be)"

mood | tense | first person | second person
singular | familiar1,2 | intimate | formal1,2,3
♂ | ♀ | ♂ | ♀ | ♂ | ♀ | ♂ | ♀
indicative | present | hū̃ | ho | hai | ha͠i
perfect | huā | huī | hue | huī | huā | huī | hue | huī̃
imperfect | thā | thī | the | thī | thā | thī | the | thī̃
future | hoū̃gā | hoū̃gī | hooge | hoogī | hoegā | hoegī | hoẽge | hoẽgī
presumptive | all | hū̃gā | hū̃gī | hoge | hogī | hogā | hogī | hõge | hõgī
subjunctive | present | hū̃ | ho | ho | hõ
future | hoū̃ | hoo | hoe | hoẽ
future5 | huā | huī | hue | huī | huā | huī | hue | huī̃
contrafactual | past | hotā | hotī | hote | hotī | hotā | hotī | hote | hotī̃
imperative | present | — | hoo | ho | hoiye
future | — | honā | hoiyo | hoiyegā
| IMPERSONAL FORMS of "honā (to be)"

Stem | ho
Infinitive | honā
Oblique Infinitive | hone
Conjunctive | hokar, hoke
Progressive | hote-hote
PARTICIPLES | ♂ | ♀
singular | plural | singular | plural
Infinitive | honā | hone | honī | honī̃
Prospective | honevālā | honevāle | honevālī | honevālī̃
Agentive
Habitual Aspect | hotā | hote | hotī | hotī̃
Perfective Aspect | huā | hue | huī | huī̃
Perfective Adjectival4 | huā-huā | hue-hue | huī-huī | huī-huī̃
Imperfective Adjectival4 | hotā-huā | hote-hue | hotī-huī | hotī-huī̃
1 the second person familiar and formal conjugations are grammatically plural and can be used in both singular and plural sense, akin to the English pronoun you.
2 the third person singular and plural conjugations are respectively the same as the second person intimate and formal conjugations.
3 the first person plural pronoun conjugations are the same as the second person formal conjugations.
4 the second (adjoined) part of the adjectival participles -huā, -hue, -huī & -huī̃ are respectively shortened to -wā, -we, -wī & -wī̃ in speech.
5 the future perfective subjunctive has the same form as the indicative perfect. It is only used with if-clauses and relative clauses.[7][8]

##### Bengali

[edit]

Bengali is considered a zero copula language, however there are notable exceptions. In the simple present tense there is no verb connecting the subject to the predicative (the "zero verb" copula) but when the predicate expresses ideas of existence, location, or possession, for such cases the verb আছ- (ach) can be roughly translated as "to exist" or "to be present".

* In the past tense, the incomplete verb আছ- (ach) is always used as the copula, regardless of the nature of the predicative.
* For the future tense and non-finite structures, the copula is supplied by the verb হওয়া (howa), with the exceptions being the possessive and locative predicatives for which the verb থাকা (thaka, "to remain") is utilized.
* Bengali does not have a verb for possession (i.e. "to have", "to own"). Instead, possession in Bengali is expressed by the verb আছ- (āch) (for present and past tenses) and the verb থাকা (thaka) (for future tense) inflected with the possessed object and a genitive case for the possessor.

Bengali verbs are highly inflected and are regular with only few exceptions. They consist of a stem and an ending; they are traditionally listed in Bengali dictionaries in their "verbal noun" form, which is usually formed by adding -a to the stem: for instance, করা (kôra, to do) is formed from the stem কর (kôr). The stem can end in either a vowel or a consonant.

##### Nepali

[edit]

The copula verb of Nepali has two sets of conjugations. The हो (ho) set is used in sentences that equate two things, like त्यो किताब हो (tyo kitāb ho, “That is a book.”) The छ (cha) set is used in sentences that describe something, or locate where something is, like त्यो ठूलो छ (tyo ṭhūlo cha, “That is big.”). Singular present tense forms of the copulas in Nepali are shown in the table below:

Pronoun  | हो (ho, “define/identify”)  | छ (cha, “describe/qualify”)

|
|

Positive  | Negative  | Positive  | Negative
1st  | म (ma)  | हुँ (hũ)  | होइन (hoina)  | छुँ (chũ)  | छैन (chaina)
2nd  | Familiar  | तिमी (timī)  | हौ (hau)  | होइनौ (hoinau)  | छौ (chau)  | छैनौ (chainau)
Formal  | तपाईं (tapāīṃ)  | हुनुहुन्छ (hunuhuncha)  | हुनुहुन्न (hunuhunna)  | हुनुहुन्छ (hunuhuncha)  | हुनुहुन्न (hunuhunna)
3rd  | Familiar  | यो (yo) / त्यो (tyo)  | हो (ho)  | होइन (hoina)  | छ (cha)  | छैन (chaina)
Formal  | वहाँ (vahā̃)  | हुनुहुन्छ (hunuhuncha)  | हुनुहुन्न (hunuhunna)  | हुनुहुन्छ (hunuhuncha)  | हुनुहुन्न (hunuhunna)

#### Iranic languages

[edit]

##### Persian

[edit]

With regard to the function of the verb ‘to be’ as a copula, the most conspicuous feature of Modern Persian language is the evolution of an existential be, hast (exists), out of ast (is). In fact, when studying the forms and functions of ‘to be’, one might find certain characteristics specific to Persian that are worth pondering upon[9]— i.e. even without considering the diachronic evolution of Modern Persian language and its relation to Ancient Iranian languages (such as Old Persian and Avestan) whose usage of the verb ‘to be’ seems more close to Sanskrit. Paradoxically, despite the fact that Persian is apparently the only Indo-European language that has created an existential be out of the copula, it has simultaneously made an extreme use of the latter to produce a general paradigm for conjugating all Persian verbs.

Historically speaking, like most of Indo-European languages that make use of suppletive roots to denote ‘to be’, Persian integrates Proto-Indo-European (PIE) verbs *h1es- (to be) and *bhuH (to grow> to become> to be). Hence, while Persian infinitive būdan (to be) < PIE *bhuH forms the past stem of the verb (e.g. Persian būd- ‘was’) or acts as an auxiliary verb in formation of pluperfect of other verbs, its present tense is solely based on the derivatives of PIE *h1es-. It is, in fact, from the declension of PIE *h1es- (to be) that six present stems have been created and assigned to the 1st, 2nd, and 3rd person singular and plural to act as the present-tense conjugation of Persian būdan (to be), as shown in the following table.

| Persian | English | Persian | English

|
|
|
|

1st Person  | -am | (I) am | -īm | (we) are
2nd Person  | -ī | (thou) art | -īd | (you) are
3rd Person  | ast (a) | (he/she/it) is | -and | (they) are

As an example, in the following sentences, the present forms of the verb 'to be' are used as copulas or predicates:

Persian  | English

|

man doxtar-e to am. | I am thy daughter.
īn barādar-e man ast (a or e). | This is my brother.
to pedar-e man ī. | Thou art my father.

Furthermore, as endings added to the stem of the verbs, these declensional forms have been grammaticalized to shape a general paradigm for the grammatical conjugation of all other verbs; these endings were once auxiliary verbs which evolved into an enclitic. This generalized conjugational paradigm is also applied to the past tense of the verb būdan (shown in the table below). However, what is linguistically notable, is the emergence of an existential be out of the copula, viz hast (exists) out of ast (is). The evolution of this exceptional form, might go back to ancient Iranian languages, where ast could have two variants (cf. Avestan which has both as- and has- <PIE *h1es- ‘be’). In the next phase, what we may call a pseudo-verb appeared, vis. the verb hastan (to exist) has been analogically evolved from hast (exists) and has been conjugated like any other Persian verb (e.g. hast-am = literally: *‘(I) am existence’→ ‘I exist’).

The simple past conjugation of the verb būdan (to be) is in fact formed by a double-copula, in the sense that both the stem and the ending are copulas: the past stem of the verb būd- is derived from PIE *bhuH-, while the endings are from the suppletive form of PIE *h1es- (to be) with the exception of 3rd person singular which has zero ending for the all Persian verbs in the past tense.

Singular  | English | Enclitic copula | Plural  | English | Enclitic copula

|
|
|
|
|

būdam | I was | ام -am | būdīm | we were | ايم -īm
būdī | thou wast | اى -ī | būdīd | you were | اید -īd
būd (būda)  | he/she/it was | Ø (a) | būdand | they were | اند -and

The present perfect conjugation of the verb būdan (to be) is a double copula paradigm as it is produced by addition of all enclitic copulas to the past participle of the verb: būde (been).

Singular  | English | Enclitic copula | Plural  | English | Enclitic copula

|
|
|
|
|

būdeam | I have been | -am | būdeīm | we have been | -īm
būdeī | thou hast been | -ī | būdeīd | you have been | -īd
būde ast (būde a)  | he/she/it has been | ast (a) | būdeand | they have been | -and

The pseudo-verb hastan (to exist) has only simple present tense; in addition, it is truly and purely existencial only in the case of third person singular (hast). The fact is that the verb has been the product of this very case, as an "existential is", hast (he/she/it exists). For other persons the conjugation has to use enclitic copulas. These copulas are, in turn, derived from the declension of PIE *h1es- (to be); as if the predicative "to be" has been an auxiliary verb turned into enclitic, to provide six endings for 1st/2nd/3rd person (singular & plural). However, as it is said, the 3rd person singular has no ending in the case of hastan. That is to say that the existential hast (exists), which is like the alter-ego of the copula ast (is), takes no ending, while the present stem of all other verbs take an archaic ending -ad in their 3rd person singular.

Singular  | English | Enclitic copula | Plural  | English | Enclitic copula

|
|
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|

hastam | I exist | -am | hastīm | we exist | -īm
hastī | thou existest | -ī | hastīd | you exist | -īd
hast | he/she/it exists | {ad} > Ø (a) | hastand | they exist | -and

### Hellenic languages

[edit]

#### Greek

[edit]

The Ancient Greek verb eimi (I am) is derived from the Indo-European root *h1es-.

| Homeric Greek | Classical Attic | Modern Greek

|
|
|

Present indicative | 1st sg.
2nd sg.
3rd sg.
1st pl.
2nd pl.
3rd pl.  | εἰμί (eimi)
εἶς, ἐσσί (eis, essi)
ἐστί(ν) (esti(n))
εἰμέν (eimen)
ἐστέ (este)
εἰσί(ν), ἔασι (eisi(n), easi)  | εἰμί (eimi)
εἶ (ei)
ἐστί(ν) (esti(n))
ἐσμέν (esmen)
ἐστέ (este)
εἰσί(ν) (eisi(n))  | είμαι (ime)
είσαι (ise)
είναι (ine)
είμαστε (imaste)
είστε (iste)
είναι (ine)
Preterite indicative | 1st sg.
2nd sg.
3rd sg.
1st pl.
2nd pl.
3rd pl.  | ἦα, ἔον (ēa, eon)
ἦσθα, ἔησθα (ēstha, eēstha)
ἦ(ε)ν, ἔην (ē(e)n, eēn)
ἦμεν (ēmen)
ἦτε (ēte)
ἦσαν (ēsan)  | ἦ(ν) (ē(n))
ἦς, ἦσθα (ēs, ēstha)
ἦν (ēn)
ἦμεν (ēmen)
ἦστε, ἔατε (ēste, eate)
ἦσαν ἔσαν (ēsan, esan)  | ήμουν (imun)
ήσουν (isun)
ήταν (itan)
ήμασταν (imaste, imastan)
ήσασταν (isaste, isastan)
ήταν, (ήσαν) (itan, [isan])
Subjunctive | 1st sg.
2nd sg.
3rd sg.
1st pl.
2nd pl.
3rd pl.  | ἔω (eō)
ἔῃς, ἔοις (eēis, eois)
ἔῃ(σι), ᾖσι(ν), ἔοι (eēi(si), ēisi(n), eoi)

ἔωσι(ν) (eōsi(n))  | ὦ (ō)
ᾖς (ēis)
ᾖ (ēi)
ὦμεν (ōmen)
ἦτε (ēte)
ὦσι(ν) (ōsi(n))  | να είμαι (na ime)
να είσαι (na ise)
να είναι (na ine)
να είμαστε (na imaste)
να είσαστε (na isaste)
να είναι (na ine)
Optative | 1st sg.
2nd sg.
3rd sg.
1st pl.
2nd pl.
3rd pl.  | εἴην (eiēn)
εἴης (eiēs)
εἴη (eiē)

εἶτε (eite)
εἶεν (eien)  | εἴην (eiēn)
εἴης (eiēs)
εἴη (eiē)
εἴημεν, εἶμεν (ei(ē)men)
εἴητε, εἶτε (ei(ē)te)
εἴησαν, εἶεν (eiēsan, eien)  |
Imperative | 2nd sg.
3rd sg.
2nd pl.
3rd pl.  | ἔσσο, ἴσθι (esso, isthi)

ἔστε (este)  | ἴσθι (isthi)
ἔστω (estō)
ἔστε (este)
ἔστων, ὄντων (estōn, ontōn)  |

Infinitive |  | εἶναι, ἔμ(μ)εν(αι) (einai, em(m)en(ai))  | εἶναι (einai)  |
Participle |  | ἐών, ἐόντ- (eōn, eont-)
fem. ἐοῦσα (eousa)  | ὦν, ὄντ- (ōn, ont-)
fem. οὖσα (ousa)  | όντας (ontas)

Dual is not shown in the table.

The participles are based on the full-grade stem ἐσ- in Homeric, according to Smyth.

### Italic languages

[edit]

Further information: Romance copula

Except for Latin, the older Italic languages are very scarcely attested, but we have in Oscan set (they are), fiiet (they become), fufans (they have been) and fust (he will be), and in Umbrian sent (they are). This section will explain Latin, and the Romance languages that have evolved from it.

Esse and the forms beginning with (e)s- are from the root *h1es-, while the forms beginning with f- are from the root *bʰuH-. For the forms beginning with er-, see *h₁er-. Stāre is derived from the root *steh2-.

In Spanish, Catalan, Galician-Portuguese and to a lesser extent, Italian there are two parallel paradigms, ser/èsser/essere from Latin esse "to be" on the one hand, and estar/stare from Latin stare, "to stand" on the other.

In several modern Romance languages, the perfect is a compound tense formed with the past participle as in English, but the old Latin perfect survives as a commonly used preterite in Spanish and Portuguese, and as a literary "past historic" in French, Italian and Catalan.

There is a tendency for a past participle derived from stare (or more specifically its supine, statum) to replace that of the main copula derived from esse. For example, the French participle été comes from statum.

| Latin | Old French | French | Spanish | Italian | Portuguese | Catalan | Romanian | Sicilian | Occitan

|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|

Infinitive  | esse | stāre | estre | ester | être | ser | estar | essere | stare | ser | estar | ser, ésser | estar | a fi, fire | siri | stari | estre,èsser
Indicative  | Present  | sum

est

sumus

estis

sunt

| stō

stās

stat

stāmus

stātis

stant

| suis

est

sommes

estes

sont

| este

estes

este

estons

estez

estent

| suis

est

sommes

êtes

sont

| soy

eres/sos

somos

sois

son

| estoy

estás

está

estamos

estáis

están

| sono

sei

siamo

siete

sono

| sto

stai

sta

stiamo

state

stanno

| sou

somos

sois

são

| estou

estás

está

estamos

estais

estão

| sóc

ets

som

sou

són

| estic

estàs

està

estem

esteu

estan

| sunt
eşti
este
suntem

sunteţi

sunt

| sugnu

esti

simu

siti

| staiu

stai

sta

stamu

stati

stannu

| soi

sès

sèm

sètz

son

Preterite  | fuī

fuistī

fuit

fuimus

fuistis

fuērunt/fuēre

| stetī

stetistī

stetit

stetimus

stetistis

stetērunt/stetēre

| fui

fus

fumes

fustes

furent

| estai

estas

esta

estames

estastes

esterent

| fus

fus

fut

fûmes

fûtes

furent

| fui

fuiste

fue

fuimos

fuisteis

fueron

| estuve

estuviste

estuvo

estuvimos

estuvisteis

estuvieron

| fui

fosti

fummo

foste

furono

| stetti

stesti

stette

stemmo

steste

stettero

| fui

foste

foi

fomos

fostes

foram

| estive

estiveste

esteve

estivemos

estivestes

estiveram

| fui

fores

fou

fórem

fóreu

foren

| estiguí

estugueres

estigué

estiguérem

estiguéreu

estigueren

| fusei/fui

fuseși/fuși

fuse/fu

fuserăm/furăm

fuserăți/furăți

fuseră/fură

| fui

fusti

fumu

fùstivu

furu

| stesi

stasti

stesi

stèsimu

stàsivu

stèsiru

| foguèri

foguères

foguèt

foguèrem

foguèretz

foguèron

Imperfect | eram

erās

erat

erāmus

erātis

erant

| stābam

stābās

stābat

stābāmus

stābātis

stābant

| ier

iers

iert

iermes

seroiz

ierent

| estoie

estoies

estoit

estiens

estiez

estoient

| étais

étais

était

étions

étiez

étaient

| era

eras

era

éramos

erais

eran

| estaba

estabas

estaba

estábamos

estabais

estaban

| ero

eri

era

eravamo

eravate

erano

| stavo

stavi

stava

stavamo

stavate

stavano

| era

eras

era

éramos

éreis

eram

| estava

estavas

estava

estávamos

estaveis

estavam

| era

eres

era

érem

éreu

eren

| estava

estaves

estava

estàvem

estàveu

estaven

| eram

erai

era

eram

erați

erau

| era

eri

era

èramu

èravu

èranu

| stava

stavi

stava

stàvamu

stàstivu

stàvanu

| èri

èras

èra

èram

èratz

èran

Pluperfect  | fueram

fuerās

fuerat

fuerāmus

fuerātis

fuerant

| steteram

steterās

steterāt

steterāmus

steterātis

steterant

| -

| -

| -

| -

| -

| -

| -

| fora

foras

fora

fôramos

fôreis

foram

| estivera

estiveras

estivera

estivéramos

estivéreis

estiveram

| -

| -

| fusesem

fuseseși

fusese

fuseserăm

fuseserăți

fuseseră

| -

| -

| -

Future | erō

eris/ere

erit

erimus

eritis

erunt

| stābō

stābis

stābit

stābimus

stābitis

stabunt

| serai

seras

sera

serons

serez

seront

| esterai | serai

seras

sera

serons

serez

seront

| seré

serás

será

seremos

seréis

serán

| estaré

estarás

estará

estaremos

estaréis

estarán

| sarò

sarai

sarà

saremo

sarete

saranno

| starò

starai

starà

staremo

starete

staranno

| serei

serás

será

seremos

sereis

serão

| estarei

estarás

estará

estaremos

estareis

estarão

| seré

seràs

serà

serem

sereu

seram

| estaré

estaràs

estarà

estarem

estareu

estaran

| voi fi

vei fi

va fi

vom fi

veți fi

vor fi

| -

| -

| serai

seràs

serà

serem

seretz

seràn

Future Perfect  | fuerō

fueris

fuerit

fuerimus

fueritis

fuerint

| steterō

steteris

steterit

steterimus

steteritis

steterint

| -

| -

| -

| -

| -

| -

| -

| -

| -

| -

| -

| -

| -

| -

| -

Subjunctive  | Present  | sim

sīs

sit

sīmus

sītis

sint

| stem

stēs

stet

stēmus

stētis

stent

| soie

soies

soit

soions

soiiez

soient

| estoise

estoises

estoise

estons

estez

estoisent

| sois

sois

soit

soyons

soyez

soient

| sea

seas

sea

seamos

seáis

sean

| esté

estés

esté

estemos

estéis

estén

| sia

sia

sia

siamo

siate

siano

| stia

stia

stia

stiamo

stiate

stiano

| seja

sejas

seja

sejamos

sejais

sejam

| esteja

estejas

esteja

estejamos

estejais

estejam

| sigui/siga

siguis/sigues

sigui/siga

siguem

sigueu

siguin/siguen

| estigui/estiga

estiguis/estugues

estugui/estiga

estiguem

estigueu

estiguin/estiguen

| să fiu

să fii

să fie

să fim

să fiți

să fie

| fussi

fussi

fussi

fùssimu

fùssivu

fùssiru

| stassi

stassi

stassi

stàssimu

stàssivu

stàssiru

| siá

siás

siá

siam

siatz

sián

Imperfect  | essem/forem

essēs/forēs

esset/foret

essēmus/forēmus

essetis/forētis

essent/forent

| stārem

stārēs

stāret

stārēmus

stārētis

stārent

| fusse

fusses

fust

fussons

fussiez

fussent

| esteüsse

esteüsses

esteüst

esteüssons

esteüssoiz

esteüssent

| fusse

fusses

fût

fussions

fussiez

fussent

| fuera/fuese

fueras/fueses

fuera/fuese

fuéramos/fuésemos

fuerais/fueseis

fueran/fuesen

| estuviera/estuviese

estuvieras/estuvieses

estuviera/estuviese

estuviéramos/estuviésemos

estuvierais/estuvieseis

estuvieran/estuviesen

| fossi

fossi

fosse

fossimo

foste

fossero

| stessi

stessi

stesse

stessimo

steste

stessero

| fosse

fosses

fosse

fôssemos

fôsseis

fossem

| estivesse

estivesses

estivesse

estivéssemos

estivésseis

estivessem

| fos

fossis

fos

fóssim/fóssem

fóssiu/fósseu

fossin/fossen

| estigués

estiguessis

estigués

estiguéssim/estiguéssem

estiguéssiu/estiguésseu

estiguessin/estiguessen

| să fi fost

să fi fost

să fi fost

să fi fost

să fi fost

să fi fost

| fussi

fussi

fussi

fùssimu

fùssivu

fùssiru

| stassi

stassi

stassi

stàssimu

stàssivu

stàssiru

| foguèsse

foguèsses

foguèsse

foguèssem

foguèssetz

foguèsson

Future  | -

| -

| -

| -

| -

| fuere

fueres

fuere

fuéremos

fuereis

fueren

| estuviere

estuvieres

estuviere

estuviéremos

estuviereis

estuvieren

| -

| -

| for

fores

for

formos

fordes

forem

| estiver

estiveres

estiver

estivermos

estiverdes

estiverem

| -

| -

| -

| -

| -

| -

Conditional  | -

| -

| seroie

seroies

seroit

seriens

seriez

seroient

| esteroie

esteroies

esteroit

esteriiens

esteriiez

esteroient

| serais

serais

serait

serions

seriez

seraient

| sería

serías

sería

seríamos

seríais

serían

| estaría

estarías

estaría

estaríamos

estaríais

estarían

| sarei

saresti

sarebbe

saremmo

sareste

sarebbero

| starei

staresti

starebbe

staremmo

stareste

starebbero

| seria

serias

seria

seríamos

seríeis

seriam

| estaria

estarias

estaria

estaríamos

estaríeis

estariam

| seria/fóra

series/fores

seria/fóra

seríem/fórem

seríeu/fóreu

serien/foren

| estaria

estaries

estaria

estaríem

estaríeu

estarien

| aș fi

ai fi

ar fi

am fi

ați fi

ar fi

| fora

fori

fora

fòramu

fòravu

fòranu

| -

| -

Imperative  | Present  | -

este

| -

stā

stāte

| -

soies

soiiens

soiiez

| -

esta

estons

estez

| -

sois

soyons

soyez

| -

seamos

sed/sean

| -

está

estemos

estad/estén

| -

sii

siate

| -

sta

state

| -

sede

| -

está

estai

| -

sigues

sigueu/sigau

| -

estigues

estigueu/estigau

| -

fii

fiți

| -

siti

| -

stai

stati

| -

siá

siam

siatz

Future  | -

estō

estō

estōte

suntō

| -

stātō

stātō

stātōte

stantō

| -

| -

| -

| -

| -

| -

| -

| -

| -

| -

| -

| -

| -

| -

| -

Past participle  | fuisse | statum | esté | esté | été | sido | estado | stato/essuto | stato | sido | estado | estat/sigut/sét | estat | fost | statu | statu | estat, estada
Present Participle  | esse | stāns | estant | estant | étant | siendo | estando | essendo | stando | sendo | estando | sent/essent | estant | fiind | sennu | sannu | essent
| Latin | Old French | French | Spanish | Italian | Portuguese | Catalan | Romanian | Sicilian | Occitan

### Germanic languages

[edit]

Main article: Germanic verb

The proto-Germanic verb for 'to be', *wesaną, and its conjugations are mostly derived from the Proto-Indo-European verb *h2wes (‘stay overnight, camp’). The present subjunctive stem is derived from the optative of *h1es-. West Germanic languages also have an additional stem *bi- (such as 'to be' in English), which is thought to derive from the PIE stem *bʰuh₂- ('become').[10] Proto-Germanic retained the dual, but only in the first and second person.

| Proto-Germanic
(reconstructed)  | Gothic | Old Norse | Icelandic | Faroese | Norwegian
Nynorsk | Norwegian
Bokmål +
Danish | Old Swedish | Swedish | Old English | English | Old High
German | German | Luxem-
burgish | Old Saxon | Dutch

|
|
|
|
|
|
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|
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|
|
|
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|
|
|

Infinitive | *wesaną  | *beuną?  | wisan  | vera  | vera  | vera  | vera/vere  | være  | vara  | vara  | wesan  | bēon  | be  | wesan  | sein  | sinn  | wesan  | zijn/wezen
Present
indicative | *immi
*izi
*isti
*izū
*izudiz
*izum
*izud
*sindi  | *biumi
*biusi
*biuþi
*beū?
*biuþiz
*beum
*beuþ
*biunþi  | im

ist
siju
sijuts
sijum
sijuþ
sind  | em
ert (est)
er (es)

erum
eruð
eru  | er
ert

erum
eruð
eru  | eri
ert

eru
eru
eru  | er

er  | er

er  | æm/ær
æst

ærum
ærin
æru  | är (äm)
är (äst)

är (äro)
är (ären)
är (äro)  | eom
eart

sint
sint
sint  | bēo
bist
biþ

bēoþ
bēoþ
bēoþ  | am
art

are
are
are  | bim, bin
bist
ist

birum, bir(e)n
birut, bir(e)t
sint  | bin
bist
ist

sind
seid
sind  | si(nn)
bass
ass

si(nn)
sidd
si(nn)  | bium
bist

sind
sind
sind  | ben

zijn
bent/zijt*
zijn
Present
subjunctive | *sijǭ
*sijēs
*sijē
*sīw
*sīþiz
*sīm
*sīþ
*sīn  | *biwjǭ?
*biwjēs?
*biwjē?
*biwīw
*biwīþiz
*biwīm
*biwīþ
*biwīn
| sijau
sijais
sijai
sijaiwa
sijaits
sijaima
sijaiþ
sijaina  | sjá
sér

sém
séð
sé  | sé
sért

séum
séuð
séu  | veri
veri
veri

veri
veri
veri  | –

(vere)

–  | –

(være)

–  | –

sē(i)/vari

sēi(n)/vari(n)  | –

(vare)

–  | sīe
sīe
sīe

sīen
sīen
sīen  | bēo
bēo
bēo

bēon
bēon
bēon  | be

be  | sī
sīs(t)

sīm, sīn
sī(n)t
sīn  | sei
sei(e)st
sei

seien
seiet
seien  | –

sief

–  | sī
sīs(t)

sīn
sīn
sīn  | zij

zij

zijn
zij
zijn
Preterite
indicative | *was
*wast
*was
*wēzū
*wēzudiz
*wēzum
*wēzud
*wēzun  | was
wast
was
wēsu
wēsuts
wēsum
wēsuþ
wēsun  | var
varst
var

várum
várið
váru  | var
varst
var

vorum
voruð
voru  | var
vart
var

vóru
vóru
vóru  | var
var
var

var
var
var  | var
var
var

var
var
var  | var
vast
var

vārum
vārin
vāru  | var
var
var

var (voro)
var (voren)
var (voro)
| wæs
wǣre
wæs

wǣron
wǣron
wǣron  | was
wast
was

were
were
were  | was
wāri
was

wārum
wārut
wārun  | war
warst
war

waren
wart
waren  | war
waars
war

ware(n)
waart
ware(n)  | was
wāri
was

wārun
wārun
wārun  | was

was

waren
was/waart*
waren
Preterite
subjunctive | *wēzį̄
*wēzīz
*wēzī
*wēzīw
*wēzīdiz
*wēzīm
*wēzīd
*wēzīn  | wēsjau
wēseis
wēsi
wēseiwa
wēseits
wēseima
wēseiþ
wēseina  | væra
værir
væri

værim
værið
væri  | væri
værir
væri

værum
væruð
væru  | væri
væri
væri

væri
væri
væri  | –

–  | var
var
var

var
var
var  | –

vāri

vāri(n)  | vore
vore
vore

vore
vore (-en)
vore  | wǣre
wǣre
wǣre

wǣren
wǣren
wǣren  | were
wert
were

were
were
were  | wāri
wārīs
wāri

wārīm
wārīt
wārīn  | wäre
wärest
wäre

wären
wäret
wären  | wier
wiers
wier

wiere(n)
wiert
wiere(n)  | wāri
wāris
wāri

wārin
wārin
wārin  | ware

ware

waren
ware
waren
Imperative | -
*wes
*wesadau

*wesadiz

*wisid
*wesandau  | -
wis
wisadau

wisats

wisiþ
wisandau  | -
ver
ver

verið
verið  | -
vertu
vertu

verið
verið  | -
ver
ver

verið
verið  | –
ver
ver

ver
ver  | -
vær
vær

vær
vær  | –

\-  | -
var
var

var
var  | -
wes
wes

wesaþ
wesaþ  | -

be  | -
wes
wes

wesit
wesit  | -
sei
sei

seid
seid  | -

\-  | -
wes
wes

wesad
wesad  | -
wees

weest

Past participle | –  | –  | verit  | verið  | verið  | vore (vori)  | vært  | været  | varin  | varit  | –  | been  | giwesan  | gewesen  | gewiescht  | (gi)wesan  | geweest

* Old English kept the verbs wesan and bēon separate throughout the present stem, though it is not clear that the kind of consistent distinction in usage was made that we find, for example in Spanish. In the preterite, however, the paradigms fell together. Old English has no participle for this verb.
* The plural forms in Modern Swedish (indicated in brackets) were in common use in formal written language until the mid-20th century, but are now no longer in use except in deliberately archaising texts. The preterite subjunctive is also increasingly being replaced by the indicative, or past participle.
* Dutch, like English, has abandoned the original second-person singular forms, replacing them with the second-person plural forms. However, while in English the old forms are still in limited and deliberately archaic use, in Dutch they have disappeared entirely and are no longer known or used at all. The forms listed in the plural are the historical plural forms, the 'jij' and 'gij' forms. Dutch formed a new plural pronoun 'jullie' with inflection similar to the 1st and 3rd person plural, but it would be redundant to list them here.

### Slavic languages

[edit]

| Proto-Slavic
(reconstructed)  | Old Church Slavonic | Ukrainian | Russian | Old Polish | Polish | Czech | Slovak | Slovenian | Serbo-Croatian | Bulgarian

|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|

Present  | *(j)esmĭ
*(j)esi
*(j)estĭ
*(j)esvě
*(j)esta
*(j)este
*(j)esmŭ
*(j)este
*sǫtĭ  | ѥсмь, jesmĭ
ѥси, jesi
ѥстъ, jestŭ
ѥсвѣ, jesvě
ѥста, jesta
ѥсте, jeste
ѥсмъ, jesmŭ
ѥсте, jeste
сѫтъ, sǫtŭ  | (є[сь]м, je[ś]m)
(єси, jesy)
є, je /{єсть, jesť}

((є)сьмо, (je)śmo)
((є)сте, (je)ste)
(суть, suť)  | (есмь, jesm')
(еси, jesi)
есть, jest'

(есмо, jesmo)
(есте, jeste)
(суть, sut')  | jeśm
jeś
jest, jeść

jeśmy
jeście
są  | jestem, -m
jesteś, -ś
jest

jesteśmy, -śmy
jesteście, -ście
są  | jsem
jsi

jsme
jste
jsou  | som

sme
ste
sú  | sem

sva
sta
sta
smo
ste
so  | jesam, sam/budem*
jesi, si/budeš
jest, je/bude

jesmo, smo/budemo
jeste, ste/budete
jesu, su/budu  | съм, səm
си, si
е, e

сме, sme
сте, ste
са, sə
Imperative  | –
*bǫdi
*bǫdi
*bǫděvě
*bǫděta

*bǫděmŭ
*bǫděte
*bǫdǫ  | –
бѫди, bǫdi
бѫди, bǫdi
бѫдѣвѣ, bǫděvě
бѫдѣта, bǫděta

бѫдѣмъ, bǫděmŭ
бѫдѣте, bǫděte
бѫдѫ, bǫdǫ  | –
будь, buď

будьмо, buďmo
будьте, buďte
–  | –
будь, bud’

будьте, bud’te
–  | –
bądź

bądźmy
bądźcie
–  | –
bywaj/bądź

bywajmy/bądźmy
bywajcie/bądźcie
–  | –
buď

buďme
buďte
–  | –
buď

buďme
buďte
–  | –
bodi

bodiva
bodita

bodimo
bodite
–  | –
budi
(neka bude)

budimo
budite
(neka budu)  | –
бъди, bədi

бъдете, bədete

Future  | *bǫdǫ
*bǫdešĭ
*bǫdetĭ
*bǫdevě
*bǫdeta
*bǫdete
*bǫdemŭ
*bǫdete
*bǫdǫtĭ  | бѫдѫ, bǫdǫ
бѫдеши, bǫdeši
бѫдетъ, bǫdetŭ
бѫдевѣ, bǫdevě
бѫдета, bǫdeta
бѫдете, bǫdete
бѫдемъ, bǫdemŭ
бѫдете, bǫdete
бѫдѫтъ, bǫdǫtŭ  | буду, budu
будеш, budeš
буде, bude

будемо, budemo
будете, budete
будуть, buduť  | буду, budu
будешь, budeš'
будет, budet

будем, budem
будете, budete
будут, budut | będę
będziesz
będzie

będziemy
będziecie
będą  | będę
będziesz
będzie

będziemy
będziecie
będą  | budu
budeš
bude

budeme
budete
budou  | budem
budeš
bude

budeme
budete
budú  | bom, bodem
boš, bodeš
bo, bode
bova, bodeva
bosta, bodesta
bosta, bodesta
bomo, bodemo
boste, bodeste
bodo, bojo  | budem
budeš
bude

budemo
budete
budu  | ще бъда, šte bədə
ще бъдеш, šte bədeš
ще бъде, šte bəde

ще бъдем, šte bədem
ще бъдете, šte bədete
ще бъдат, šte bədət
Imperfect  | *běaxŭ
*běaše
*běaše
*běaxově
*běašeta
*běašete
*běaxomŭ
*běašete
*běaxǫ  | бѣахъ, běaxŭ
бѣаше, běaše
бѣаше, běaše
бѣаховѣ, běaxově
бѣашета, běašeta
бѣашете, běašete
бѣахомъ, běaxomŭ
бѣашете, běašeте
бѣахѫ, běaxǫ  |  |  | biech
biesze
biesze

biechom
bieszecie
biechą  |  |  |  |  | bijah, b(j)eh
bijaše, b(j)eše
bijaše, b(j)eše

bijasmo, b(j)esmo
bijaste, b(j)este
bijahu, b(j)ehu  | бях, bjah
бе[ше], be[še]
бе[ше], be[še]

бяхме, bjahme
бяхте, bjahte
бяха, bjahə
Aorist  | *byxŭ
*by(stŭ?)
*by(stŭ?)
*byxově
*bysta
*byste
*byxomŭ
*byste
*byšę  | бꙑхъ, byxŭ
бꙑ(стъ), by(stŭ)
бꙑ(стъ) by(stŭ)
бꙑховѣ, byxově
бꙑста, bysta
бꙑсте, byste
бꙑхомъ, byxomŭ
бꙑсте, byste
бꙑшѧ, byšę  |  |  | bych

bychom
byście
bychą  |  |  |  |  |  |
Conditional copula  |  |  |  |  |  | bym
byś

byśmy
byście
by  | bych
bys

bychom
byste
by  |  | (bi)

(bi)
(bi)
(bi)
(bi)
(bi)
(bi)  | bih

bismo
biste
biše  | бих, bih
би, bi
би, bi

бихме, bihme
бихте, bihte
биха, bihə
Present active participle  | *sy m.
*sǫťi f.
*sy n. | сꙑ, sy m.
сѫщи, sǫšti f.
сꙑ, sy n. |  |  | sący m.
sąca f.
sące n. |  | jsoucí  |  |  |  | (същ, səšt m.)
(съща, səšta f.)
(също, səšto n.)
Future active participle  | *bǫdy m.
*bǫdǫťi f.
*bǫdy n. | бѫдꙑ, bǫdy m.
бѫдѫщи, bǫdǫšti f.
бѫдꙑ, bǫdy n. |  | будущий, buduščij m.
будущая, buduščaja f.
будущее, buduščeje n. | będący m.
będąca f.
będące n. | będący m.
będąca f.
będące n. | budoucí m.
budoucí f.
budoucí n. | budúci m.
budúca f.
budúce n. | bodoči m.
bodoča f.
bodoče n. | budući m.
buduća f.
buduće n. | (бъдещ, bədešt m.)
(бъдещa, bədeštа f.)
(бъдещо, bədeštо n.)
Present gerund  |  |  | будучи  |  | sąc
będąc  | będąc  | jsa

jsouc jsouce

|  |  |  | бъдейки
Past active participle  | *byvŭ m.
*byvŭši f.
*byvŭ n. | бꙑвъ, byvŭ m.
бꙑвъши, byvŭši f.
бꙑвъ, byvŭ n. |  | бывший, byvšij m.
бывшая, byvšaja f.
бывшее, byvšeje n. | bywszy m.
bywsza f.
bywsze n. | bywszy m.
bywsza f.
bywsze n. |  | byvší m.
byvšia f.
byvšie n. | bivši m.
bivša f.
bivše n. | bivši m.
bivša f.
bivše n. | (бивш, bivš m.)
(бивша, bivša f.)
(бивше, bivše n.)
Past gerund  |  |  | бувши  |  | bywszy  | bywszy  | byv

byvši byvše

|  |  |  | \-
Resultative participle  | *bylŭ m.
*byla f.
*bylo n. | бꙑлъ, bylŭ m.
бꙑла, byla f.
бꙑло, bylo n. | був, buw m.
була, bula f.
було, bulo n. | был, byl m.
была, byla f.
было, bylo n. | był m.
była f.
było n. | był m.
była f.
było n. | byl m.
byla f.
bylo n. | bol m.
bola f.
bolo n. | bil m.
bila f.
bilo n. | bio m.
bila f.
bilo n. | бил, bil m.
била, bila f.
било, bilo n.
Verbal or deverbal noun  | *bytĭje  | бꙑтиѥ, bytije  | буття́, buttja  | бытьё, bytʹjó  | bycie  | bycie  | bytí  | bytie  | bītje  | biće  | \-
Infinitive  | *byti  | бꙑти, byti  | бути, buty  | быть, byt' | być  | być  | být  | byť  | biti  | biti  | \-
Supine  | \-  | \-  | \-  | \-  | \-  | \-  | \-  | \-  | bit  | \-  | \-

* In Russian, the present forms are archaic and no longer in common use, except for the third person forms, which are used in "there is/are" type phrases.
* In Ukrainian, the present tense forms of the verb "бути" have all but disappeared from contemporary language, except for the third person form which is used in existential phrases; єсть (jesť) is archaic and encountered only in poetry. All participles have turned into other parts of speech, future and past active participles becoming present and past active adverbial participle respectively,[11] and resultative pariciple becoming past tense of verbs.
* In Serbo-Croatian the forms jesam, jesi, jeste and so on are used as the basic form of the Present Tense "to be" (i.e. I am, you are etc.), while the forms budem, budeš, bude etc. are used only for the formation of the Future Perfect.
* In Bulgarian, forms бъда, бъдеш, etc. are not used by themselves but only in compound forms (future ще бъда, subjunctive да бъда). In this respect they closely follow the usage (and non-usage) of perfective verbs. As such it has its own forms for the aorist (бидох, биде, биде, бидохме, бидохте, 'бидоха), the imperfect (бъдех, бъдеше, бъдеше, бъдехме, бъдехте, бъдеха) and the resultative participle (бъдел). Another verb - бивам with fully regular conjugation type III paradigm - completes an aspect triple: imperfective съм, perfective бъда, secondary imperfective бивам. The perfective aorist has lost its original meaning and is now used only to form the compound conditional mood (бих чел = I would read). All participles except the resultative participle (бил) have lost their function and are now used as regular adjectives with changed meanings (същ = same, бивш = previous, ex-, бъдещ = future).
* In Polish, the present forms, except for jest and są, have turned into suffixes (-m, -ś, -śmy, -ście) used primarily to construct the past tense and the conditional clitic. The modern conjugation comes from attaching these suffixes onto the third person singular form jest.

### Baltic languages

[edit]

| Lithuanian | Latvian

|
|

Infinitive  | būti  | būt
Present  | esu, esmi (rare), esmì (obsol.), būnu
esì, būni (rare)
yra, esti, estì (obsol.), esa (rare), būna
esmè (obsol.), esame, būname (rare)
estè (obsol.), esate, būnate (rare)
yra, esti (rare), esa (rare), būna (rare)  | esmu, esu (vernacular)
esi

esam
esat

Past simple  | buvau
buvai
buvo
buvome
buvote
buvo  | biju
biji
bija
bijām
bijāt
bija
Past active participle  | buvęs (m. sg.)
buvusi (f. sg.)
buvę (m. pl.)
buvusios (f. pl.)  | bijis (m. sg.)
bijusi (f. sg.)
bijuši (m. pl.)
bijušas (f. pl.)
Future  | būsiu
būsi
bus
būsime
būsite
bus  | būšu
būsi
būs
būsim
būsiet, būsit
būs
Imperative  | –
būk

būkime
būkite
–  | –
esi

būsim
esiet

Quotative  |  | esot, būšot
Conditional  | būčiau
būtum
būtų
būtumėme
būtumėte
būtų  | būtu

In Lithuanian, the paradigm būnu, būni, būna, etc. is not considered archaic or dialectal but rather a special use of the verb būti, to be, mostly used to describe repeated actions or states, or habits.

### Celtic languages

[edit]

In the Celtic languages there is a distinction between the so-called substantive verb, used when the predicate is an adjective phrase or prepositional phrase, and the so-called copula, used when the predicate is a noun.

The conjugation of the Old Irish and Middle Welsh verbs is as follows:

| Old Irish substantive verb  | Old Irish copula  | Middle Welsh

|
|
|

Present | (at)·tó
(at)·taí
(at)·tá
(at)·taam
(at)·taïd
(at)·taat  | am

ammi
adib
it  | wyf
wyt
yw, mae, taw, oes

ych
ynt, maen(t)
Preterite | ·bá
·bá
·boí
·bámmar
·baid
·bátar  | basa
basa

bommar
unattested
batar  | buum
buost

buam
buawch
buant
Future | bia
bie
bieid, ·bia
beimmi, ·biam
bethe, ·bieid
bieit, ·biat  | be

bid
bimmi
unattested
bit  | bydaf
bydy
byd
bydwn
bydwch
bydant

The forms of the Old Irish present tense of the substantive verb, as well as Welsh taw, come from the PIE root *stā-. The other forms are from the roots *es- and *bhū-. Welsh mae originally meant "here is" (cf. yma 'here').

#### Irish and Scottish Gaelic

[edit]

In modern Gaelic, person inflections have almost disappeared, but the negative and interrogative are marked by distinctive forms. In Irish, particularly in the south, person inflections are still very common for the tá/bhí series. [note 1]

##### The verb bí

[edit]

| Scottish Gaelic  | Irish

|
|

(analytic)  | (synthetic)
Present | affirmative  | tha  | tá  | 1 táim, 2 †táir, 3 tá, 1pl táimíd, 2pl †táthaoi, 3pl táid
negative  | chan eil  | níl (< ní fhuil)  | 1 nílim, 2 †nílir, 3 níl, 1pl nílimíd, 2pl †níltí, 3pl nílid
interrogative  | a bheil  | an bhfuil  | 1 an bhfuilim, 2 †an bhfuilir, 3 an bhfuil, 1pl an bhfuilimíd, 2pl †an bhfuiltí, 3pl an bhfuilid
negative interrogative  | nach eil  | nach bhfuil  | 1 nach bhuilim, 2 †nach bhfuilir, 3 nach bhfuil, 1pl nach bhfuílimíd, 2pl †nach bhfuiltí, 3pl nach bhfuilid
Past | affirmative  | bha  | bhí  | 1 bhíos, 2 bhís, 3 bhí, 1pl bhiomair, 2pl bhíobhair, 3pl bhíodar
negative  | cha robh  | ní raibh  | ní  | 1 rabhas, 2 rabhais, 3 raibh, 1pl rabhamair, 2pl rabhabhair, 3pl rabhadar
interrogative  | an robh  | an raibh  | an
negative interrogative  | nach robh  | nach raibh  | nach
Future | affirmative  | bidh (or "bithidh")  | beidh  | 1 bead, 2 beir, 3 beidh, 1pl beimíd, 2pl beidh sibh, 3pl beid
negative  | cha bhi  | ní bheidh  | ní  | 1 bhead, 2 bheir, 3 bheidh, 1pl bheimíd, 2pl bheidh sibh, 3pl bheid
interrogative  | am bi  | an mbeidh  | an  | 1 mbead, 2 mbeir, 3 mbeidh, 1pl mbeimíd, 2pl mbeidh sibh, 3pl mbeid
negative interrogative  | nach bi  | nach mbeidh  | nach

† archaic forms

Gaelic (bh)eil and Irish (bh)fuil are from Old Irish fuil, originally an imperative meaning "see!" (PIE root *wel-, also in Welsh gweled, Germanic wlitu- "appearance", and Latin voltus "face"), then coming to mean "here is" (cf. French voici < vois ci and voilà < vois là), later becoming a suppletive dependent form of at-tá. Gaelic robh and Modern Irish raibh are from the perfective particle ro (ry in Welsh) plus ba (lenited after ro).

##### The copula

[edit]

[12] |  | Scottish Gaelic  |  | Irish  |

|
|
|
|
|

|  | Before a consonant  | Before a vowel  | Before a consonant  | Before a vowel
Present | affirmative
interrogative
negative
negative interrogative  | is

|  | is

nach  | is

nach
Past/Conditional | affirmative
interrogative
negative
negative interrogative  | bu

|  | ba

níor
nár  | b'
arbh
níorbh
nárbh

#### Modern Welsh

[edit]

The present tense in particular shows a split between the North and the South. Though the situation is undoubtedly more complicated, King (2003) notes the following variations in the present tense as spoken (not as written according to the standard orthography):

| Affirmative (I am)  | Interrogative (Am I?)  | Negative (I am not)

|
|
|

Singular  | Plural  | Singular  | Plural  | Singular  | Plural
North  | First person  | dw | dan | ydw? | ydan? | (dy)dw | (dy)dan
Second person  | —, (r)wyt | dach | wyt? | (y)dach? | dwyt | (dy)dach
Third person  | mae | maen | ydy? | ydyn? | dydy | dydyn
South  | First person  | rw, w | ŷn, —  | ydw? | ŷn? | (d)w | ŷn
Second person  | —, (r)wyt | ych | wyt? | ych? | —  | (ych)
Third person  | mae | maen | ydy?, yw? | ŷn? | dyw | ŷn

For example, the spoken first person singular dw i'n is a contraction of the formal written  yr ydwyf fi yn . The Welsh F /v/ is the fricative analogue of the nasal /m/, the PIE suffix consonant for the first person singular.

| Affirmative (I am)  | Interrogative (Am I?)  | Negative (I am not)

|
|
|

Singular  | Plural  | Singular  | Plural  | Singular  | Plural
Preterite  | First person  | bues | buon | fues? | fuon? | fues | fuon
Second person  | buest | buoch | fuest? | fuoch? | fuest | fuoch
Third person  | buodd | buon | fuodd? | fuon? | fuodd | fuon
Imperfect  | First person  | roeddwn | roedden | oeddwn? | oedden? | doeddwn | doedden
Second person  | roeddet | roeddech | oeddet? | oeddech? | doeddet | doeddech
Third person  | roedd | roeddyn | oedd? | oeddyn? | doedd | doeddyn
Future  | First person  | bydda | byddwn | fydda? | fyddwn? | fydda | fyddwn
Second person  | byddi | byddwch | fyddi? | fyddwch? | fyddi | fyddwch
Third person  | bydd | byddan | fydd? | fyddan? | fydd | fyddan

Bod also has a conditional, for which there are two stems. The bas- stem is more common in the North, and the bydd- stem is more common in the South:

| Affirmative  | Interrogative  | Negative

|
|
|

Singular  | Plural  | Singular  | Plural  | Singular  | Plural
bydd- | First person  | byddwn | bydden | fyddwn | fydden | fyddwn? | fydden?
Second person  | byddet | byddech | fyddet | fyddech | fyddet? | fyddech?
Third person  | byddai | bydden | fyddai | fydden | fyddai? | fydden?
bas- | First person  | baswn | basen | faswn | fasen | faswn? | fasen?
Second person  | baset | basech | faset | fasech | faset? | fasech?
Third person  | basai | basen | fasai | fasen | fasai? | fasen?

### Hittite

[edit]

The Hittite verb "to be" is derived from the Indo-European root *h1es-.

| Present indicative  | Preterite indicative  | Imperative

|
|
|

1st sg.  | ēšmi  | ešun  | ēšlit
ēšlut
ašallu
2nd sg.  | ēšši  | ēšta  | ēš
3rd sg.  | ēšzi  | ēšta  | ēšdu
1st pl.  | (ašweni)  | ēšwen  | –
2nd pl.  | ēšteni  | ēšten  | ēšten
3rd pl.  | ašanzi  | ešer  | ašandu

### Armenian

[edit]

The Classical Armenian present tense derives from PIE *h₁es\- (cf. sg. h₁esmi, h₁essi, h₁esti; 3rd pl. h₁s-énti).[13]

| present

|

1st sg.  | em
2nd sg.  | es
3rd sg.  | ē
1st pl.  | enkʿ
2nd pl.  | ēkʿ
3rd pl.  | en

### Albanian

[edit]

The Albanian copula shows two distinct roots. The present jam ‘I am’ is an athematic root stem built from PIE *h₁es-. The imperfect continues the PIE imperfect of the same root but was rebuilt based on the 3rd person singular and plural. The preterite, on the other hand, comes from the thematic aorist of PIE *kʷel- ‘turn’ (cf. Ancient Greek épleto ‘he turned’, Armenian eɫew ‘he became’, Old Irish cloïd ‘turns back, defeats’). Analogical or otherwise indirect reflexes are italicized below.

| PIE  | present  | PIE → PAlb  | rebuilt  | imperfect (NE Arvanitic)  | imperfect (standard Alb)  | PIE → PAlb  | preterite

|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|

1st sg.  | *h₁ésmi  | jam  | *h₁és-m̥ → *eham  | *eśen  | jeshë  | isha | *kʷl-e-m̥ → *klen† | qeshë, OAlb qeva
2nd sg.  | *h₁ési  | je  | *h₁és → *eh  | *eśeh  | jeshe | ishe  | *kʷl-e-s → *kleh  | qe
3rd sg.  | *h₁ésti  | ishtë (dial.)
ësht (standard)  | *h₁és-t → *eśt  | *eśt  | je  | ish → ishte | *kʷl-e-to → *kleta  | kle → qe
1st pl.  | *h₁s-méi  | jemi  | *h₁s-m̥é → *emma/e  | *eśema/e  | jeshëmë | ishim  | *kʷl-e-mé → *klema/e  | qemë
2nd pl.  | *esi (2nd sg.) + -ni  | jeni | *h₁s-té → *eśtā  | *eśetā  | jeshëtë | ishit  | *kʷl-e-té → *kletā  | qetë
3rd pl.  | *h₁s-nti  | janë  | *h₁s-énd → *eśend  | *eśend  | ishinë  | ishin  | *kʷl-e-nd → *klend  | qenë

## Notes

[edit]

1. ^ Colin Mark has suggested that the Scots Gaelic substantive verb forms can be treated as assertive forms of the copula;[14] since the verb is in any case suppletive, this is a matter of perspective.

## References

[edit]

1. ^ a b c d Ringe, Don (2006). From Proto-Indo-European to Proto-Germanic (PDF). A Linguistic History of English (1st ed.). New York City: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-928413-9. OCLC 64554645. OL 7405151M. Wikidata Q131605459.
2. ^ Jasanoff, Jay (2003). Hittite and the Indo-European Verb. Oxford University Press. p. 112. ISBN 0-19-928198-X.
3. ^ Calvert Watkins, American Heritage Dictionary of Indo-European Roots.
4. ^ "Learner's Hindi-English Dictionary: होना". Archived from the original on 2021-01-29. Retrieved 2020-11-22.
5. ^ Pokorny, J. (2007). Proto-Indo-European Etymological Dictionary. Indo-European Language Revival Association. pp. 2906–2914.
6. ^ Kachru, Yamina (2006). Hindi. Amsterdam/Philadelphia. pp. 73–94\. ISBN 90-272-3812-X.`{{cite book}}`: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
7. ^ VAN OLPHEN, HERMAN (1975). "Aspect, Tense, and Mood in the Hindi Verb". Indo-Iranian Journal. 16 (4): 296. doi:10.1163/000000075791615397. ISSN 0019-7246. JSTOR 24651488. S2CID 161530848.
8. ^ McGregor, R. S. (1986). Outline of Hindi Grammar. United States: Oxford University Press. pp. 123–124\. ISBN 0-19-560797-X.
9. ^ Toofan, M. Zabān: ast yā hast? (Language: Is or Exists?). Ketāb-e Iran, 2000
10. ^ Ringe, Don (13 July 2017). From Proto-Indo-European to Proto-Germanic. A Linguistic History of English (2nd ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 220\. doi:10.1093/OSO/9780198792581.001.0001. ISBN 978-0-19-879258-1. OCLC 972772031. OL 27415350M. Wikidata Q119269648.
11. ^ "Дієприкметники". «Як ми говоримо».
12. ^ Bräsicke, Lars. "Gramadach na Gaeilge - Irish Grammar". Retrieved 9 February 2013.
13. ^ Hrach K. Martirosyan, Etymological Dictionary of the Armenian Inherited Lexicon, s.v. “em” (Leiden: Brill, 2009), 255.
14. ^ Colin Mark, Gaelic Verbs systemised and simplified, Savage (London & Edinburgh) 1986, p21ff.

* v
* t
* e

Proto-Indo-European language

Phonology|

* Accent
* Centum and satem
* Glottalic theory
* Laryngeal theory
* s-mobile
* Sound laws
* asno law
* boukólos rule
* *kʷetwóres rule
* Glossary of sound laws
* Brugmann's
* Bartholomae's
* Fortunatov's
* Grassmann's
* Osthoff's
* Pinault's
* Siebs's
* Sievers's (Edgerton's converse)
* Stang's
* Szemerényi's
* Weise's

Morphology|

* Ablaut
* Caland system
* h₂e-conjugation
* Narten present
* Nasal infix
* Root
* Thematic vowel
* Vṛddhi

Parts of speech|

* Nominals (nouns and adjectives)
* Numerals
* Particles
* Pronouns
* Verbs
* copula
* Vocabulary

Main sources|

* Indogermanisches etymologisches Wörterbuch (IEW)
* Lexikon der indogermanischen Verben (LIV)
* Lexikon der indogermanischen Partikeln und Pronominalstämme (LIPP)
* Nomina im Indogermanischen Lexikon (NIL)
* Indo-European Etymological Dictionary (IEED)

Artificial compositions|

* Schleicher's fable
* The king and the god

Theories|

* Kurgan hypothesis
* Schleicher theories
* Anatolian hypothesis
* Armenian hypothesis
* Outdated theories:
* Beech argument
* North European hypothesis

Society|

* Proto-Indo-European mythology
* Proto-Indo-European society
* Indo-European migrations
* Proto-Indo-European homeland
* Salmon problem

See also|

* Indo-European studies
* Encyclopedia of Indo-European Culture (EIE)

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