Indo-European vocabulary

Proposed reconstructed word list for the Proto-Indo-European language

The following is a table of many of the most fundamental Proto-Indo-European language (PIE) words and roots, with their cognates in all of the major families of descendants.

## Notes

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The following conventions are used:

* Cognates are in general given in the oldest well-documented language of each family, although forms in modern languages are given for families in which the older stages of the languages are poorly documented or do not differ significantly from the modern languages. In addition, modern English forms are given for comparison purposes.
* Nouns are given in their nominative case, with the genitive case supplied in parentheses when its stem differs from that of the nominative. (For some languages, especially Sanskrit, the basic stem is given in place of the nominative.)
* Verbs are given in their "dictionary form". The exact form given depends on the specific language:
* For the Germanic languages and for Welsh, the infinitive is given.
* For Latin, the Baltic languages, and the Slavic languages, the first-person singular present indicative is given, with the infinitive supplied in parentheses.
* For Greek, Old Irish, Armenian and Albanian (modern), only the first-person singular present indicative is given.
* For Sanskrit, Avestan, Old Persian, Parthian, the third-person singular present indicative is given. Where useful, Sanskrit root forms are provided using the symbol √.
* For Tocharian, the stem is given.
* For Hittite, either the third-person singular present indicative or the stem is given.
* In place of Latin, an Oscan or Umbrian cognate is occasionally given when no corresponding Latin cognate exists. Similarly, a cognate from another Anatolian language (e.g. Luvian, Lycian) may occasionally be given in place of or in addition to Hittite.
* For Tocharian, both the Tocharian A and Tocharian B cognates are given whenever possible.
* For the Celtic languages, both Old Irish and Welsh cognates are given when possible. For Welsh, normally the modern form is given, but occasionally the form from Old Welsh is supplied when it is known and displays important features lost in the modern form. A Middle Irish cognate is given when the Old Irish form is unknown, and Gaulish, Cornish and/or Breton (modern) cognates may occasionally be given in place of or in addition to Welsh.
* For the Baltic languages, Lithuanian (modern) and Old Prussian cognates are given when possible. (Both Lithuanian and Old Prussian are included because Lithuanian often includes information missing in Old Prussian, e.g. due to lack of written accent marks in the latter.) Similarly to the Celtic situation, Old Lithuanian forms may occasionally be given in place of modern Lithuanian; Latvian (modern) may occasionally be given in place of or in addition to Lithuanian.
* For the Slavic languages, Old Church Slavonic cognates are given when possible. Forms from modern Slavic languages or other Church Slavic dialects may occasionally be given in place of Old Church Slavonic.
* For English, a modern English cognate is given when it exists, along with the corresponding Old English form; otherwise, only an Old English form is given.
* For Gothic, a form in another Germanic language (Old Norse; Old High German; or Middle High German) is sometimes given in its place or in addition, when it reveals important features.

## Kinship

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PIE | English | Gothic | Latin | Ancient Greek | Sanskrit | Iranian | Slavic | Baltic | Celtic | Armenian | Albanian | Tocharian | Hittite

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*méh₂tēr "mother"[a][1][2] | mother (< OE mōdor)  | mōdar "mother"  | māter "mother" ⇒
[note 1] | mḗtēr "mother" ⇒
[note 2] | mā́tṛ, mātar, mātā "mother"  | Av mātar- "mother"; NPers mādar "mother"; "mamān"; "Nane" Kurd mak "mother"  | OCS mati, mater- "mother"  | Lith móteris "woman", motina; OPrus muti "mother"  | Gaul. mātīr "mother",

OIr máthir "mother"; W modryb "auntie"

| mayr "mother"  | motër "sister"  | A mācar, B mācer "mother"  |
*ph₂tḗr "father"
[3][4][5] | father (< OE fæder)  | fadar "father"  | pater "father" ⇒
[note 3] | patḗr "father" (> patriarch)  | pitṛ, pitar, pitā "father"; Pitrs "spirits of the ancestors" (litt. "the fathers")  | Av pitar- (nom. also pta, ta), OPers pita "father", NPers pedar; "Bābā"  |  |  | OIr athair "father"; Welsh edrydd "paternal domain"  | hayr "father"  |  | A pācar, B pācer "father"  |
*bʰréh₂tēr "brother"[6][7][8] | brother (< OE brōþor)  | brōþar "brother"  | frāter "brother" ⇒
[note 4] | pʰrā́tēr "member of a phratry (brotherhood)" (> phratry)  | bʰrā́tṛ , bhrātar, bhrātā "brother"; Rom phral "brother" (> pal)[9][10][c] | Av brātar-, OPers brātar-, NPers brādar-, Ossetian ärvád "brother, relative", NPers barādar, Kurd bira/birader | OCS bratrŭ "brother"  | Lith brõlis, OPrus brati "brother"  | Gaul Bratronos (pers. name);[11] OIr bráthair, W brawd (pl. brodyr) "brother"  | ełbayr (gen. ełbawr) "brother"  |  | A pracar, B procer "brother"  | Lyd brafr(-sis) "brother"[12]
*swésōr "sister"[13][14][8] | sister (< OE sweostor, influenced by ON systir)  | swistar "sister"  | soror "sister" ⇒
[note 5] | éor "cousin's daughter"  | svásṛ, svasar, swasā "sister"  | Av x̌vaŋhar- "sister"; NPers ḫwāhar, " Abji"; "Ham-Shire" "sister";

Kurd xwişk "sister"[d]

| OCS sestra "sister"  | Lith sesuo, seser-, OPrus sestra "sister"  | Gaul suiorebe "with two sisters" (dual)[15]

OIr siur, W chwaer "sister"

| kʿuyr (kʿiṙ), nom.pl kʿur-kʿ "sister"[e] | vashë, vajzë "girl" (< *varjë < *vëharë < PAlb *swesarā)  | A ṣar', B ṣer "sister"  |
*somo-ph₂tōr
"sibling, lit. same-father(ed)"
[3][4][5] |  | ON samfeðra |  | homopátōr |  | OP hamapitar- |  |  |  |  |  | A ṣomapacar |
*dʰugh₂tḗr "daughter"[16][17][18][19] | daughter (< OE dohtor)  | daúhtar "daughter"  | Oscan futír "daughter"  | θugátēr "daughter"; Myc tu-ka-te "daughter"[20][f] | dúhitṛ, duhitar, duhitā "daughter"  | Av dugədar-, duɣδar-, NPers doḫtar "daughter" Kurd dot "daughter"  | OCS dŭšti, dŭšter- "daughter"  | Lith duktė, dukter-, OPrus dukti "daughter"  | Gaulish duxtir "daughter"; Celtib TuaTer (duater) "daughter"[22][23][24] | dustr "daughter"  |  | A ckācar, B tkācer "daughter"  | HLuw túwatara "daughter";[25]

?Lyd datro "daughter"; CLuw/Hitt duttarii̯ata-;[g] Lyc kbatra "daughter"[h]

*suHnús "son"
[30][31][32][33]
(See also *sewh₁-)  | son (< OE sunu)  | sunus "son"  |  | huiós "son"  | sūnú- "son"  | Av hunuš "son"  | OCS synŭ "son"  | Lith sūnùs, OPrus suns "son"  | ? Celtib EBURSUNOS "son of Eburos (?)"[i][j]

? Celt/Lus EQUEUNUBO (< *ekwei-sūnu-bʰos) "to the sons on the horse"[k]

| ustr "son"  | çun "boy/son"  | A se, B soyä "son"[37] |
*putló-
"son"
[32][38][39] |  |  | Osc puklo-
"son"  | paîs "son"  | putrá-
"son"  | Av puθra "son"

Kurd pis, put

|  |  |  |  |  |  |
*(h₂)népōts "nephew, grandson"
[40][41] | nephew; obsolete neve "nephew, male cousin, grandson" (< OE nefa)  | OHG nevo "nephew"  | nepōs (nepōtis) "grandson, nephew" ⇒
[note 6] | népodes "descendants"  | nápāt- "grandson, descendant"  | Av napāt-, naptar-, OPers napāt-, NPers naveh-, "grandson, descendant"; Kurd nevî "grandchild"  | OCS netii "nephew"  | OLith nepotis, OPrus neputs "grandson"  | OIr nïa "sister's son", W nai "nephew"  |  | nip "grandson, nephew"  |  |
*(h₂)néptih₂ "granddaughter, niece"  | niece; obsolete nift "niece" (< OE nift)  | OHG nift "niece"  | neptis "granddaughter"  |  | naptī́ "granddaughter"  |  |  |  | OIr necht "niece", W nith "niece"  |  |  |  |
*dayh₂wḗr "husband's brother, brother-in-law"  | OE tācor "husband's brother"  | OHG zeihhor "husband's brother"  | levir "husband's brother"  | dāēr "husband's brother"  | devṛ́, devará "husband's brother"  | Past lewar "brother-in-law"  | OCS děverĭ "brother-in-law"  | Lith dieveris "husband's brother"  | W daw(f) "brother-in-law"  | taygr, tekʿr "husband's brother"  |  |  |
*snusós "daughter-in-law"  | OE snoru "daughter-in-law"  | OHG snur "daughter-in-law"  | nurus "daughter-in-law"  | nuós "daughter-in-law"  | snuṣā- "daughter-in-law"  | Old Ir. *(s)nušáh Bactrian ασνωυο (asnōuo) NPers. sunoh / sunhār "daughter-in-law"  | OCS snŭxa "daughter-in-law"  |  |  | nu "daughter-in-law"  | nuse "bride"  | B santse "daughter-in-law"[l] |
*wedʰ- "pledge, bind, secure, lead"[43] | wed (< OE weddian "to pledge, wed")  |  |  |  | vadhū́ "bride"  |  | OCS voditi "to lead"  |  | W gwedd "yoke"  |  |  |  |
*swéḱuros "father-in-law"  | OE swēor "father-in-law"  | swaihra "father-in-law"  | socer "father-in-law"  | hekurós "father-in-law"  | śváśura "father-in-law"  | Av xᵛasura "father-in-law";

Kurdish xwesûr

| OCS svekrŭ "father-in-law"  | Lith šešuras "father-in-law"  |  | skesrayr "father-in-law"  | vjehërr "father-in-law"  |  |
*sweḱrúh₂ "mother-in-law"  | OE sweger "mother-in-law"  | swaihro "mother-in-law"  | socrus "mother-in-law"  | hekurá "mother-in-law"  | śvaśrū́- "mother-in-law"  | Past xwāše "mother-in-law"

Kurdish xwesû

| OCS svekry "mother-in-law"  | Lith šešuras "father-in-law", OPrus swasri "mother-in-law"  | W chwegr "mother-in-law"  | skesur "mother-in-law"  | vjehrrë "mother-in-law"  |  |
*h₂éwh₂os "maternal grandfather, maternal uncle"  |  | awō "grandmother"  | avus "grandfather"; avunculus "maternal uncle" ⇒
[note 7] |  |  |  | Rus uj, vuj "uncle" (obsolete); Ukr vuyko "maternal uncle"[44] | Lith avynas "maternal uncle", OPrus awis "uncle"  | W ewythr, MBre eontr, MCo eviter "maternal uncle" (< PCelt awon-tīr "uncle"); OIr aue "descendant, grandchild"[45] | OArm haw "grandfather"  |  | B āwe "grandfather"  | ḫuḫḫa-, Lyc χuga- "grandfather";

CLuw ḫu-u-ḫa-ti "grandfather" (abl.-ins.)[46]

*yemH- "twin; to hold"[47][48] |  | ON Ymir | geminus "twin";
Remus "twin, Remus"  |  | yáma- "twin; first man to die"  | Av Yema |  |  | OIr emon, Gaul Iemurioi "twin?"[49] |  |  |  |
*h₁widʰéwh₂ "widow" < *h₁weydʰh₁- "to separate"[m][50] | widow (< OE widwe)  | widuwō "widow"  | vidua "widow"  | ēḯtheos "widow"  | vidhávā "widow"  | viδauua "widow"  | OCS vŭdova "widow"  | OP widdewū "widow"  | OI fedb "widow"; W gweddw "widow, widower"  |  | vejë "widow"  |  |

## People

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PIE | English | Gothic | Latin | Ancient Greek | Sanskrit | Iranian | Slavic | Baltic | Celtic | Armenian | Albanian | Tocharian | Hittite

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*mon- "human beings"  | man (< OE "Mann")  | manna "human beings"  |  | Amazon < *n̥-mn̥-g(w)-iōn 'man-less, without husband' (debatable)  | manuṣya "human being"  | Av manuš "human"

NPers maneš "human habitude"

| OES/OCS mǫžĭ "man"  |  |  |  |  |  |
*dʰǵʰemṓn "person, human (litt. of the earth)"
(See also *dʰeǵʰom-)  | OE guma "person, man", brȳdguma "bridegroom"[n] | guma "man"  | homō "person" ⇒
[note 8] | khthōn "the earth" (> autochthonous);
khamai "on the ground"  | kṣám, gen. gmás/jmás "ground, earth"  |  | OCS zem(l)janinъ inhabitant of the Earth, belonging to, owning of the earth.  | OLith žmuõ "person"; Lith žmoná "wife"; OPrus zmunents "human"  | OIr duine, W dyn "person" < *dʰĝʰom-yo- |  |  | A śom "boy"; B śaumo "person"  |
*h₂ner- "man, hero"  |  | ON Njǫrðr (name of a God)  | Ner-ō (personal name), neriōsus "strong"  | anḗr (andros) "man" (> Andreas, Andrew)  | nár- (nom. nā) "man, person"  | Av nar- (nom. nā) "man, person",Past nar "male, brave" NPers nar-, Kurd nêr "male animal, masculine"  | OCS naravŭ "character, custom";  | Lith nóras "wish, want", narsa; narsùs "brave;" OPrus nàrs "courage"  | W nêr "lord, prince, leader; hero"; Celt narto "strength"  | ayr (aṙn) "man, person"  | njer "man, person"  |  |
*wiHrós "man"  | werewolf (< OE wer "man")  | waír "man"  | vir "man" ⇒
[note 9] | hiérāx "a type of hawk"  | vīrá- "man, hero"  | Av vīra- "man, hero", Kurd mêr | OCS vira "wergeld"  | Lith výras "man"; OPrus wirs "man, husband"  | OIr fer, W gŵr "man"  |  | burrë "man"  | A wir "young"  |
*gʷḗn "woman, wife"  | queen (< OE cwēn "queen, woman, wife")  | qēns (qēnáis), qinō "woman, wife"  |  | gunḗ[p] (gunaikos)[q] "woman, wife" < *gʷun-eh₂ (> gynecology); Boet baná "woman"; Myc ku-na-ja (gunaia)  | gnā (gnā́s-) "wife of a god", jánis, jánī "woman, wife"  | Av gǝnā, γnā, ǰaini-, Past jinə́i, njlə́i "girl"; NPers zan "woman, wife"; Kurd jin "woman, wife"  | OCS žena "woman, wife"  | OPrus gena "woman, wife"  | Gaul bnanom "of the women" (g. pl.);[53]

OIr ben (mná) "woman, wife" < *gʷén-eH₂ (*gʷn-eH₂-s), bé (neut.) "wife < *gʷén; W benyw "woman"

| kin (knoǰ) "woman"  | zonjë "lady, wife, woman" < *gʷen-yeH₂; Gheg grue, Tosk grua "wife" < *gʷn-ōn | A śäṁ (pl. śnu), B śana "woman, wife"  | Hitt ku(w)an(a) "woman";[54] Luw wanatti "woman, wife"; Lyd kãna- "wife",[55] "woman"[56]
*pótis "master, ruler, husband"[50] |  | -faþs "lord, leader"  | potis "able, capable, possible"  | pósis "husband"  | páti "master, husband, ruler"  | Av paiti, Parthian pet, OPers fáti "master, lord, husband, commander"  | OCS gospodĭ "lord, master"  | Lith pats "husband"  |  | hay "husband, chief of family"  | pata "in possession of something"  |  |
*déms pótis "master of the house"  |  |  |  | despótēs "lord, master, owner" (> despot); despoina (< *dés-pot-ni̯a) "lady" (fem. of despotes)  | dámpati "lord of the house; (dual) husband and wife"; patír dán[57] | də̃ṇg paitiś "lord"[58] |  |  |  |  |  |  |
*gʰóstis "guest, host, stranger"[59] | guest (< OE giest);
host < Lat. hostis;
hospital,
hostel,
hotel
< Lat. hospes | gasts "guest"  | hostis "stranger, guest"; hostīlis "hostile"; hospes, hospit- "host, guest, visitor" < hostipotis < PIE *gʰóstipotis (*gʰóstis \+ *pótis)  |  |  |  | OCS gostĭ "guest"; gospodĭ "lord, master" < PIE *gʰóstipotis |  |  |  |  |  |
*weyḱ- "settlement, to enter, settle"[43] | -wick, -wich < Lat. vīcus | weihs "village, countryside"  | vīcus "village, settlement"  | oîkos "house, dwelling place"; oiko·nomía "management of household administration" (> economy)  | viś "settlement, dwelling space"  |  | OCS vĭsĭ "hamlet, village"  | OLith viešė "settlement"  |  |  | vis "land, country, place"  | B īke "place, location"  |
*wiḱpótis
"master of the household; lord, clan chief"
[60][61] |  |  |  |  |

viśpáti
"chief of a tribe or settlement, lord"

|  |  | Lith viēšpats "lord"  |  |  |  |  |
*h₃rḗǵs "king, ruler"[62] | bishopric, rich (< OE rīċe "king, dominion")  | reiks, -ric (in personal names) "king"  | rēx, rēg- "king" ⇒
[note 10] |  | rāj-, rājan "king" (> maharaja, Raj (as in British Raj))  |  |  |  | Gaul *rīx "king" (In personal names. E.g., Vercingetorix, etc.), Welsh rhi "king"  |  |  |  |
*tewtéh₂ "community, people"[r][s][66][67] | OE þeod "people, nation"  | Goth þiuda "folk"; ModGerm Deutsch < Proto-Germ *þeudō | Osc touto "community"; Umbr totam "tribe"  | [t] |  |  |  | Lith tautà "people"; OPru tauto "country"  | OIr tuath "tribe, people" (e.g., Tuatha Dé Danann "tribe of goddess Danu"); Celt Toutatis (Teutates) "name of a god"  |  |  |  | ?Hitt tuzzi- "army"; ?Luw tuta "army"
*h₁lewdʰ- "people"  | OE leode, lēod "a people, a group, nation"  | OHG liut "people, population"  | Proto-Italic *louðeros > Latin līber "free; name of a deity", Faliscan loiferto; Pael loufir "free man"; Ven louderos "child";  | eleútheros "free", Eleutherios "the liberator (epithet of Dionysus)"; Myc e-re-u-te-ro/a "a free allowance", e-re-u-te-ro-se "to make free, remit"[69] |  |  | OCS ljudinŭ "free man"; Pol lud "people, folk"  | Lith liaudis "people"  |  |  |  |  |

## Pronouns and particles

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PIE | English | Gothic | Latin | Ancient Greek | Sanskrit | Iranian | Slavic | Baltic | Celtic | Armenian | Albanian | Tocharian | Hittite

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*éǵh₂ "I"  | I (< OE iċ)  | ik "I"  | egō "I" < *egoH₂ | egṓ, egṓn "I"  | ahám "I" < *egH₂-om | Av azǝm, OPers adam, Parth. az "I" < *egH₂-om; Kurd ez "I (direct case)"  | OCS azŭ ’’’As’’’ ”I" ”Ia”  | Lith àš, OLith eš, OPrus as, Latv es "I"  | es "I"  | es "I"  | u, unë "I" (-në possibly originally a suffix)  | ñuk "I"  | ūk "I" influenced by ammuk "me"
*h₁me "me (acc.)"  | me (< OE mē, mec < *H₁me-ge)  | mik "me (acc.)"  | mē(d) "me (acc.)"  | emé, me "me (acc.)"  | mām "me (acc.)" < *H₁mē-m, mā "me (acc. encl.)"  | Av mąm "me"

Kurd mi "me"

Past mā "I [oblique case]"

| OCS mę "me (acc.)" < *H₁mē-m | Lith manè "me (acc.)"  | OIr me-sse, mé, W mi "I"  | is "me (acc.)" <? *H₁me-ge | mua, mue "me (acc.)" < *H₁mē-m |  | ammuk "me (acc., dat.)" < *H₁me-ge, -mu "me (acc. encl.)"
*h₁meǵʰye "me (dat.)", *(h₁)moy "me (dat. encl.)"  | me (< OE mē)  | mis "me (dat.)"  | mihi "me (dat.)"  | moi "me (dat., gen. encl.)"  | máhya(m) "me (dat.)", mḗ, me "me (dat. encl.)"  | Av maibya "me (dat.)" (? not in Pokorny), me (Old Avestan moi) "me (dat. encl.)"  | OCS mi (dat enc.) < *(H₁)moi | Lith man "for me", OPrus maiy "me (dat. encl.)"  | OIr infix -m- "me"; W -'m infixed accusative first person singular pronoun "me"  | inj "me (dat.)"  | meje |  | ammuk "me (acc., dat.)" < *h₁me-ge, -mi "me (dat. encl.)"
*h₁meme-, *h₁mene- "of me, mine"; *h₁mo-yo-, * h₁me-yo- "my"  | my, mine (< OE mīn < *H₁mei-no-)  | meins "my"; meina "of me"  | meī "of me"; meus "my" < *H₁me-yo- | emeĩo "of me"; emós "my"  | máma "of me"; ma/má "my" < *H₁mo- | Av mana, OPers manā "of me"; Av ma (m/n), mā (f) "my", NPers az āne man-; Kurd a/ê min | OCS mene "to me", moj/a/e (m/f/n) "mine"  | Lith mana(s), OPrus mais/maia "my"  | W fyn "of me, my"; Breton ma "of me, my"  | im "my"  | im "my" (article i \+ em)  | AB ñi "my" < Proto-Tocharian *mäñi | miš "my" < *H₁me-yo-
*túh₂ "you" (nom. sg.)  | thou (< OE þū "you")  | þu "you"  | tū "you"  | Doric tú (standard sú)  | t(u)vám "you";  | Av tū "you"

NPers to "you" Kurd tu, ti

Past tə "you"

| OCS ty "you"  | Lith tù, OPr tu "you"  | OIr tū, tu-ssu, tu-sso, W ti | du "you"  | ti "you"  | A tu, B t(u)we "you"  | zik, zikka "you" < *tega < *te \+ *egō
*wéy "we"; *n̥smé, encl. *nos "us"  | we (< OE wē), us (< OE ūs < PGerm *uns < *n̥s)  | weis "we", uns "us"  | nōs "we, us"  | hēm- "we, us";[u] Aeol ámme "us" < *asme < *n̥sme | vay-ám "we" < *wei-óm, asmān "us" < *n̥sme \+ acc. -ān, encl. nas "us" < *nos | Av vaēm "we", ahma "us", encl. nǝ̄, nā̊, nō "us"  | Bulg nìe "we", OCS gen. nasŭ "us" < *nōs-sōm | Lith mès "we"; OPr gen. nōuson "ours" < *nōs-sōm | OIr ni "we, us" <? *s-nēs, gen. ar n- < *n̥s-rō-m; W ni "we" < *nēs |  | na "we" < *nŏs, ne "us" < *nōs | A was, B wes "we"  | wēs "we" < *wei-es, anzāš "us", encl. naš "us"
*yū́ "you (nom. pl.)"; *uswé, *usmé,[70] encl. *wos "you (acc./dat. pl.)"  | ye (< OE gē "you (nom. pl.)"), you (< OE ēow[v] "you (acc./dat. pl.)")  | jūs "you (nom. pl.)", izwis[v] "you (acc./dat. pl.)"  | vōs "you (nom./acc. pl.)"  | hum- "you (pl.)"; Aeol úmme "you (acc. pl.)" < *usme | yūyám "you (nom. pl.)", yuṣmā́n "you (acc. pl.)" < y- \+ *usme \+ acc. -ān, encl. vas "you (obl. pl.)"  | Av yūžǝm, yūš "you (nom. pl.)", yūšmat̃ "you (abl. pl.)", encl. vā̊ "you (obl. pl.)";

Kur Win

| OCS vy "you (nom./acc. pl.)", vasŭ "yours (pl.)"  | Lith jũs "you (nom. pl.)", jũsų "yours (pl.)"; OPr iouson "yours (pl.)"  | OIr sī, sissi "you (nom. pl.)" < *sw-, uai-b "of you (pl.)" < *ō-swī, NIr far n- "your (pl.)"; W chwi "you (nom. pl.)" < *sw- |  | ju "you (nom. pl.)" < *u < *vos | A yas, B yes "you (nom. pl.)"  | sumes < *usme
*só "that" (demonstrative pronoun)  | the (< OE se), that (< OE þæt), there (< OE þēr, þǣr, þār)  | sa, þata "the", "that"  | sī "if", tum "then"  | ho, to "the"  | sáh,sā,tàt"that, the"  | Avestan ha "this"  | OCS tŭ "this, that"  | Lith tàs "that"  | OIr so "this"  | ayd "this"  | tërë"whole"  |  |
*s(w)e- "oneself"; (reflexive pronoun)  | self (< OE self, seolf)  | swes (ref. gn. pn.), OHG sih (ref. pn.)  | sē (ref. pn.)  | hé (ref. pn.)  | sva- (ref. pn.)  | Avestan hva- (ref. pn.)

Kurd xwe "itself, myself, etc."NPers xod "self, itself"

| Bulg sèbe "oneself", OCS svoji (ref. gn. pn.)  | Lith sava(s), OPrus swajs "my own, myself"  | OIr fein (self, himself); W hun(an) "self, myself, himself/herself etc"  | iwr self, himself/herself  | vetë | A ṣn-i, B ṣañ "(one's) own"  | Lydian s'fa- (ref. pn.), Carian sfes (ref. pn.)
*kʷíd, kʷód "what"  | what (< OE hwæt)  | ƕa "what"  | quid "what?", quod "what…, that…"  | tí "what?", tì "what…"  | kím "what"  | NPers či, če "what"  | Bulg kakvò "what", OCS čь-to "what?"  | Lith kàd "that..."; OPrus kawids "which, what a"  | OIr cid "what?"  | *i (ēr) (< *hi), inčʿ (< *hi-nč’) "what?"  | çfarë "what?"  |  | kuit (?) "what", kuit-ki "whatever"; Luvian kuit "what?"
*kʷís, kʷós, kʷéy/kʷóy "who"  | who (< OE hwā < *kʷoi)  | ƕas "who?"  | quis "who?", quī "who..."  | tís, Thess kís, CyprArc sís "who?", tìs "who…"  | kah, kā"who?"  | Av kō (ka-hyā, ča-hyā) "who?, which?", čiš "who"NPers ke, ki "who?"

kas "who, another person"

| Bulg kòj "who", OCS kъ-to (česo) "who?"  | Lith kàs "who?"; OPrus kas "who"  | OIr cia, W pwy "who"  | о (oyr) "who?"

"who?"

| "A" kë "B" kush acc. "who?"  | A kus, B kuse "who, which"  | kuiš "who, which"
*-kʷe "and; any"  | though (< OE þeah < *to-we-kʷe)  | -(u)h "and", ƕaz-uh "whoever"  | -que "and", quis-que "each one, whoever"; Venetic -ke "and"; South Picenian -p "and"  | -te "and", tís te, hós-te "whoever"  | -ca, káś-ca, kás-cit"whoever"  | Av ča, OPers čā "and"; Av čiš-ca, OPers čiš-čiy "whoever"  | Bulg če "but, and, because"; Old Czech a-če, ač "if"  |  | OIr na-ch, MW nac "not" < "*and not";[w] Lepontic -pe "and"  | o-kʿ "whoever"  | dhe "and"  |  | Lydian -k "and"; Hitt kuis-ki, Lycian ti-ke "whoever"
*n̥- "not, un-"  | un- (< OE un-)  | un- "un-"  | in- (archaic en-) "un-"  | a-, an- "un-"  | a-, an-, na- "un-"  | Av, OPers a-, an- "un-", NPers nā- "un-"

Kurd ni/ne/nek

| OCS ne- "not" < *ne- | Lith ne- < *ne-, OPrus ni- "not"  | OIr in-, ē-, an-, W an- "un-"  | an- "un-"  | nuk "not"  | AB a(n)-, am-, e(n)-, em-, on- "un-"  |

## Numbers

[edit]

See also: Proto-Indo-European numerals

PIE | English | Gothic | Latin | Ancient Greek | Sanskrit | Iranian | Slavic | Baltic | Celtic | Armenian | Albanian | Tocharian | Hittite

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*sem- "one, together"  | same (< ON samr); OE sam- "together"; [also German zusammen]  | sama "same"  | sem-el "once", sem-per "always", sim-plex "single, simple", sin-gulī "one each, single"  | heĩs, hén, mía "one" < *sems, *sem, *smiH₂ | sam- "together", samá "same, equal, any"  | Av hama-, OPers hama- "any, all"

Past sam "even, fine"

| OCS samŭ "self, alone, one"  | Lith sam-, są- "with"; OPrus sa-, sen- "with, dividing"  | OIr samlith "at the same time"; W hafal "equal"  | mi "one"  | gjithë “all” < PAlb *semdza | A sas, B ṣe "one" < *sems |
*(h₁)óynos, (h₁)óywos "one"  | one (< OE ān)  | ains "one"  | ūnus (archaic oinos)  | oĩnos "one (on a die)", oĩ(w)os "alone"  | (ēka- < *oi-ko-; Mitanni-Aryan aika-vartana "one turn (around a track)")[71] | Av aēva-, OPers aiva-, (NPers yek- "one, only, alone")  | OCS inŭ "one, another"  | Lith víenas, OPrus ains "one"  | OIr ōen, W un "one"  | andr-ēn "right there", ast-ēn "right here"  | ? Gheg tânë, Tosk tërë "all" < PIE *tod-oino-; ??? një "one" < *ňân < PIE *eni-oino-[x] | B -aiwenta "group" < "*unit"  | ās "one"
*dwóh₁ , neut. *dwóy(H₁) "two"  | two (< OE twā)  | twái (fem. twōs, neut. twa) "two"  | duo "two"  | dúō "two"  | dvā́(u) "two"  | Av dva, fem. neut. baē "two"; NPers do "two"; Kurd diwa "two (fem.)"  | OCS dŭva "two"  | Lith dù, OPrus dwai "two"  | OIr da, W dau (fem. dwy) "two"  | erku "two"  | dy "two"  | A wu, B wi "two"(<PTC *tuwó)  | dā-, ta-; HLuw tuwa/i- "two"; Lyc kbi- "two"; Mil tba "two"[y][73]
*tréyes (fem. *tisres,[74] neut. *tríH₂) "three"  | three (< OE þrīe)  | þreis "three"  | trēs "three"  | treĩs "three"  | tráyas (fem. tisrás) "three"  | Av θrayō, θrayas (fem. tisrō, neut. θri), OPers çi-, Parth hrē "three"  | OCS trĭje "three"  | Lith trỹs, OPrus tris, Latg treis "three"  | OIr trí (fem. téoir), W tri (fem. tair, teir) "three"  | erekʿ "three"  | tre masc., tri fem. "three"  | A tre, B trai "three"  | tri- "three"; teriyas- (gen. pl.)
*kʷetwóres (fem. *kʷétesres, neut. *kʷetwṓr) "four"  | four (< OE fēower)  | fidwor "four" (In Germanic influenced by pénkʷe "five")  | quattuor "four"[z] | téssares "four"  | masc. catvā́ras (acc. catúras), neut. catvā́ri, fem. cátasras "four"  | Av masc. čaθwārō (acc. čaturąm), fem. čataŋrō "four"; NPers čahār "four"; Kurd çwar | OCS četyre "four"  | Lith keturì, OPrus ketturei "four"[aa] | Gaul petuar[ios] "four"[53]

OIr ceth(a)ir (fem. cethēoir, influenced by fem. tēoir "three") "four"; W pedwar (fem. pedair) "four"

| čʿorkʿ, kʿaṙ (rare) "four  | katër "four"  | A śtwar, B śtwer "four"  | (remodelled in Hittite and Luwian)
Lyc teteri
*pénkʷe "five"  | five (< OE fīf)  | fimf "five"  | quīnque "five"[ab] | pénte "five"  | páñca "five"; Mitanni-Aryan panza- "five"[71] | Av panča "five"; Kurd pênc/pênz | OCS pętĭ "five"  | Lith penkì, OPrus penkei "five"[ac] | Gaul pinpe-, pompe "five"[53]

OIr cóic, W pum(p) "five"

| hing "five"  | pesë "five"  | A päñ, B piś "five"  | Luw paⁿta "five"
*swéḱs "six"  | six (< OE siex)  | sáihs "six"  | sex "six"  | héx, dial. wéx "six"  | ṣáṣ "six"  | Av xšvaš "six"  | OCS šestĭ "six"  | Lith šešì, OPrus uššai "six"  | Celtib sues "six";[53]

Gaul suexos "sixth"; OIr sé, W chwe(ch) "six"

| vecʿ "six"  | gjashtë "six"  | A ṣäk, B ṣkas "six"  |
*septḿ̥ "seven"  | seven (< OE seofon)  | sibun "seven"  | septem "seven"  | heptá "seven"  | saptá "seven"; Mitanni-Aryan šatta- "seven"[71] | Av hapta, NPers haft-, "seven"  | OCS sedmĭ "seven"  | Lith septynì, OPrus septinnei "seven"  | OIr secht, W saith "seven"  | eawtʿn "seven"  | shtatë "seven"  | A ṣpät, B ṣukt "seven"  | sipta- "seven"
*h₁oḱtṓ(w) "eight"  | eight (< OE eahta)  | ahtáu "eight"  | octō "eight"  | oktṓ "eight"  | aṣṭā́(u) "eight"  | Av ašta "eight"  | OCS osmĭ "eight"[ad] | Lith aštuonì, OPrus astonei, Latg ostoni "eight"  | Gaul oxtu- "eight"[53]

OIr ocht n- "eight";[ae] W wyth "eight"

| utʿ "eight"  | tetë "eight" < *H₁ok̂tō-t- | A okät, B okt "eight"  | Lyc aitãta "eight"[77]
*(h₁)néwn̥ "nine"  | nine (< OE nigon)  | niun "nine"  | novem "nine"  | ennéa "nine"  | náva "nine"  | Av nava, NPers noh- "nine"  | OCS devętĭ "nine" < *newn̥-ti- (Influenced by dékm̥t "ten")  | Lith devynì (influenced by dékm̥t "ten"), OPrus newinei "nine"  | OIr noí n-, W naw "nine"  | inn "nine"  | nëntë "nine" < *newn̥-ti- | AB ñu | Lyc nuñtãta "nine"[78]
*déḱm̥t "ten"  | ten (< OE tien)  | taíhun "ten"  | decem "ten"  | déka "ten"  | dáśa "ten"  | Av dasa, NPers dah- "ten"  | OCS desętĭ "ten"  | Lith dẽšimt, OPrus desimtan "ten"  | Gaul decam- "ten";[53]

Celtib tekam- "ten";[79] OIr deich, W deg, deng "ten"

| tasn "ten"  | dhjetë "ten" < *dék̂m̥t-i- | A śäk, B śak "ten"  | [af]
*wídḱm̥ti(h₁) "twenty" < *dwi-dḱm̥t-i(h₁) "two tens"  | (remodelled)  | (remodelled)  | vīgintī "twenty"  | eíkosi "twenty"  | viṁśatí "twenty", dviṁśatí "twenty"  | Av vīsaiti, Ossetian insäi "twenty"  | (remodelled)  | Lith dvidešimt "twenty"  | OIr fiche (fichet), OW uceint "twenty"  | kʿsan "twenty"  | zet "twenty"  | A wiki, B ikäṃ "twenty"  |
*ḱm̥tóm "hundred" < *dḱm̥tóm | hundred (< OE hund, hund-red)  | hunda (pl.) "hundred"  | centum "hundred"  | he-katón "hundred"  | śatám "hundred"  | Av satǝm "hundred"  | OCS sŭto "hundred"  | Lith šim̃tas, OPrus simtan "hundred"  | OIr cét, W can(t) "hundred"  |  | qind "hundred" (possibly borrowed from Latin centum)  | A känt, B kante "hundred"  |

## Body

[edit]

PIE | English | Gothic | Latin | Ancient Greek | Sanskrit | Iranian | Slavic | Baltic | Celtic | Armenian | Albanian | Tocharian | Hittite

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*krep-
"body"[81][82] | (mid)riff
(< OE hrif)  |  | corpus, corporis
"body" ⇒
[note 11] |  | kṛ́p
"beautiful appearance, beauty"  | Av kéhrp "corpse, body"  |  |  |  |  | kurm “torso” and krep |  |
*káput ~ *kapwéts
"head"[83][84] | head
(< OE hēafod);
OE hafela, hafola "head"  | haubiþ "head"  | caput, capitis
"head" ⇒
[note 12] | [ag] | kapā́la
"skull, cranium; bowl"  |  |  |  |  |  | kapelë

"hat"; Latin caput

|  |
*dáḱru, *h₂éḱru "tear"  | tear (< OE tēar, tæhher)  | tagr "tear"  | lacrima (archaic lacruma / dacrima) "tear" (> lachrymose)  | dákru "tear"  | áśru "tear"  | Av asrū- "tear"; Kurd hêsir "tear"  |  | OPrus assara "tear", Lith ašara "tear  | OIr dēr, W deigr "tear"; Cornish dagr "tear"  | artawsr "tear" < *drak̂ur |  | A ākär "tear", B pl. akrūna "tears"  | isḫaḫru "tear"
*dn̥ǵʰuh₂-, *dn̥ǵʰwéh₂ "tongue"  | tongue (< OE tunge)  | tuggō "tongue"  | lingua "tongue" (archaic dingua) ⇒
[note 13] |  | jihvā́ "tongue" < *ĝiĝʰwā, juhū́ | Av hizvā < *ĝiĝʰwā, OPers hizān, Parth ezβān "tongue", NPers zabān; Kurd izman "tongue"[85] | OCS języ-kŭ "tongue" < *n̥ĝʰū-k- | OPrus inzuws "tongue", Lith liežuvis "tongue"  | teng "tongue"; W tafod "tongue, language"  | lezu "tongue" (influenced by lizem, "I lick")  | gjuhë "tongue"  | A käntu, B kantwo "tongue" (*kantwa < *tankwa)  |
*h₁ésh₂r̥, *h₁esh₂nés "blood"  |  |  | archaic aser, sanguis "blood" (< possibly h₁sh₂-én- obl. stem + guen) (> sanguine, etc.)  | éar "blood"  | ásṛj, asnás "blood"  | OP ahr̥ "blood"  |  | Lat asins, Ltg asnis (gen. ašņa) "blood"  | īsarnom “blood-colored, iron”  | ariwn "blood"  |  | A ysār "blood"  | ēsḫar (esḫanas) "blood"
ǵ(o)nH₂dʰos "jaw, cheek, chin"  | chin (< OE c̣inn)  | kinnus "cheek"  | gena "cheek"  | génus (génuos) "chin, jaw"; gnátʰos, gnatʰmós "jaw" < *ĝnH₂dʰ- | hánu-ṣ "jaw" < *ǵʰenu-s, gaṇḍa "cheek"  | Av zānu- "jaw-" < *ǵʰenu-s, OPers danūg < *danu-ka-, Parth zanax "chin, jaw"; NPers gune "cheek", chune "jaw";

Kurd gup "cheek"

Past žā́ma "jaw"

|  | OPrus żauna "jaw", Lith žándas "cheek", žiaunos "gills"  | OIr gi(u)n "mouth"; W gên, pl. geneu "cheek, chin"; Old Cornish pl. genau < *genewes "cheeks, chins"  | cn-awt "jaw, cheek"  |  | A śanwe-m "jaw"  |
*ǵónu, ǵnéws "knee"  | knee (< OE cnēo)  | kniu "knee"  | genū "knee" (> genuflect)  | gónu (Hom gen. gounós < *gonwós) "knee", pró-kʰnu "with outstretched knee" < *pró-gʰnu | jā́nu\- "knee", pra-jñus "bow-legged"  | Av zānu- acc. žnūm, dat./abl. pl. žnubyō "knee", fra-šnu- "holding the knee forward"; Parth zānūk, NPers zānū "knee"  | Rus zvenó "knee"  |  | OI glún "knee"  | cunr, nom pl. cungkʿ "knee"  | gjuni "knee" < Post-PIE *ĝnu-n(o)- | A kanweṃ, B keni "two knees"  | genu "knee"
*ǵómbʰos "tooth, row of teeth"  | comb (< OE camb)  | OHG kamb "comb"  |  | gómphos "bolt, nail"; gómphíos "molar tooth"  | jámbha- "tooth, tusk; set of teeth (pl.)"; jámbhya- "molar teeth"  | Pash žâma "jawbone"; Khot ysīmä "tooth"[86] | OCS zǫbŭ, Ukr zub, Pol ząb "tooth"  | Latv zùobs "tooth"; Lith žam̃bas "sharp edge"  |  |  | dhëmb "tooth, tusk"  | A kam, B keme "tooth"  |
*h₃dónts, *h₃dn̥t- "tooth"  | tooth (< OE tōþ < *H₁dont-)  | tunþus "tooth" < *H₁dn̥t- | dēns (dentis) "tooth" < *H₁dn̥t- (> dental)  | odṓn (odóntos) "tooth" < Proto-Greek *edónt-, cf. Aeol. édontes "teeth" (> orthodontist, etc.)  | dán, dántas "tooth"  | Av dantan-, dātā "tooth"; NPers dandân "tooth"; Kurd diran, didan, dan "tooth"  | Russ desná "gum" < *H₁dent-sn- | OPrus dants "tooth", Lith dantis "tooth"  | OIr dēt "tooth", W dant "tooth"  | atamn "tooth"  |  |  |
*h₃ésth₁, *h₂óst- "bone"  |  |  | os (ossis) "bone"  | ostéon "bone" (osteoporosis, etc.)  | ásthi (asthnás) "bone"  | Av ast-, asti- (gen. pl. astąm, instr. pl. azdbīš) "bone" NPers ostoxan "bone"; Kurd hestî, hestû "bone"  | OCS kostĭ "bone"  |  | OIr asil "limb", MIr asna "rib" <? *astonyo-; MW ass-en, asseu "rib", W asgwrn "bone" < *ost-ko- | os-kr "bone"  | asht, ahstë "bone"  | B āy, pl. āsta "bone"  | ḫastāi- "bone"
*H₂ous- "ear"  | ear (< OE ēare)  | áusō "ear"  | auris "ear"  | oũs "ear"  | ūṣa "cavity of the ear"  | Av uši "both ears"; NPers guš "ear"  | OCS ucho (ušese) "ear"  | OPrus auss "ear", Lith ausis "ear"  | OIr āu, ō "ear"  | unkn, nom pl. akanǰkʿ "ear"  | vesh "ear" < *ōus, *ōs- |  |
*h₃ókʷs "eye"  | eye (< OE ēage)  | áugō "eye"  | oculus "eye" < *ōkʷelo-s ⇒
[note 14] | ósse "both eyes"; ómma "eye" < *óp-mn̥; ókkon[87] "eye"  | ákṣi (akṣṇás) "eye"  | Av aši "both eyes"  | OCS oko "eye"  | OPrus aks "eye", Lith akis "eye"  | OIr enech "face", W wyneb "face", Cornish enep "face"  | akn, nom pl. ačʿkʿ "eye"  | sy "eye"  | A ak, B ek "eye"  |
*h₁óh₃(e)s "mouth"  | Scot ure (< OE ōr, ōra)  | Nor óss "river mouth"  | ōs, ōris "mouth" (> oral)  |  | Ved ā́s "mouth, face"  | Av āh "mouth"  | OCS usta "mouth"  | Lith úostas "mouth of a river, harbor"  | OIr á "mouth"  |  |  |  | aiš, gen. iššāš "mouth"
*ḱerd- "heart"; *ḱred-dʰē- "to believe"
(See also ḱréd·dʰh₁eti)  | heart (< OE heorte)  | haírtō "heart"  | cor (cordis) "heart"; crēdō "I believe" < *krezdō- < *ḱred-dʰē- ⇒
[note 15] | kardíā, Homeric kradíē, Cypriot korízdā "heart" < *ḱr̥d(y)ā; poetic kẽr (kẽros) "heart" < *ḱḗr (> cardiac, cardiology. etc.)  | hṛd "heart" < post-PIE *ǵʰr̥d; hṛdaya, hārdi "heart";  | Av zǝrǝd "heart", Pashto zṛə "heart" < post-PIE *ǵʰr̥d;  | OCS sŭrdĭce "heart", serda "medium, core"  | OPrus siran "heart" (acc.), seyr "heart", serds "core", Lith širdis "heart", šerdis "core"  | OIr cride "heart"; W craidd "center";
Gaul crid "heart"[88] | sirt "heart"  |  | A kri "will", B pl. käryāñ "hearts"  | Hitt karz (kardias) "heart"; Luw zarza "heart"[89]
*h₃nebʰ- "navel, hub";
*h₃nóbʰōl "navel"[90][91] | navel (< OE nafola);
nave (< OE nafu)  |  | umbilīcus "navel";
umbō "elbow"  | omphalós "navel; umbilical cord"  | nā́bhi "navel, belly button; center";
nábhya "nave, center part of a wheel"  | NPers nāf "navel", nāv- "deep"

Past nom, naw "navel"

|  |  |  |  |  |  |
*kréwh₂- "gore, blood (blood outside the body)"[92] | raw "uncooked food" (< OE hræw "corpse, carrion")  | ON hrár "raw"  | cruor "thick blood, gore"; crūdus "raw, bloody", crūdēlis "cruel, rude" ⇒
[note 16] | kréas "flesh, meat"; kréa "raw flesh"  | krávis- "raw flesh"; kravyá "raw flesh, carrion", krūrá "bloody, raw"  | Av xrūra, xrūma "bloody"; vi-xrūmant- "bloodless"; xrvi.dru "of the bloody mace [of Aeshma]" YAv xrvišyant "grim, bloodthirsty"[93] | OCS kry "blood"; Rus krovǐ "blood"  | OPrus crauyo, krawian; Lith kraũjas "blood"; Latv kreve "coagulated blood,[94] bloody scab"[95][96] | OIr crúaid, MIr crū "blood", W crau "blood, gore"  |  |  |  |
*néh₂s "nose"  | nose (< OE nosu)  | ON nǫs "nose"  | nāsus, nāris "nose" (> nasal)  |  | nas- "nose"  | Av nāh-, nā̊ŋhan-, OPers acc. sg. nāham "nose"  | OCS nosŭ "nose"  | OPrus nasi "nose", Lith nosis "nose"  |  |  |  |  |
*pṓds, *ped- "foot"
(See also *ped-)  | foot (< OE fōt)  | fōtus "foot"  | pēs (pedis) "foot" (> pedal, etc.)  | poús (podós) "foot" ⇒
[note 17] | pā́d- (padás) "foot"  | Av pad-, OPers pād, Parth pāδ "foot" NPers pa "foot"; Kurd pê

Past px̌a "foot

| OCS pěšǐ "on foot", pęta "heel"  | OPrus pida "foot", Lith pėda "foot"  | OIr īs "below" < PIE loc. pl. *pēd-su; W is(od) "below, under; lower (than)"  | otn "foot", otkʿ "feet"  | poshtë "below"  | A pe "foot", B paiyye "foot"  | pata-, CLuw pāta-, Lyc pedi- "foot"
*tpḗrsneh₂
"heel, upper thigh"
[97][98][99] | OE fiersn "heel, calx"  | fairzna
"heel"  | perna
"gammon";
Spa pierna
"leg"  | ptérnē
"heel, hoof; footstep"  | pā́rṣṇi
"heel; rear of the army; kick"  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  | paršna- "loins"

*h₂(e)rmós
"arm, forequarter"
[100] [101] [102] [103]

arm
(< OE earm)

arms
"arm"

armus
"shoulder, forequarter"

harmós
"joint (anatomy);
link; bolt"

īrmá-
"arm, forequarter (of an animal)"

|  |

OCS ramo "shoulder"

|  |  |  |  |  |
*h₃nṓgʰs
"nail (finger or toe)"
[104][105][106] | nail
(< OE næġel)  | nagls
"nail"  | unguis
"fingernail, toenail; claw; hoof";
ungula
"hoof, claw; an aromatic spice"  | ónux
"claw, nail, hoof; a kind of aromatic substance; onyx (the gem)"  | nakhá
"nail";
áṅghri
"foot; foot of a seat; tree root"  | Npers nâxon "nail"  | OCS noga "foot, leg";
nogŭtĭ "nail"  | Lith nãgas "fingernail, talon"  | Irsh ionga "nail", W ewin "nail"  | ełung "nail"  | nyell "nail"  | A maku, B mekwa "nail"  | ša-an-ku-wa- "nail"
*yḗkʷr̥, yekʷnés "liver"  |  |  | jecur (jecinoris) "liver"  | hẽpar (hḗpatos) "liver"  | yákr̥t (yaknás) "liver"  | Av yākarǝ, NPers ǰigar, Pashto iná "liver"  | Serbian jetra "liver", Serbian and Macedonian ikra "fish roe"  | OPrus jakna, Lat aknas "liver", Lith jeknos[107] | W (i)afu "liver"; MIr i(u)chair (i(u)chrach) "fish roe"  | leard "liver"  |  | A ykär, B yakär* "liver"[108] | Luwian ikkwar/n- "liver"[ah]
*ǵʰésr̥ ~ *ǵʰsrés "hand"  |  |  | hir "hand" (rare, anatomical)  | kheír "hand" (> chiropractor, surgery (chirurgy), enchiridion, etc.)  | hás-ta "hand"  | Av zas-ta "hand", NPers dast "hand"  |  |  |  | jeṙ "hand, arm"  | dorë "hand"  | A tsar, B ṣar "hand"  | keššar "hand",[110]

Luwian īssaris "hand"

*méh₂r̥ ~ *mh₂én- ~ *mh₂ntéh₂
"hand, the pointing one"
[111][112][113] | mound
(< OE mund "hand, hand of protection, protector)  | Ger vormund
"legal guardian"  | manus, manūs
"hand" ⇒
[note 18] | márē
"hand" (dubious)  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  | manii̯aḫḫ-i, “to distribute, entrust”
*bʰeh₂ǵʰús "arm"[114] | bough (< OE bōg)  |  |  | pêkhus "forearm"  | bāhú "arm"  | NPers bāzū "arm"  |  |  |  |  |  |  |
*h₃bʰrúHs "eyebrow"[115] | brow, Scot broo (< OE brū)  |  |  | ophrū́s "eyebrow"  | bhrū́ "eyebrow"  | NPers abrū "eyebrow"  | OCS bry "eyebrow"  |  |  |  |  |  |
*péth₂r̥
"wing, feather"
[116][117][113][118]
(See also *peth₂-)  | feather
(< OE feþer)  |  | penna < *petna
"wing; feather; quill pen"
(> pen)  | pterón
"feather, wing; winged creature"  | pát·tra-
"wing, pinion, feather; leaf, petal (as the plumage of a tree)"  | Av Karšiptar (Karšift) "black-winged"

NPers par "feather"

| OCS perije "feather"  |  | W adar "birds", W adain "wing"  | trnum "to fly"  |  |  |

## Animals

[edit]

PIE | English | Gothic | Latin | Ancient Greek | Sanskrit | Iranian | Slavic | Baltic | Celtic | Armenian | Albanian | Tocharian | Hittite

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*éḱwos, *h₁éḱwos "horse, fast animal"  | OE eoh "horse"  | aíƕa- "horse"[ai] | equus "horse" (< equos)  | híppos "horse"; Myc i-qo "horse" ( < *ïkkʷos)[119] | áśva- "horse"; Mitanni-Aryan aššu- "horse"  | Av aspa-, OPers asa- "horse"; Ossetian yäfs "horse" < *yéḱwos; NPers asp "horse"; Kurd hesp "horse"  | OCS jastrębъ "hawk" (literally "a fast bird")  | OPrus aswīnan "mare's milk", Lith ašva "mare  | OIr ech; W ebol "foal, colt" (< MW ebawl < PBryth *ebọl, < PC *ep-ālos).  | ēš "donkey"  |  | A yuk, B yakwe "horse"  | Luwian ásùwa "horse"; Lycian esbe "horse"
*gʷṓws "cattle"[i][120] | cow (< OE cū)  | Old Saxon kō, OHG chuo "cow"  | bōs (bovis) "cattle";[aj] Umbrian acc. bum "cow"  | boũs, Dor bõs (bo(w)ós) "cattle, cow"  | gáus (gṓs)[i] "cow"  | Av gāuš (gāuš)[i] "cow"; NPers gāv "cow"; Kurd ga "cow"

Past ğwā "cow"

| Croatian gòvedo "cattle" < PSlav *govędo; OCS gu-mǐno "threshing floor"  | Latvian gùovs "cow"  | OIr bó (bóu/báu)[ak] "cow";
Boand[al]
< Proto-Celtic *bowo-windā "white cow (or) cow-finder"[am]
> Boyne[an][121]
OW buch "cow" < *boukkā, bu-gail "cowherd" < *gʷou-kʷolyos | kov "cow"  | ka "ox"  | A ko "cow", B keu "cow"  | HierLuv wawa-, Lycian wawa-, uwa- "cow";[122]

?Pal kuwa(w)- "bull"[ao]

*péḱu "livestock"[124][125] | fee; fief; feud (< OE feoh "livestock, property, money");  | faihu "property, possessions, wealth, riches, money"  | pecū "cattle, domestic animals"; pecūnia "money" ⇒
[note 19] |  | páśu, paśú "livestock"  |  | OCS

pasti "to herd, pasture"

| OLith pekus "cattle"  |  | asr "wool"  |  |  |
*h₂éwis
"bird"
[126][127][128][129]
(See also *h₂ōwyó·m)  |  |  | avis
"bird" (> aviary, aviation, etc.);
auceps
"bird-catcher; fowler; eavesdropper";
LL avicellus, aucellus
"little bird" > Fre oiseau;
avispex, later, auspex
"augur (from watching the flight of birds)"

[note 20] | āetós
"eagle; omen";
oiōnós
"large bird, bird of prey; omen; bird used in augury";
oiōnoskópos
"augur (from the flight of birds)";
oiōnistḗrion
"place for watching bird flight; omen"  | ví
"bird"  | Av vīš "bird"  |  |  | W hwyad "ducks"  | hav "chicken"  |  |  |
*h₂ówis "sheep"  | ewe (< OE ēow "sheep", ēowu "ewe")  | awistr "sheepfold"; OHG ouwi, ou "sheep"  | ovis "sheep"  | ó(w)is "sheep"  | ávi- "sheep"  | Wakhi yobc "ewe" < PIran *āvi-či- | Bulg ovèn "ram", OCS ovĭ-ca "ewe"  | OPrus awwins "ram", Lith avis "female sheep" avinas "ram"  | OIr ōi "sheep"; W ewig "deer"  | hov-iw "shepherd"  |  | B eye "sheep", ā(u)w "ewe"  | Luvian hāwa/i-, Lycian χawa- "sheep"
*h₂ŕ̥tḱos "bear"[130] |  |  | ursus "bear"  | árktos "bear"  | ŕ̥kṣa- "bear"  | YAv arša, Ossetian ars "bear"; NPers xers "bear"; Kurd hirç "bear"  |  | Lith irštva "bear den"  | MIr art, W arth "bear"  | arǰ "bear"  | arí "bear"  |  | ḫartaqqas (name of a beast of prey)
*ḱwon- "hound, dog"[131] | hound (< OE hund "dog")  | hunds "dog"  | canis "dog"  | kúōn (kunós) "dog"; Myc ku-na-ke-ta-i, Att/Ion kunegétes "huntsman" (litt. "those who guide dogs")[132] | śvan(śunas) "dog"  | Av spā (acc. spānǝm, pl. gen. sū̆nam); MPers sak; Kurd kuçik, se, sey; Wakhi šač "dog"

Past spay "dog"

| Bulg kùt͡ʃe "dog", OCS suka "bitch (female dog)"  | OPrus sunnis "dog", Lith šuo, šunis (acc pl.) "dog", Latv suns "dog", Ltg suņs "dog"  | OIr cú (con), W ci "dog"
Cú Chulainn litt. "hound of Chulainn"
Cunobeline < Com. Britt. *Cunobelinos "strong (?) as a dog"  | šun "dog"  | possibly qen (disputed, possible Latin loan)  | AB ku "dog" (acc. A koṃ, B kweṃ)  | Hittite kuwaš (nom.), kunaš (gen.); HierLuv suwanni "dog";[133] Pal kuwan- "dog";[134] Lyd kan- "dog"
*múh₂s "mouse"  | mouse, Scot moose (< OE mūs)  | ON mús "mouse"  | mūs "mouse"  | mũs "mouse"  | mū́ṣ- "mouse"  | OPers muš "mouse" (? not in Pokorny; Pokorny has NPers mūš "mouse"); Kurd mişk "mouse"  | OCS myšĭ "mouse"  |  |  | mukn "mouse"  | mi "mouse"  |  |
*uksḗn "ox, bull"[135][136] | ox (< OE oxa)  | auhsa "ox"  |  |  | ukṣán "bull, ox"  | Av uxšan "bull"  |  |  | MW ych; MidIr oss "stag, cow"; MBret ouhen |  |  | B okso "draft-ox"  |
*táwros "bull"  | steer (< OE stēor)  | ON þjórr | taurus, Osc taurom (acc.)  | taûros |  | stawra- "bull"  | OSl turŭ | Lith taũras; OPr tauris "bison"  | Gaul tarvos (taruos) "bull"; OIr tarb, W tarw "bull"  | tuar "cattle"  | tarok |  |
*suHs- "pig"  | sow (< OE sū);

swine (< OE swīn)

| ON sýr "sow"  | sūs "pig"  | hũs, sũs "pig"  | sū-kara- "pig"; Hindi sūvar "pig"  | Av hū (gen. sg.) "pig", NPers xuk "pig"  | Bulg svinjà "swine, sow"  | Latvian suvẽns, sivẽns "piglet"  | OIr socc sáil "sea pig"; W hwch "sow, swine"  | khos "pig"  | thi "pig"  | B suwo "pig"  | še-hu-u "pig"
*wl̥kʷos "wolf"  | wolf (< OE wulf)  | wulfs (wulfis) "wolf"  | lupus "wolf"  | lúkos "wolf"  | vŕ̥ka- "wolf"  | Av vǝhrka- "wolf"; NPers gorg "wolf"; Kurd gur "wolf"  | Bulg vɤ̞lk "wolf", OCS vlĭkŭ "wolf"  | OPrus wilks "wolf", Lith vilkas "wolf"  | OIr olc (uilc) "evil"  | aghves "fox"  | ujk < OAlb ulk "wolf"  | B walkwe "wolf"  | ulippana "wolf"
*wl(o)p- "fox"  |  |  | vulpes "fox"  | alṓpēx "fox"  | lopāśá "fox, jackal"  | Av urupis "dog", raopi- "fox, jackal"; Kurd rovî, rûvî "fox"  | OCS lisa "fox"  | Lith lãpė "fox"; Latv lapsa "fox"  | Bre louarn "fox" (< PCel *loɸernos)  | ałuēs "fox"  | Tosk dhelpër, Gheg dhelpen "fox" (< *dzelpina < *welpina)[137] |  | ulipzas (ú-li-ip-za-aš) "wolf";[138] Luwian ú-li-ip-ni-eš (nom. sg.), wa-li-ip-ni (dat.-loc. sg.) "fox"[138]
*ǵʰh₂éns "goose"  | goose (< OE gōs), gander (< OE ganra)  | OHG gans "goose"  | (h)ānser "goose"  | kʰḗn, Doric khā́n "goose"; Myc ka-no, ka-si (dat. pl.) "goose"[139] | haṁsá- "goose" (cf. Hamsa)  | Av zāō "goose" (? not in Pokorny); Sogdian z’γ "kind of bird", NPers ɣaz "goose", NPers ɣu "swan"  | Bulg gɤ̞ska "goose", OCS gǫsǐ "goose"  | OPrus zansi "goose", Lith žąsis "goose"  | OIr gēiss "swan" W gwydd "goose"  |  | gatë "heron"  | B kents- "bird (goose?)"[140][141] |
*h₂énh₂t(i)s "duck"  | Scot ennet "duck" (< OE ened)  | OHG enita "duck"  | ānas (gen. anatis) "duck"  | nessa, netta "duck"  | ātí- "waterfowl"  | Ossetic acc "wild duck"

NPers ordak "duck"

| Russ. utka "duck"  | OPrus ants "duck", Lith antis "duck"  |  |  | rosë "duck"  |  |
*h₁élh₁ēn "deer"  |  |  |  | élaphos "deer"; Hom ellós "young of the deer"  |  | Past osə́i "deer"  | OSl jeleni "deer"; Russ oleni "red deer"  | Lith élnis "red deer"; Lith élnė "hind" < *H₁elH₁ēniHx "hind, cow-elk"  | NWel elain "hind" < *H₁elH₁ēniHx "hind, cow-elk"

OIr elit "doe"[142]

| ełn "hind"  |  | B yal, ylem "gazelle"[143]

B ylaṃśke "young gazelle"[144]

| aliya(n)- "red deer"[145]
*h₁eǵʰis "hedgehog"  | OE igil "hedgehog" (< Proto-Germanic *igilaz)  | ON ígull "sea-urchin"  |  | MycGr e-ki-no;[146] ekhînos "hedgehog"  |  | Oss wyzyn "hedgehog"  | OSl jezĭ "hedgehog"; Rus ež "hedgehog"  | Lith ežȳs "hedgehog"[ap] |  | ozni "hedgehog"  | esh, eshk "porcupine, hedgehog"  |  |

*bʰébʰrus "beaver"
(See also *bʰer-, bʰerH-)

| beaver (< OE beofer)  | OHG bibar "beaver"; OIc biorr "beaver"  | fīber "beaver"  |  | babʰrú "mongoose"  | Av baβra- "beaver"  | Pol bóbr "beaver"  | Lith bebrùs "beaver"; Pruss bebrus "beaver"  | Gaul bebru-; OIr Bibar |  |  |  |
*h₃érō "eagle"[147] | erne "a sea eagle" < OE earn "eagle"  | ara "eagle"; OHG arn "eagle"  | (Avernus "entrance to the underworld" (< AncGrk áornos "birdless"))[aq] | órnis "bird"; Myc o-ni-ti-ja-pi "decorated with birds(?)"  |  |  | OSl orǐlŭ "eagle"; Rus orël "eagle"  | Lith ăras, ĕras, erẽlis "eagle"; Latv ērglis, OPrus arelie "eagle"  | MBret erer, MW eryr, MIr irar "eagle" (< *eriro)  | OArm oror "gull", MArm urur "kite"  | orr "eagle, falcon" (rare)  |  | Hitt ḫaran- "eagle"; CLuw ḫarrani(a/i) "a type of (oracular) bird"; Pala [ḫa-]a-ra-na-aš "eagle"[46]
*h₂éngʷʰis; *h₁ógʷʰis "snake", "serpent", "eel"  |  | OHG unc "snake"; engiring "maggot" (diminutive of angar "large larva")  | anguis "snake, serpent, dragon"; Anguilla "eel"  | ópʰis "serpent, snake"; énkhelus "eel"[ar] | áhi "snake, serpent; name of Vrtra"  | Av aži "snake", Persian yağnij "grass snake" (archaic); Azhi Dahāka[as] | OEstSl užĭ "snake", Rus už "grass snake"; Pol węgorz "eel"  | OPrus angis "snake", angurgis "eel"; Lith angis "viper", ungurys "eel"; Latv odze, odzs (dialectal) "viper, adder";  |  | OArm awj "snake", iž, iwž "viper"  |  | B auk "snake"  | Illuyanka "mythical snake foe"
*h₂eyǵ- "goat"[152] |  |  |  | aíx "goat"  | eḍa "a kind of sheep"  |  |  |  |  | ayts "goat"  | dhi, "goat"  |  |
*h₂ōwyóm
(a vṛddhi-derivative of *h₂éwis)
"egg"
[153][154][128][155] | ey (obsolete) "egg"
(< OE ǣġ) (> Cockney "cock-egg");
egg
(< ON egg)  |  | ōvum
"egg" (> ovum, ovary, oval, ovoid, ovulate, etc.)  | ōión
"egg, seed"  |  | Past hagə́i "egg"  |  |  | W wy "egg"  |  |  |  |
*h₂egʷnós "lamb"[156] | yean "to give birth to" (< OE ēanian)  |  | agnus "lamb"  | amnós "lamb"  |  |  | OCS agnę "lamb"  |  | W oen "lamb"  |  | enjë (dairy goat)  |  |

*laḱ-, laḱs-
"to be spotted; salmon, trout"
[157] [158] [159]

lax
(< OE leax "salmon")

OHG lahs "salmon"

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Russ losos "salmon"

Lith lašiša "salmon"

|  |  |  | B laks "fish, salmon"  |

## Food and farming

[edit]

PIE | English | Gothic | Latin | Ancient Greek | Sanskrit | Iranian | Slavic | Baltic | Celtic | Armenian | Albanian | Tocharian | Hittite

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*ǵr̥h₂-nó- "grain"[160][161][162]
(See also *gʰreh₁-)  | corn (< OE corn "grain")  | kaúrn "corn"  | grānum "grain" ⇒
[note 21] |  | jīrṇá-, jūrṇá- "old, worn out, decayed"  |  | OCS zrŭno "grain"  | OPrus zirni "grain", Lith žirnis "pea", girna "millstone"  | OIr grān, W grawn "grain"  | cʿorean "wheat, grain, corn"  | grurëTosk grun, gruni Gheg "grain"  |  |
*gʰreh₁-
"to grow"
[163][164][160][165]
(See also *ǵr̥h₂-nó-)  | grow
(< OE grōwan);
green
(< OE grēne);
grey, gray
(< OE grǣġ);
grass
(< OE græs);
groom (young boy, servant)
(< ME grome)  | grōdjan
"to green, grow; plant"  | grāmen
"grass, turf; herb";
rāvus
"gray, tawny";
herba
"grass; weed; herb"  |  |  | Kurd gewre, gir "big", gewre bûn "to grow, to get big", giran "heavy", girîng "important, major, essential"

Past grān "expensive, hard"

| OCS grěnŭ "green"  |  |  |  |  |  |
*h₂éǵros "field"  | acre (< OE æcer "field")  | akrs "field"  | ager (agrī) "field" ⇒
[note 22] | agrós "field"  | ájra-"meadow"  |  |  |  |  | art "soil"  | arë "field"  |  |
*h₂erh₃- "to plow"  | OE erian "to plow"  | arjan "to plow"  | arō (arāre) "to plow", arātrum "plow"  | aróō "I plow" < *H₂erH₃-oH₂, árotron "plow", aroura "arable land"  |  |  | OCS orjǫ (orati) "to plow", ralo < *ar(ə)dhlom "plow"  | OPrus artun "to plow", Lith arti "to plow"  | MIr airim "I plow", W arddu "to plow" < *arj-; MIr arathar, W aradr "plow" < *arətrom < *H₂erH₃-trom | ara-wr "plow"  | arë "arable land" *H₂r̥H₃-uer- | AB āre "plow"  |
*h₂melǵ- "to milk"  | milk (< OE meolc, mioluc)  | miluks (miluks) "milk"  | mulgeō (mulgēre) "to milk" ⇒
[note 23] | amélgō "I milk"  | mā́ršti, mā́rjati, mr̥játi "(he) wipes, cleans"  | Av marǝzaiti, mǝrǝzaiti "(he) grazes (barely touches)"  | OCS mlěko "milk", Russ. CS mŭlzu (mlěsti) "to milk"  | OPrus milztun "to milk", Lith melžti "to milk"  | W blith "milk, dairy produce; full of milk", MIr bligim "I milk" < *mligim, melg "milk"  |  | miel, mil "I milk"  | A malke B malk-wer "milk"  |
*melh₂- "to grind"[166][167] | meal (< OE melu);
malm (< OE mealm)  | malan "to grind"  | molō (molere) "I grind";
mola
"millstone; mill; ground meal, flour" ⇒
[note 24];
immolō
"I immolate, sacrifice (lit. sprinkling flour on animals to be sacrificed)" ⇒
[note 25];
malleus
"hammer, mallet" ⇒
[note 26];
milium
"millet"  | múllō "I grind";
malthakós, malakós "soft, tender; gentle; mild";
melínē "millet"  | mr̥ṇāti, mr̥nati "(he) grinds"  | Av mrāta- "tanned soft"  | OCS meljǫ (mlětĭ) "to grind";
mlatŭ
"hammer";
molĭ
"moth";
mělŭ
"chalk; fine ground substance"  | OPrus maltun "to grind", Lith malti "to grind", malnos "millet"  | OIr melim "I grind"; W malu "grind"  | mał "sieve" mał-em "I grind, crush"  | mjell "flour"  | A malywët "you press"; B melye "they trample"  | mallai "grinds"
*kwh₂et-
"to ferment, become sour"
[168][169]
[170][171] | OE hwaþerian "to roar, foam, surge"  | ƕaÞō "froth, foam, scum"  | cāseus
"cheese" (> cheese)  |  | kváthate
"it boils"  |  | OCS kvasŭ "leaven; sour drink" > Kvass |  |  |  |  |  |

*yew-
"to blend, mix, knead"
[172] [173] [174] [175]

|  | ON ostr "cheese";
ysta "to curdle"  |

iūs
"gravy, broth, soup; sauce; juice" > juice

?zōmós
"soup, sauce; grease"

[note 27]

yūṣa-
"soup, broth; water in which pulses are boiled"

|  | Russ

uxá "Ukha"

|  | W uwd "porridge"  |  |  |  |
*bʰrewh₁-
"to boil; to brew"
[176][177] |

brew
(< OE brēowan);
burn
(< OE biernan, beornan);
bread
(< OE brēad);
broth
(< OE broþ)

|  |

ferveō
"I burn, I'm hot" ⇒
[note 28];
fermentum
"fermentation, leavening; ferment; anger"

|  |  |  |

OCS burja "storm"

|  | Borvo "Gaulish deity of healing springs", W berwi "to boil"  |  |  |  |
*gʷréh₂wō "quern, millstone"[178][125] | quern (< OE cwerne)  | *qairnus |  |  | grā́van "stone, rock, stone for pressing out the Soma juice"  |  | OCS žrĭny "millstone"  |  | Bret breo, breou, W breuan "quern"[179] |  |  |  |
*mélit, *melnés "honey"  | mildew (< OE mele-dēaw "honeydew")  | miliþ "honey"  | mel (mellis) "honey" (>
mellifluous)  | méli (mélit-) "honey"; Att mélitta "bee"; Myc me-ri, me-ri-to "honey"[180] | milinda "honey-bee"  |  |  |  | OIr mil, W mêl "honey"  | mełr "honey"  | mjal, mjaltë "honey"  |  | milit "honey"; CLuw ma-al-li "honey";[181] Pala malit- "honey"
*médʰu "honey", "mead"  | mead (< OE medu)  | midus "mead"  | mēdus "a type of mead"[182] | métʰu "wine"  | mádʰu "sweet drink, honey"  | Proto-Iranian mádu "honey, wine"  | OCS medŭ "honey"; Bulg med "honey"  | OPrus meddu "honey", Lith medus "honey", midus "a honey beverage";[183] Ltg mads "honey"  | OIr mid "mead"; W medd "mead"  |  |  | B mit "honey"[184] | CLuw maddu- "wine" (originally "sweet drink")
*tuh₂rós "cheese"[156] | butter (< Gk. boútūros "cow cheese")  |  |  | tūrós "cheese"  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |
*séh₂ls "salt"[185][186] | salt (< OE sealt)  | salt "salt"  | sāl (salis) "salt" ⇒
[note 29] | háls (halós) "salt"  | sal-ilá- "salty"  |  | OCS solǐ "salt";
OCS sladŭkŭ "sweet";
Russ sólod "malt"  | OPrus sals "salt", saldus "sweet  | OIr salann, W halen "salt"  | ał "salt"  | ngjel-bëtë, ngjel-mëtë "salty", njel-m "to be salty"  | A sāle, B salyiye "salt"  |
*seh₁- "to sow (seed)", *séh₁mn̥ "seed"  | sow (< OE sāwan), seed (< OE sēd "that which is sown")  | saian "to sow"; OHG sāmo "seed"  | serō (serere) "to sow" < *si-sH₁-oH₂, sēmen "seed" ⇒
[note 30] |  | sasá\- "corn, herb, grass", sasyá- "corn, grain, fruit, crop of corn", sī́ra- "Saatpflug" (seed plow?)  |  | OCS sějǫ (sějati) "to sow", sěmę "seeds"  | OPrus situn "to sow", simen "seed", Lith sėti "to sow", sekla "seed", semenis "linseed"  | OIr sīl, W hil "seed" < *seH₁-lo- | sermn "seed"  |  |  | isḫūwāi "(he) sows"
*yugóm "yoke"
(See also *yewg-)  | yoke (< OE ġeoc)  | juk "yoke"  | iugum "yoke"  | zugón "yoke"  | yugá·m "yoke"  | Av yaoj-, yuj- "to harness"

Past yə́wa "plough"

| OCS igo "yoke"  | OPrus jugtun "yoke", Lith jungas "yoke"  | W iau "yoke"  | luc "yoke"  |  | A yokäm "door"  | yugan "yoke"
*yéwos "cereal, grain; spelt, barley"[187][188] |  |  |  | Epic zeiā́ "einkorn wheat"; Cretan deaí "barley"  | yáva "grain, cereal; barley"  | Av yauua- "cereal"; Pers jow "barley, grain"; Oss jäv "corn, grain"  | Rus ovín "barn, granary";[at] Pol jewnia, jownia (dialectal) "granary"  | Lith jãvas "a type of cereal"; javaĩ (pl.) "cereals"; Latv javs, java "infused (with fermentation)"  | Ir eorna "barley"  |  |  | B yap "dressed barley"  | e(u)wa(n) "cereal (a kind of barley)"
*mḗms "meat"[190][125] |  | mimz "flesh"  | membrum "limb, member" < mēms-rom “flesh” ⇒
[note 31] |  | mā́ṃs, māmsá- "meat"  |  | OCS męso "meat"  |  |  | mis "meat"  | mish“meat”  |  |
*h₂ébōl "apple"[124][125] | apple (< OE appel)  | apel | (Osc Abella "town name")  |  |  |  | OCS ablŭko "apple"  | Lith obuolys "apple", OPr wobalne "apple"; Latv ābols "apple (fruit)", ābele "apple tree"  | Gaul Aballo "place name"; OIr aball, W afall, OBr aball(en) "apple tree"  |  |  |  |

## Bodily functions and states

[edit]

PIE | English | Gothic | Latin | Ancient Greek | Sanskrit | Iranian | Slavic | Baltic | Celtic | Armenian | Albanian | Tocharian | Hittite

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*h₂enh₁- "to breathe"  | OE ōþian "breathe hard" < PGerm *anþōjanã | *uz-anan "to expire";
ON anda "to breathe";
DE atmen "to breathe"  | anima "breath"  | ánemos "wind"; Anemoi "(deified) winds"  | ániti "(he) breathes"; ātmán "breath, soul, life"  | Av ā̊ntya, parā̊ntya (gen.) "breathing in and out"; Kurd henase "breath"; henas dan "to breath"  | OCS vonja "smell" < *h₂en-yeh₂[191] |  | OIr anāl "breath" < *h₂enh₁-tlo- ; W anadl "breath"  | hołm "wind", anjn "person"  | Gheg âj Tosk ēnj "I swell"  | AB āñm- "spirit", B añiye "breath", B anāsk- "breathe in"  |
*swep- "to sleep", *swépnos "dream (n.)"  | archaic sweven "dream, vision" (< OE swefn); NoEng sweb "to swoon" (< OE swebban "to put to sleep, lull")  | ON sofa "sleep (v.)"; Svafnir[192] "Sleep-Bringer (a name of Odin)"  | somnus "sleep (n.)"; sōpiō[193] (v.) "make asleep"  | húpnos "sleep (n.)"; Hypnos "god of sleep"  | svápna- "sleep, dream (n.)"  | Av xᵛafna- "sleep (n.)" NPers xwãb- "sleep"; Kurd xew "sleep"

Past xob "dream, sleeping"

| OCS sŭpati[193] "sleep (v.)", sŭnŭ "sleep (n.), dream (n.)"  | OPrus supnas "dream", Lith sapnas "dream"  | OIr sūan, W hun "sleep (n.)"  | kʿnem "I sleep", kʿun "sleep (n.)"  | gjumë "sleep (n.)"  | TA ṣpäṃ, TB ṣpane "sleep (n.), dream (n.)"  | sup-, suppariya- "to sleep"

*der-, *drem-
"to sleep"
[194] [195] [196] [197]

|  |  |

dormiō
"I sleep";

[note 32]

darthánō
"I sleep" (epic)

drā́yati
"(s/he) sleeps";
nidrā́
"sleep, slumber, sleepiness, sloth"

|  | OCS

drěmati "to doze, drowse, slumber"

|  |  |  |  |  |
*bʰewdʰ- "to be awake, be aware"[198] | bid (< OE bēodan);
bede (< OE bēden);
bead (< OE bedu);
bode (< OE bodian)  | anabiudan;
DE bitte "please" (< bitten, "to beg")  |  | punthánomai "I learn"  | bódhati "(s/he) is awake";
bodháyati "(s/he) awakens, arouses"; buddhá- "awake"  | Past póha "understand"

NPers bidar "awake"

| OCS bljusti "to watch";
buditi "to wake (someone) up";
bŭždrĭ "alert, cheerful";  | Lith budėti "to stay awake"  |  |  |  |  |
*sweyd- "sweat"  | sweat (< OE swǣtan "to sweat")  | ON sveiti | sūdor "sweat (n.)"  | (e)ĩdos "sweat (n.)"  | svḗda- "sweat (n.)"  | Av xᵛaēda- "sweat (n.)"; Kurd xwê, xoy "sweat"

Past xoẓ̌ "sweet"

|  | Latvian sviêdri (pl.) "sweat (n.)"  | W chwys "sweat (n.)" < *swidso- | kʿirtn "sweat (n.)"  | dirsë, djersë "sweat (n.)" < *swí-drōxty- | B syā-lñe "sweating" < *swid-yé- |
*h₁ed- "to eat"  | eat (< OE etan)  | itan "to eat"  | edō (ēsse) "to eat", ēst "(he) eats"  | édō "I eat", Homeric athematic infinitive édmenai "to eat"  | ádmi "I eat", átti "(he) eats"  | Av subj. aδāiti "(he) should eat"  | OCS jamĭ "I eat" < *H₁ēd-mi, jastŭ "(he) eats"  | OPrus istun "to eat", ėsti, OLith ėdmi "I eat"  | OIr ci-ni estar "although he doesn't eat"; W ys "eats" < *H₁ed-ti | utem "I eat" < *ōd- | ha "to eat"  |  | ēdmi "I eat"
*peh₃- "to drink"  | potable (< OF potable)

imbibe (< Lat. bibere "to drink" via OF imbiber)

potion, poison (<Lat. potio, potionis "a drink" via OF pocion, poison)

|  | bibō (bibere) "to drink", pōtus "drink (n.)"; pō·culo- < pō·clo- < *pō·tlo- "beaker"[au]
(Compare Skt pā·tra-)  | pī́nō, pépomai "I drink"  | pā́ti, píbati "(he) drinks"; pā·tra- "cup, vessel"[au] | Av vispo-pitay- "alltränkend" giving water/drinks to all  | OCS pijǫ (piti) "to drink", pivo "drink, beer, beverage"  | OPrus putun "to drink", puja "a party", Lith puota "party"  | OIr ibid "drinks" < *pibeti; W yfwn "we drink"  | əmpem "I drink"  | pī "I drink"  |  | pāsi "he swallows"
*ǵews- "to test, to taste"  | choose (< OE ċēosan)  | Goth kiusan "to prove, to test", kausjan "taste"; OHG kiosan "choose"  | gustus "taste"  | geúomai "taste"  | juşate, joşati "enjoys"  | Av zaoś- "be pleased"  | OCS (vŭ)kušati "to offer a meal, to give for tasting"  |  | OIr do-goa "choose"  |  | zgjedh "choose"

desha "I loved"; dashje "liking, taste, preference" (< PAlb *dāusnja)

|  | kukuš(-zi) "taste"
*ǵenh₁-
"to beget, give birth, produce"
[199][200][201][202][203] | kin
(< OE cynn "kind, sort, family, generation") (> kindred);
kind (< OE (ġe)cynd "generation, nature, race, kind");
king
(< OE cyning);
OE cennan "produce"  | -kunds "born";
knoþs "race, people";
OHG kind "child";
Ger könig, Dut koning "king"
(< PGmc *kuningaz = *kunją "kin" + *-ingaz "from, belonging to")
(> OCS kŭnędzĭ "prince";
Lith kùnigas "priest";
Fin, Est kuningas "king" (esp. in chess))  | (g)nāscor
"I am born, begotten; grow, spring forth";
gignō
"I beget, bear, bring forth, engender" ⇒
[note 33];
(g)natus
"born, arisen, made" ⇒
[note 34];
nāscēns
"being born, arising; emerging" ⇒
[note 35];
nātīvus
"created; imparted by birth" ⇒
[note 36];
nātīvitās "birth" ⇒
[note 37];
nātūra
"nature, quality, essence" ⇒
[note 38];
nātiō
"birth; race, class; nation, folk" ⇒
[note 39];
nātālis
"relating to birth, natal" ⇒
[note 40];
genus (generis)
"birth, origin; kind; species; (grammar) gender" ⇒
[note 41];
gēns (gentis)
"tribe; folk, family; Roman clan" ⇒
[note 42];
ingēns
"huge, vast; extraordinary";
genitus
"begotten, engendered" ⇒
[note 43];
genius
"inborn trait, innate character; talent, wits" (> genius);
ingenuus
"natural, indigenous; freeborn" ⇒
[note 44];
ingenium
"innate quality, nature, disposition; natural capacity; talent" ⇒
[note 45];
indigenus = indu (inside) + genus
"native, indigenous" (> indigenous);
genimen
"product, fruit; progeny";
germen (germinis)
"shoot, sprout; germ, origin, seed; fetus" ⇒
[note 46];
genitor
"begetter, father, sire";
genetrīx
"begetter, mother";
naevus
"birthmark, mole" (> Lat Gnaeus);
genitālis
"relation to birth, generation; productive" ⇒
[note 47] | geínomai
"I am born; I beget";
gígnomai
"I come into being; become";
gonḗ
"offspring; seed" (> gonad);
geneā́
"birth; race, descent; generation; offspring" (> genealogy, etc.);
gnōtós
"kinsman";
génos
"offspring, descendant, family; nation, gender";
génna, génnā
"descent, lineage; origin, offspring";
génesis
"origin, source, manner of birth" ⇒
[note 48];
gónos
"fruit, product; race, descent; begetting; seed";
genétēs, genétōr
"begetter, ancestor; father"  | jánati "(she) gives birth";
jáyate
"is born; becomes";
já-, -ja-
"born; born of, begotten from", e.g., dvi·já- "twice-born";
jantú
"child, offspring; creature";
jñāt́í
"kinsman, relative";
jananī
"mother, birth-giver";
jána-
"people, person, race";
jánana-
"begetting, birth";
jánas
"race, class, genus";
jánman, janmá-
"birth, life";
jániman "generation, birth, origin";
janitṛ́ "begetter, father, parent";
jánitrī "begetter, mother";
janátā
"people, folk, generation";
jātí
"birth, form of existence fixed at birth, position assigned by birth, rank, lineage, caste"  | Av zīzǝnti, zīzanǝnti "they give birth"; Kurd zayîn "to give birth"

Past zeẓ̌edə́l "to be born"

| OCS zętĭ "son-in-law"  | OPrus gamintun "to give birth", gimdyti "to give birth"  | OIr -gainethar "who is born" < *ĝn̥-ye-tro;[191] W geni "to be born"  | cnanim "I am born, bear"  | dhëndër, dhândër "son-in-law, bridegroom" < *ĝenH̥₁-tr-[aw] | AB kän- "to come to pass (of a wish), be realized"  |
*sewh₁- or *sewh₃-
"to bear, beget, give birth"
[30][31][32][33][204]
(See also *suHnú-)  |  |  |  |  | sū́te
"(she) begets";
sūtá-
"born, brought forth";
sūtí
"birth, production"  | Av hunāhi “give birth, beget”  |  |  | OIr suth "produce, offspring; milk"  |  |  |  | šunnai "fills"
*h₂ewg-, h₂weg- "to grow, increase"[205] | eke (< OE ēacian "to increase"); wax (of the moon) (< OE weaxan "to grow")  | aukan, auknan "to increase (intr.)", wahsjan "to grow" < orig. caus. *h₂wog-s-éy-onom | augeō (augēre) "to increase (tr.)" ⇒
[note 49];
auctor "grower - promoter, producer, author etc" ⇒
[note 50];
augmentum "growth, increase" ⇒
[note 51];
augur < augos "aggrandizement" ⇒
[note 52];
augustus "majestic, venerable" ⇒
[note 53];
auxilium "help, aid; remedy" ⇒
[note 54] | a(w)éksō "I increase (intr.)", aúksō, auksánō "I increase (tr.)"  | úkṣati "(he) becomes stronger", vakṣáyati "(he) causes to grow"; ójas, ōjmán "strength, vitality, power";[206] ugrá- "immense, strong, hard";  | Av uxšyeiti "(he) grows", vaxšaiti "(he) causes to grow"  | OCS jugъ "south" (the direction to where the Sun rises)  | OPrus augtwei "to grow", Lith augti " to grow"  | OIr fēr, W gwêr "fat" < *weg- | ačem "I grow, become big"  |  | A oksiṣ "(he) grows"; A okṣu, В aukṣu "grown"  |
*weǵ- "fresh, strong; lively, awake"[207] | wake (< OE wacian); watch (< OE wæċċan)  | gawaknan "wake up, arouse"  | vegeō (vegēre) "be alert, awake, smart"; vigor "id"; vigil "awake, watching"  |  | vā́ja- "strength, energy, vigour, spirit"; vájra- "hard; mace; thunderbolt; diamond"; vājáyati "(s/he) impels"  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |
*gʷih₃wo- "alive", *gʷih₃woteh₂ "life"  | quick (< OE cwicu "alive")  | qius "alive"  | vīvus "alive"; vīta "life"  | bíos, bíotos "life", zoo "animal"  | jīvá-, jīvaka- "alive", jīvita·m, jīvā́tus, jīvathas "life"  | Av gayō, acc. ǰyātum "life"; Gayōmart "living mortal"; -ǰyāiti- "life-"; Av ǰva-, OPers ǰīva- "alive", NPers ǰavān- "alive"; Kurd jiyan, jîn "life"

Past žwənd "life"

| OCS živŭ "alive", žitĭ, životŭ "life"; Živa "alive, living (Polabian deity)"  | OPrus giws "alive", giwata "life", Lith gyvas "alive", gyvatė "snake"  | Gaul biuo-, bio-,[208][ax]
OIr biu, beo, W byw "alive"; OIr bethu (bethad), W bywyd "life" < Proto-Celtic *bivo-tūts | keam "I live" < *gʷi-yā-ye-mi[191] |  | B śai- "to live" < *gweiH₃-ō | ḫuišu̯ant- "living; alive"[209][210][211][212]
*ǵerh₂-
"to grow old, mature"
[213][162]
[201][214][215]
(See also *ǵr̥h₂-nó-, *gʰreh₁-)  | churl
(< OE ċeorl, ċiorl "free man")  | Karl (< PGmc "free man") (> Slav korlǐ "king")[ay] |  | gérōn, gérontos
"old; elder" (> geronto-);
graûs
"old woman";
geraiós
"old";
géras
"gift of honor";
gerarós
"honorable, majestic, respectable";
Graîa
Graia > Graikós > Graeco-, Greek | járati, jī́ryati
"grows old; wears out; is consumed, digested";
jīrṇá-
"old, worn out; digested";
járan(t)-
"old, infirm; decayed";
jarā́, jarás, jariman
"old age"  |  | OCS zĭrěti "to ripen"  |  |  |  | grua “woman, wife” < PAlb *grāwā  |  |
*mer- "to die"  | murder (< OE morþor < *mr̥-tro-m)  | maúrþr "murder"  | morior (morī) "to die" < *mr̥-yōr, mortalis "mortal"  | brotós (< *mrotós), mortós "mortal"  | marati, máratē, mriyátē "(he) dies", mṛtá- "dead", márta-, mortal  | Av merə- "to die", miryeite "dies"; OPers martiya- "man (someone who dies)", NPers mordan- "to die"; Kurd mirin "to die"

Past mrəl "to die"

| OCS mĭrǫ, mrěti "to die"  | Lith miŕštu (miŕti) "to die", merdėti "to die slowly"  | OIr marb, W marw "dead" < *mr̥-wós | meṙanim "I die", mard "human"  |  |  | mert "died"
*kl̥H-
"bald, naked"
[216][217]
[218][219] |  |  | calvus
"bald, hairless" >
calva
"skull, scalp"  |  | kulvá-
"bald"  | NPers kal, kačal "bald"

kalle "head"

|  |  |  |  |  |  |
*kʷeh₂s-
"to cough"[220][221] | whoost "cough"
(< OE hwōstan)  | German Hust "cough"  |  |  |  | Kurd kuxin "to cough", kuxik "cough"  | OCS kašĭljati "to cough"  | Lith kosėti "to cough"  | W pas "cough"  | koll "cough"  | kollë "cough"  |
*perd- "fart"[222][223] | fart (< OE feortan)  |  |  | pérdomai | párdate "(s/he) farts"  |  | Russian perdétь "to fart"  | Lith perdžia "he farts"  | W rhech "fart"  | bert "fart"  | pordhë "fart"  |  |

## Mental functions and states

[edit]

PIE | English | Gothic | Latin | Ancient Greek | Sanskrit | Iranian | Slavic | Baltic | Celtic | Armenian | Albanian | Tocharian | Hittite

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*ḱlew(s)- "to hear"  | listen (< OE hlystan), loud (< OE hlūd)  | hliuma "hearing, ears (in pl.)"  | clueō (cluēre) "to be named"; inclitus/inclutus "famous" (heard of)  | ékluon "I heard"  | śṛṇóti "(he) hears" < *ḱl̥-ne-w-; śrúti "that which is heard"  | Av surunaoiti "(he) hears" < *k̂lu-n- | OCS
slyšati "to hear";
slušati "to listen"  | OPrus klausytun "to hear", Lith klausyti "to listen"  | OIr ro-clui-nethar "hears"; W clywed "to hear";
Gaul cluiou "I hear"[224]
| lsem "I hear"  | Old Tosk kluaj (standard quaj) "to call, to name" < *ḱlu(H)-eh₁- | A klyoṣ-, B klyauṣ- "to hear"  |

*h₂ew- or *h₃ew-
"to see, perceive, be aware of"
[225] [226] [196] [227]

OE ēawis "obvious"

|  |

audiō
"I hear, listen to; pay attention to" ⇒
[note 55]

aḯō
"I perceive, hear, see, obey";
aisthánomai
"I perceive, feel, apprehend, notice" ⇒
[note 56]

āvís
"evidently, manifestly, before the eyes, openly"

|  | OCS

aviti "to show, appear"

Lith ovytis
"to appear";
ovyje
"in reality"

|  |  |  |  |
*weyd- "to see, find; to know"  | wit (OE wit "intelligence", witan "to know" < PIE perfect tense)  | witan "to know"  | videō (vidēre) "to see"  | é(w)ide "he saw";
perf. oĩda "I know (lit. I have seen)"  | vindáti "(he) finds", ávidat "found";
vetti, vēdate, vidáti "(he) knows"; perf. véda "I know"  | Av vī̆δaiti, vī̆nasti "(he) finds"  | OCS viždǫ (viděti) "to see"  | OPrus widatun "to see"; Lith veidas "face"  | W gweld "to see", gwybod "to know"  | gtanem "I find"  |  |  |
*woyd- "to know"  |  |  |  |  |  | Av perf. vaēδa "I know", vīdarǝ "they know"  | OCS věmĭ (věděti) "to know"  | OPrus waistun "to know", Lith vaistas "medicine", vaidila "pagan priest"  | OIr find, W gwn "(I) know"  | gitem "I know"  |  | B ūwe "learned" < PToch *wäwen- < *wid-wo- |
*ǵénH₃-, *ǵnéH₃-sḱ-, *ǵn̥-né-h₃- "to recognize, know"  | can (< OE cann "I know, he knows"), know (< OE cnāwan < *ǵnēH₃-yo-nom), Scot ken "to know" (< OE cennan "to cause to know" < PGerm *kann-jan)  | kunnan "to know" < *ǵn̥-n-h₃-onom, kann "I know"  | (g)nōscō ((g)nōscere) "to learn about", nōvī "I know" (lit. "I have learnt")  | gignṓskō (aorist égnōn) "I learn about, perceive"  | jānā́mi "I know" < *janā́mi < *ǵn̥-nh₃-mi | Av zanā-ṯ, zanąn < *ǵn̥-ne-h₃-ti; OPers a-dānā (impf.) "he knew" < *ǵn̥-ne-h₃-mi, xšnāsātiy (subj.) "he should know"; Kurd zanîn "to know"  | OCS znajǫ (znati) "to know" < *ǵneh₃-yoh₂ | OPrus zinatun "to recognize, know", Lith žinoti "to know"[228][229] | OIr itar-gninim, asa-gninaim "I am wise"; W adnabod "(I) know"  | čanačʿem, aorist caneay "I recognize"  | njoh "I know" < *ǵnēh₃-sḱoh₂ | A knā-, e.g. knānmaṃ "knowing" < *ǵneH₃-, kñas-äṣt "you have become acquainted" < *ǵnēH₃-s- |
*n̥- + *ǵneh₃-tos "not" + "to know"  | uncouth (< OE uncūþ "unknown, strange")  | unkunþs "unknown"  | ignōtus, ignōrāntem "unknown, ignorant"  | agnṓs (agnõtos) "unknown" < *n̥- + *ǵnéH₃-ts | ajñāta- "unknown"  |  |  | OPrus nezinatun "not to know", Lith nežinoti " not to know"  | OIr ingnad "foreign"  | an-can-awtʿ "ignorant, unknown"  |  | A ā-knats, B a-knātsa "ignorant"  |
*lewbʰ-
"to love; desire, covet, want; admire, praise"[230][231] | love
(< OE lufu);
arch. lief "dear, beloved"
(< OE lēof);
lofe "praise, exalt; offer"
(< OE lofian, lof)  | lubō "love"  | libet
"it is pleasing, agreeable"  |  | lúbhyati
"(s/he) desires greatly; longs for, covets; is perplexed";
lobháyati
"(s/he) causes to desire, attract, allure; confound, bewilder";
lobhá
"perplexity, confusion; impatience, eager desire, longing; covetousness";
lobhin
"greedy, desirous of, longing after; covetous"  |  | OCS ljubiti "to love";
ljubŭ "sweet, pleasant";
ljuby "love";
Russ ljubímyj "favorite"  |  |  |  | lyp "beg"  |  |
*men- "to think"[232][233] | mind (< OE (ġe)mynd "memory" < *mn̥t-ís); OE munan "to think";
minion | munan "to think"; muns (pl. muneis) "thought" < *mn̥-is; gamunds (gamundáis) "remembrance" < *ko(m)-mn̥t-ís | meminī "I remember" ⇒
[note 57];
reminīscor
"I recollect, remember" ⇒
[note 58]
mēns (mentis) "mind" < *mn̥t-is;
memor
"mindful, remembering" ⇒
[note 59]
commentus
"devised, contrived; invented";
moneō
"I remind, warn";
mōnstrum
"a divine omen; portent" ⇒
[note 60];
Minerva | mémona "I think of"; maínomai "I go mad";
mimnḗskō
"I remind, recall";
mnáomai
"I am mindful, remember; woo, court";
autómatos
"self-willed, unbidden; self-moving, automatic";
ménos
"mind; desire; anger";
Méntōr "mentor";
manthánō
"I learn; know, understand; notices";
máthēma
"something that is learned, lesson; learning, knowledge" ⇒
[note 61];
Promētheús] | mányate "(he) thinks"; mántra- "thought, the instrument of thought";[234]
mánas
"mind";
máti
"thought intention; opinion, notion; perception, judgement";
mantṛ́
"thinker, adviser";
medhā́
"wisdom, intelligence" (See mazdā);
mantrín
"minister, councilor, counselor" > mandarin | Av mainyeite "(he) thinks";
mazdā "wisdom, intelligence";
OPers mainyāhay "I think", NPers Došman- "Someone who has a bad mind"; Kurd mejî "brain, mind"  | OCS mĭněti "to mean";
pamętĭ
"memory";
myslĭ
"thought"  | OPrus mintun "to guess", minisna "memory", mints "riddle", mentitun "to lie", Lith mintis " thought", minti "to guess", minėti "to mention"  | OIr do-moiniur "I believe, I mean"  |  | mendoj "I think"  | A mnu "thought"; B mañu "demand (n.)"  | memmāi "says"

*(s)mer-
"to remember, care for, be concerned, fall into thinking"
[235] [236] [196] [237]

mammer "to hesitate; to mumble, stammer from hesitation"
(< OE māmrian, māmorian "to think through, deliberate, plan out");
mimmer "to dote, dream"
(< OE mymerian "to keep in mind");
mourn
(< OE murnan);
OE mimor "mindful"

maurnan
"be anxious"

memor
"mindful, remembering"[az]

[note 62];
mora
"delay, any duration of time" ⇒
[note 63]

mérmeros
"baneful, mischievous; captious, fastidious";
mérimna
"care, thought; anxious mind";
mártus, márturos
"witness" ⇒
[note 64]

smárati
"(s/he) remembers, recollects"

|  |

Serbo-Croatian and Slovenian mar "care"

|  |  |  |  |  |

*teng-
"to think"
[238] [239] [196]

think
(< OE þenċan, þenċean);
thank
(< OE þanc "thought, thanks")

þagkjan
"think"

tongeō
"I know"

|  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  | A tuṅk, B taṅkw "love"  |

*mers-
"to bother, annoy, neglect, disturb, forget, ignore"
[240] [241] [196] [242]

mar
(< OE mierran)

|  |  |  |

mṛ́ṣyate
"(s/he) forgets, neglects, disregards"

|  |  |

Lith miršti "to forget, lose, become oblivious"

|  |  | mërzi "boredom"

mërzit "bother, annoy"

|  |
*sekʷ- "to see, to say"  | see (< OE sēon); say (< OE sec̣gan < PGerm *sag(w)jan < *sokʷéyonom)  | saíƕan "to see"; OHG sagen "say" < *sokʷē- | īnseque "declare!"  | énnepe "tell!"  | śacate "(he) says"  |  | OCS sočiti "to announce"  | Lith sakyti "to say", sekti "to tell a story, to follow"  | OIr insce "I talk"; OIr rosc "eye" < *pro-skʷo-; OW hepp "(he) said"  |  | sheh "(he) sees"  | A ṣotre, B ṣotri "sign"  | sakuwāi- "to see"

*derḱ-
"to see"
[243] [244] [245] [246]

ME torhte "bright, shining, radiant"

|  |  |

dérkomai
"to see, see clearly; watch";
dérgma
"look, glance; sight"

dṛś-
"see";
[ba][note 65]
darśayati
"to cause to see, to show";
dṛṣṭá-
"seen, visible, apparent, noticed"

|  |  |  | Oir : dearc ~tha).Look, behold; regard, consider; W edrych "look"  |  | ndrri, ndrritje

"bright, enlightened"

|  |

*(s)péḱ-
"to watch, be looking at, keep looking at"
[247] [248] [245] [249]

spy
(< Fk *spehōn "to spy")

|  |

-spex
"watcher" > avispex, auspex "bird-watcher"

[note 20];
speciō
"I observe, watch, look at"

[note 66];
speciēs
"seeing, view, look; sight; appearance; point of view; kind, sort, type"

[note 67];
specimen
"mark, token; example, pattern, model";
spectus
"look, appearance, aspect";
spectrum
"appearance, image; apparition, spectre"

[note 68];
speculum
"looking-glass, mirror"

[note 69]

skopéō
"I look, behold; inspect"

[note 70];
skopós
"watcher; proterctor, guardian"

[note 71];
sképtomai
"I look at; examine; consider, think";
sképsis
"viewing; observation; doubt"

[note 72]

spáś
"spy, watcher; messenger";
páśyati
"(s/he) sees, looks, beholds";
spaṣṭá-
"clear, visible; obvious, evident; intelligible"

|  |  | Lith spoksoti "to keep looking"  |  |  | shpik "invent"

shpikje "invention, creation"

|  |

*kʷeḱ-
"to see; to show; to seem"
[250] [251] [245] [252]

|  |  |  |

tékmar
"goal, end; token"

kā́śate
"(it) is visible, appears; shines";
√caks-, caṣṭe
"to see, look; appear; inform";
cákṣu
"eye";
cákṣman
"seer"

Av cašman "eye"

OCS kazati "to show; say, testify"

| Lith kušlas "having poor eyesight"  |  |  |  |  |
*wekʷ- "to say"  | OE wōma "noise" < *wōkʷ-mō(n) | OHG giwahanen "mention" < PGerm *gawahnjan (denom. built on *wokʷ-no-)  | vocō (vocāre) "to call", vōx (vōcis) "voice"  | eĩpon (aor.) "spoke" < *e-we-ikʷ-om < *e-we-ukʷ-om, (w)épos "word"  | vákti, vívakti "(he) says", vāk "voice", vácas- "word"  | Av vač- "speak, say", vāxš "voice", vačah "word", NPers vāk- "voice"; Kurd vaj "voice", bivaj- "to say"  |  | OPrus enwackēmai "we call"  | OIr foccul "word", W gwaethl "argument, verbal fight" < * wokʷ-tlo-m | gočem "I call"  |  | A wak, B wek "voice"  | ḫuek-, ḫuk- to swear to"
*bʰeh₂- "to speak, say"[253] | ban (< PGmc *bannaną "to proclaim, order, summon")  |  | fāma "fame"; fās "divine law; will of god, destiny";
for (fārī) "I speak, talk, say";
fātus "word, saying; oracle, prophecy; fate";
fateor (fatērī, fassus sum) "I confess, admit, acknowledge";
fābula "discourse, narrative; tale, fable";
Sp hablar, Pt falar "to speak"  | phōnḗ "voice"; phḗmē "prophetic voice; rumor; reputation";
phēmí "I speak, say";
prophḗtēs "one who speaks for a god: proclaimer, prophet";
phásis "utterance, statement, expression"  | bhā́ṣā "speech, language"; bhā́ṣati "(s/he) speaks"  |  | bajka "fable";[bb] OCS balii (bali) "physician, (healer, enchanter)"  |  |  |  |  |  |
*preḱ-, *pr̥-sḱ- < *pr̥ḱ-sḱ- "to ask"  | Scot frain "to ask" (< OE freġnan)  | fraíhnan "to ask"; OHG forscōn "to ask, to research"  | precor (precārī) "to pray", poscō (poscere) "to demand, ask"  |  | pṛccháti "(he) asks"  | Av pǝrǝsaiti "(he) asks, desires" < *pr̥-sḱ-; OPers aor.? aparsam "(he) asked"; Kurd pirs "question"

Past pox̌tə́l "to ask"

| OCS prositi "to ask, to demand"  | OPrus prasitun "to ask", Lith prašyti "to ask"  | OIr imm-chom-arc "mutual questions, greetings"; NIr arco, W archaf "I ask"  | harcʿanem "I ask"  | pyet "ask"

porosit "recommend, order" (an article or a meal)

| A prak-, B prek- "to ask"  |
*kelh₁-, (s)kel-dʰ-
"to call, cry, summon"[254][255] | haul
(< OE halian);
scold
(< ON skald)  |  | calō
"I call, announce solemnly; call out";
concilium
"a council, meeting" ⇒
[note 73];
classis
"the armed forces; fleet; group or class" > class;
kalendae
"the Calends" > calendar;
clāmō
"I cry out, clamor, shout, yell" ⇒
[note 74];
clārus
"clear, bright; renouwned, famous; loud, distinct" ⇒
[note 75] | kaléō
"I call, hail; summon, invite"  | klándati, krándati
"(s/he) laments weeps; cries; sounds";
uṣaḥkala-, uṣakala-
"rooster, lit, dawn-call"  | Kurd kalîn "to moan, to whine, to mourn", dikale "he/she mourns"  | OCS klakolŭ "bell";
Russ skulítʹ "to whine, whisper"  | Lith kalbėti "to speak"  |  |  | Gheg kaj "weep, cry"  |  |
*bʰeyh₂- "to fear, be afraid"[256] | bive, bever "to shake, tremble" (< OE bifian)  |  | foedus "foul, filthy, unseemly; vile"  |  | bháyate "(s/he) is afraid";
bhī, bhīti, bhayá- "fear"  |  | OCS bojati "to fear, be afraid"  | Lith baimė "fear"  |  |  |  |  |
*h₁néh₃mn̥ or *h₁nómn̥ "name"  | name (< OE nama)  | namō (acc. pl. namna) "name"  | nōmen "name"  | ónoma "name"  | nā́ma(n)(instrumental sg. nā́mnā) "name"  | Av nāma "name"; NPers nām- "name"; Kurd nav "name"

Past num "name"

| OCS imę "name" < Proto-Slavic *inmen < *n̥men | OPrus emnes, emmens "name" < *enmen- | OIr ainmm n-, OW anu "name";
Gaul anuan < anman "name"[257] | anun "name"  | Gheg emën, Tosk emër "name" < *enmen- | A ñem, B ñom "name"  | lāman- "name"

## General conditions and states

[edit]

PIE | English | Gothic | Latin | Ancient Greek | Sanskrit | Iranian | Slavic | Baltic | Celtic | Armenian | Albanian | Tocharian | Hittite

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*(s)teyg-
"to be sharp; to sting"
[258][259]
[260][261] | stick
(< OE sticca);
stitch
(< OE stiċe);
thistle
(< OE þistel)  |

stiks
"point"

| īnstīgō
"I stimulate, incite, rouse" > instigate;
stilus (later spelled stylus[bc])
"pointed instrument, spike" ⇒
[note 76] | stizō
"I tattoo; mark";
stíxis
"marking; spot, mark";
stígma
"mark, tattoo; spot, stain"  | téjate
"become sharp; energize";
téjas
"sharp ede of a knife; light, brilliance, glow; splendor; fiery power";
tīkṣṇá
"sharp; hot, fiery, pungent; acute, keen";
tigmá
"sharp, pointed; pungent, scorching, acrid"  | Per tez "sharp"  |  |  |  |  |  |  |

*teh₂-
"to melt, thaw; flow"
[262] [263] [264]

thaw
(< OE þawian); thone
"damp, moist, wet" (< OE þan)

|  |

tābēs
"decay, foulness; fluid from a wound"; tābeō
"I melt; rot";
tābum
"gore; viscous fluid"

tîphos
"pond, swamp";
tḗkō
"melt"

tāmara
"water";
toyam
"water";
toś-, tośate
"drip, distill, trickle";
tuṣāra
"rain, mist, tickle, drizzle, wet"

|  | OCS

tajati "melt"

|  | W toddi to melt  |  |  |  |

## Natural features

[edit]

PIE | English | Gothic | Latin | Ancient Greek | Sanskrit | Iranian | Slavic | Baltic | Celtic | Armenian | Albanian | Tocharian | Hittite

|
|
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*h₂ster-  "star"
(See also: *h₂eHs-)  | star (< OE steorra)  | staírnō "star"  | stēlla "star"  | astḗr "star"[bd] | root stṛ (stá "star", stáras "stars"), contracted root tṛ (tārā "star")  | Av acc. stā̆rǝm (ablauting)[be] "star"; Kurd stêr "star"  |  |  | MIr ser, W seren, Breton sterenn "star"; Celtic Sirona (< *Tsirona) "astral", "stellar"  | astł "star"; Astłik "deity of love, fertility and skylight"  |  | pl. A śreñ, B ściriñ "stars"  | ḫasterza "star"
*dyḗws[ii] "day, daily sky → the sky god";
*déywos "heavenly → god"  | Tues-day (< OE Tīwes-dæġ lit. "day of Tīw"[bf])  | tiws "god", ON Týr "Tīw" (the war god)  | Iuppiter (Iovis), Old Latin Diū-piter (Diovis) "Jupiter"; diēs "day", deus, dīvus "god"[bg] | Zdeús (Di(w)ós)[iii] "Zeus"  | d(i)yāús (divás, dyōs)[iii] "heaven", dēvás "god", devī́ "goddess"  | Av daēva- "demon"; Kurd dêw "giant"  | (OCS dĭnĭ (dĭne) "day" < *din-is), Ukr. dyvo and Russ. divo "miracle"  | OPrus deina "day", deiws "god", Lith diena "day", dievas "god"  | OIr dīe, W dydd "day"; OIr dia (dē), OW duiu- "God"  | tiw (tuənǰean) "day"  | din “dawn” <PAlb *deina “day”

zot “god” <PIE *dyew + *átta

|  | Šiuš "Hittite sky- or sun-god"[265][bh]
*seh₂wol-, *sóh₂wl̥, *sh₂un- "sun"  | sun (< OE sunne)  | sauil, sunnō "sun"  | sōl "sun"  | Homeric hēélios "sun" < *sāwélios;[bi] Helios "deity of the sun"  | súvar (súra-) "sun, light, heavens", sūra-, sūrya "sun"  | Av hvarǝ (hūrō) "sun, light, heavens", Hvare-khshaeta "deity of the radiant sun"  | OCS slĭnŭce "sun" < *sulnika-, Russ. po-solon' "sunwise"  | OPrus sauli "sun", sawaiti "week", Lith saulė "sun"  | OIr sūil "eye"; W haul "sun"  |  | ylli "star" < *sūlo- or *sūli- | A swañceṃ; B swañco, swañciye "sunbeam" (< Common Tocharian *su̯āntœ)[266] | DUTU-li-ya "Sun goddess"
*meh₁ns-  "moon, month"  | moon (< OE mōna), month (< OE mōnaþ)  | mēna "moon", mēnoþs "month"  | mēnsis "month"  | Att mḗn, Ion meis, Dor mḗs "month", mḗnē "moon"  | mā́s "moon"; mā́sa "month"  | Av mā̊ (mā̊ŋhō) "moon"; NPers māh "moon, month"; Kurd meh "month", mang "moon"  | OCS měsęcĭ "moon, month" < *mēs-n̥-ko- | OPrus miniks "moon", mins "month", Lith mėnulis "moon", mėnesis "month"  | OIr mī (mīs) "month" < *mēns;; W mis "month"  | amis "month"  | muai "month"  | A mañ B meñe "month"; A mañ ñkät B meṃ "moon"  |
*dʰeǵʰom\-  "earth"
(See also *dʰǵʰemon-)  |  |  | humus "earth" ⇒
[note 77] | kʰtʰṓn (kʰtʰonós) "earth", kʰamaí "on the earth"[bj] | kṣā́s (acc. kṣā́m, gen. jmá-) "earth"  | Av zā̊ (acc. ząm, gen. zǝmō) "earth"; Kurd zevî "farmland"; NPers zamin "ground, soil", zamindar "land owner"  | OCS zemĭ, zemlja "earth"; Russ Chernozem "black soil"  | OPrus zemê "earth", semmai "on the earth" (adverb); Lith žemė " earth"  | OIr dū "place"; Welsh dyn "man"  |  | dhe "earth"  | A tkaṃ (tkanis), B keṃ "earth"  | tēkan (tagnās) "earth"

*h₂éḱmō
"stone"
[267][268]
[269][270]

hammer
(< OE hamer)

|  |  |

ákmōn
"anvil"

áśman
"stone";
aśmará
"stony"

| Asman "sky"  | OCS

kamy, gen. kamene "stone"

Lith akmuõ, gen. akmeñs "stone"

|  |  |  |  |

*lep-
"stone"
[271][272][273]

|  |  |

lapis
"stone"

lépas
"crag, bare rock"

|  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |
*wódr̥ (udéns) pl. *wédōr (udnés) "water"  | water (< OE wæter)  | watō (watins) "water"  | Umbrian utur "water", Latin unda "wave"  | húdōr (húdatos) "water"; Hydra (litt.) "water-animal"  | udaká- (loc. udán(i), pl. udá), udra "water"; samudra "ocean" (litt. "gathering of waters")  | Av aoδa- "spring", vaiδi- "stream"  | OCS voda "water", Russ. vedro "bucket"; Russ vódka "little water"  | OPrus undan "water", Lith vanduo gen. vandens "water"  | OIr u(i)sce "water" < *udeskyo-; Eng. Whisky < uisce beatha "water of life"  | get "river"  | ujë "water"  | A wär, B war "water"  | wātar (wetenas) "water"
*dóru, *drew- "wood, tree"  | tree (< OE trēo)  | triu "tree, wood"  |  | dóru, drûs "tree, wood"  | dā́ru, drṓs, drú- "tree, wood"  | Av dāru- "tree, wood"; Kurd dar "tree, wood"  | OCS drěvo "tree"  | OPrus drawê "hole in a tree, hollow tree", Lith drevė "hole in a tree", derva "tar"  | OIr daur "oak", W derwen "oak"  | tram "firm"  | dru "tree, wood"  | AB or "wood"  | taru "tree"
*h₂weh₁n̥to- "wind", *h₂weh₁- "to blow"  | wind (< OE wind); OE wāwan "to blow"  | winds "wind"; waian "to blow"  | ventus "wind"  | áenta (acc.) "wind", áēsi "(he) blows"  | vā́ta- (vānt-)[274] "wind", vāti "(he) blows", Vāyu "lord of winds"; nir·vāṇa- "blow-out, extinction"[275] | Av vātō "wind", vāiti "(he) blows", Vayu-Vata "a pair of deities: Vayu/Wind and Vata/Air"; Kurd ba, wa, va "wind", hewa "air, weather"  | OCS vějǫ (vějetŭ) "to blow", větrŭ "wind"  | OPrus witra "wind"; Lith vėjas "wind", vėtra "heavy wind", Vėjopatis "god of winds"  | W gwynt "wind"  |  | vetëtin“it thunders”  | A want, B yente "wind"  | ḫūwanz[276] "wind"
*sneygʷʰ- "to snow"  | snow (< OE snāw < *snóygʷʰos, snīwan "to snow" < *snéygʷʰonom)  | snáiws "snow"  | nix (nivis) "snow", ninguō (ninguere) "to snow"  | nípʰa (acc.) "snow", neípʰei "it snows"  | sneha- "snow"  | Av snaēža- "to snow"; Shughni žǝnij "snow" < *snaiga- | OCS sněgŭ "snow"  | OPrus snaigs "snow", Lith sniegas "snow", snigti "to snow"  | OIr snecht(a)e, W nyf "snow" (< *snigʷo-); OIr snigid "it rains"  |  |  | B śin̄catstse "snowy" (< *śin̄ce (“snow”) < *snígʷi)  |
*h₁n̥gʷnís "fire" < *h₁engʷ- "to burn";[277]
*h₁óngʷl̥ "charcoal"  |  |  | ignis "fire"  |  | agní "fire";
áṅgāra "charcoal"  |  | OCS ognĭ "fire";
ǫglĭ "coal"  | Lith ugnis "fire", anglis "coal" Lv uguns "fire"  |  |  | e enjte “Thursday”

<PAlb *agni “fire”

|  |
*péh₂wr̥, ph₂unés "bonfire"[bk] | fire (< OE fȳr < *fuïr[bk])  | fōn (funins)[bk] "fire"; OHG fuïr[bk] (two syllables) < *puwéri | Umbrian pir "fire" < *pūr, acc. purom-e "into the fire" < *pur- | pũr (purós) "fire"  | pāru (pēru) "sun, fire"  | NPers fer "oven, furnace"  | Czech pýř "glowing ash", Pol perzyna "embers", Slovak pyr, UpSb pyr "ashes"[278] Ukr para "steam (n.)"  | OPrus pannu "fire"  |  | hur "fire"  |  | A por, B puwar, puwār, pwār "fire"  | paḫḫur "fire"
*dʰuh₂mós "smoke" < *dʰewh₂- "to smoke"[279] | dew
(< OE dēaw)  |  | fūmus "smoke"  | thūmós "soul, life, breath; desire, temper"  | dhūmá- "smoke; mist, fog"  | Kurd du, dukêl | OCS dymŭ "smoke"  |  |  |  | tym “smoke” <PAlb ātuma  |
*h₂eHs-
"to become dry; burn, glow; hearth; ashes"

[280] [281] [264]
(See also: *h₂ster-)

| ash
(< OE æsce);
| azgō
"ash; cinder"  | āreō
"I am dry; dried up, withered";
āridus
"dry, parched, withered, arid" > arid;
āra
"altar; sanctuary, refuge";
assus
"roasted, baked; dried"; Osc aasa "altar"  | ázō
"I dry";
ásbolos
"soot"  | ā́sa-
"ashes, dust"  |  |  |  |  |  |  | A/B ās- "to dry out; to dry up"  | ḫašš- "ash; dust"; ḫašša- "hearth"; Lyc χaha-(di-) "altar"

*ken-
"to rub, scrape off; ashes, dust" [282][283]
[264]

|  |  |

cinis, cineris
"ashes" ⇒
[note 78]

κόνις
"ash, dust"

kaṇa-
"particle; small grain of dust, rice, corn; atom"

|  |  |  |  |  |  |  |
*gʷʰerm- "warm"  | ?warm (< OE wearm); OE ġierwan "to prepare, cook" < PGerm *garwjan | ?warmjan "to warm"  | formus "warm"  | tʰermós "warm"  | gʰarmá- "heat"  | Av garǝma- "hot, heat"; OPers Garma-pada-, name of the fourth month, corresponding to June/July, orig. (?) "entrance of the heat"; Kurd germ "hot, warm"  | Russ. žar "heat", goret' "to burn" < *gʷʰer | OPrus garmê "heat, glowing", Lith žarijos "cinders", žėrėti "to glow"  | OIr gorn "fire" < *gʷʰor-nos, W gwres heat, warmth  | ǰerm "warm"  | Gheg zjarm "fire, heat"

ngroh “ I warm” ziej “I boil, cook” <PAlb *džernja

| A śärme "heat (of summer)"  |

*dʰegʷʰ-
"to burn; warm, hot"
[284] [285] [264] [286]

|  |  |

foveō
"I warm, keep warm; nurture, foster";
fōmentum
"a warm application; lotion";

[note 79] fōmes
"kindling, tinder" febris
"fever";

[note 80] februum, februarius
"expiatory offerings, means of purification";

[note 81][bl]

téphrā
"ashes"

dáhati
"it burns";
dagdhá-
"burned, burnt"

|  | OCS

žešti (žeg-) "to burn";
žigŭ "burn mark, brand"

Lith dė̃gis "burn scar"

|  |  | ndez “to light”

djeg "burn"

|  |
*h₁ews- "to burn";[287][288] | ember (< OE ǣmyrġe)  |  | ūrō "I burn, consume, inflame";
ustus "burnt, inflamed";
bustum < amb-bustum "a burial mound, tomb";
combūrō "I burn up, cremate, scald" > combust;
ūrna "urn, water jar" (lit. a vessel of burnt clay)  | heúō "I singe"  | óṣati "(s/he) burns, burns down; punishes";
uṣṭá "burnt";
uṣṇá "warm, hot"  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |
*gel- "to be cold, to freeze"  | cold (< OE ceald)  | kalds "cold (of the weather)"  | gelus "ice", gelidus "icy"  |  | śarada "autumn"  |  | MBulg goloti "ice"  | Lith gelmenis, gelumà "great cold"  |  |  |  |  |
*temH- "(to be) dark"
*témHos "darkness"  |  | OHG demar "twilight"  | tenebrae "darkness" (< *temebrai < *temasro)  |  | támas "darkness, gloom", támisrā "dark night"  | Av taΘra "darkness", təmah- "darkness"[289] | OCS tĭmĭnŭ "darkness", tĭma', Rus temnotá "darkness"  | Lith tamsa "dark, darkness", tiḿsras "a darker shade of red"; Latv tumšs, timšs "dark", tùmsa "darkness"[290] | OIr temel "darkness" (< PCel *temeslos); OW timuil "dark, darkness"  |  |  | B tamãsse "dark"  |
*nébʰos "cloud; mist"[181] | OE nifol "dark [misty]"  | ON Niflheimr "home of mists"  | nebula "fog, cloud"  | népʰos "cloud"; nepʰélē "mass of clouds; name of a nymph"  | nábʰas "mist; sky, cloud"; nábʰāsa "celestial, heavenly; appearing in the sky"  | nabah- "heavens" (litt. "nimbuses, clouds")[291] | OCS nebo "heaven, sky"; Pol niebo "sky"; Cz nebesa "skies"; Rus Небеса "heaven"  | Lith debesis "cloud", Ltv debesis skies, heavens  | OIr nem "sky"; OBret nem, MBret neff "sky"  |  | avull “steam” <PAlb *abula  |  | nēpiš- "sky, heaven"; CLuw tappaš- "heaven"; HierLuw tipas- "heaven"

*lew-
"dirt, mud"
[292][293][273]

|  |  |

lutum "dirt, clay, mud"; polluō
"I soil, defile, foul" ⇒
[note 82]

lûma
"dirt, filth, smut; disgrace"

|  |  |  |

Lith liutýnas "loam pit"

OIr loth "mud"

|  |

lym "mud"

|  |

*sámh₂dʰos
"sand"
[273]

sand
(< OE sand)

|  |

sabulō, sabulum
"sand, gravel"

psámathos
"sand, grains of sand"

|  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |
*srew-, *srew-mo, *sru-to "to flow, stream" (in river names)[bm] | stream (< OE strēam)  | ON straumr "a stream"  |  | rheûma "flow"  | srutá- "flow", srava "a flow of, a waterfall" (< *srówos)  | YAv θraotah- "stream" (< OIA srótas-); OPer rautaʰ- "river"  | OCS struja "stream", o-strovŭ "island";[bn] Rus strumenı "brook"; Pol strumień "brook, river"  | Lith sraumuõ "brook, stream"; Latv strāva "current"; Lith sraujà, Latv strauja "stream";[296] Lith sraũtas "flow, torrent"  | OIr sruaimm, Ir sruth "stream, river"; MW ffrwd "brook, stream"; OBret frut "stream"  | OArm aṙu "brook; canal" (< srutis-)  | rrymë "stream, current; flow (of water)"  |  |
*dʰenh₂- "to set in motion, to flow";[297]
*déh₂nu "river goddess"  |  |  | fōns < PItal *ðonts "spring, fountain; fresh water; source"  |  | dhánvati "it runs, flows, causes to run or flow";[298]
dhána- "competition, contest; prize";
dā́nu "fluid, drop, dew"  | Dnieper < OOss dānu apara "the far river"[299] |  |  | Danube < PCelt *Dānowyos |  |  |  |

*dʰol-
"valley, vault; curve, hollow"
[300][301]
[269]

dale
(< OE dæl)

acc. dal "pit, valley"

|  |

thólos
"vault"

|  |  | OCS

dolŭ "valley; depression"

|  |  |  |  |  |
*móri "lake?, sea?"[bo] | OE mere "lake"  | marei "sea"  | mare "sea"  |  | maryā́dā "shore; bank of a water body"  |  | OCS morje "sea"  | Lith mãrės "sea"  | OIr muir "sea"; W môr "sea"; Gaul Morini "those from the sea (name of a tribe)"  | OAr mor < mawr "mud, marsh, swamp"  |  |  |

## Directions

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PIE | English | Gothic | Latin | Ancient Greek | Sanskrit | Iranian | Slavic | Baltic | Celtic | Armenian | Albanian | Tocharian | Hittite

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*per- "through, across, beyond"  | far (< OE feorr)  | faírra "far"; faír- "around; (intensifier)"  | per "through"  | perí, pér "around"  | pári "forward"  | Av pairi; OPers pariy "forward"; Kurd ber "in front of, before"  | OCS prě- "forward"  | OPrus pro-, pra- "trough, across", Latvian pāri "across", Lith per "across", pra- "to start and finish doing something", pro- "through"  | OIr ir-, W er "forward"  | heṙu "far"  | për, pej, pe "forward"  |  | parā, Lycian pri "forth"
*upér(i) "over, above"  | over (< OE ofer)  | ufar "over, above, beyond"  | super "over" (influenced by sub "under")  | hypér (< *supér) "over"  | upári "over, above, beyond"  | Av 'upairi, OPers "over, above, beyond"  | OCS po "upon, at"  | OPrus uppin "cloud",  | OIr for, W gor, gwar "over, on"  | ver "up"  | epër "over, above"  |  |
*h₂ents "forehead", *h₂entí, *h₂entá "in front of"  | and (< OE and)  | and "along, throughout, towards, in, on, among"; OHG enti "previously" < PGerm *andiaz | ante "in front of"  | antí "instead of"  | anti "opposite to it"  | Kurd enî "front, forehead"  |  | Lith añt "on" antai "there"  | OIr étan "forehead" < *antono- | ənd "instead of"  | ende “yet, still”

edhe “and” (< ênde)

| A ānt, B ānte "surface, forehead"  | ḫānz, ḫanti "in front"
*h₁én "in"  | in (< OE in)  | in "in, into, towards"  | in "in"  | en "in"  | án-īka- "face" < ?*h₁eni-Hkʷ | Av ainika "face" < ?*h₁eni-Hkʷ | OCS on-, vŭn-, vŭ "in"  | OPrus en "in", Lith į "in"  | OIr in- "in"; W yn "in"  | i "in"  | në “in”  | AB y-, yn-, B in- "in"  | an-dan "inside"
*h₂epó "away"  | of, off (< OE of)  | af "from, of, by" (ab-u "from ...?")  | ab "away"  | apó "from"  | ápa "away"  | Av apa, OPers apa "away"  | OCS ot, "from, apart of"  | Lith apačià "bottom" < *apotyā |  |  | prapë "back" < *per-apë

pa “without”

|  | āpa "behind, back" (or ? < *epi)
*deḱs- "the right (side)"  |  | Gothic taihswa "right side"  | dexter | dexiós; Myc de-ki-si-wo | dákṣina "right, south"  | Av dašina "right, south"; MPer dašn "right hand, right side"  | OCS desnŭ "right (side)"  | Lith dẽšinas | Gaul Dexsiva (Dexsiua), W de right, south  |  | djathtë “right” <PAlb *detsa  |  |
*marǵ-, *merǵ-
"edge; boundary, border"
[302][303][304] | mark
(< OE mearc);
march
(< OF markōn)  | marka "border, bound, region"  |  | margō (marginis)
"border, edge" > margin |  | maryā
"limit, mark, boundary";
mārga-
"way, road, path"  |  |  |  | W bro region, vale  |  |  |  |
*bʰudʰmḗn "bottom"[305] | butt (< OE bytt);
bottom, botham (< OE bodan, botm)  |  | fundus "bottom, ground, foundation; farm, estate"  | puthmḗn "bottom (cup, jar, sea)"  | budhná "bottom, ground, base, depth"  |  |  |  | Gaul bona "base, bottom, village"
(found in several placenames: Bonna > Bonn;
Windo-bona "white village" > Vienna;
Bononia > Boulogne(-sur-Mer))[306]
|  | buzë “lip, edge” <PAlb *budza

bythë "bottom"

|  |

## Basic adjectives

[edit]

PIE | English | Gothic | Latin | Ancient Greek | Sanskrit | Iranian | Slavic | Baltic | Celtic | Armenian | Albanian | Tocharian | Hittite

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*bʰerǵʰ-
"great, tall; hill, elevation";
*bʰérǵʰonts
"high, mighty"
[307][308]
[269][309][310]

borough, borough, Brough, bur-, burg, burgh, bury, -bury
(< OE burg, burh "city, town, fortification");
barrow
(< OE beorg)

| baurgs "castle, city", OHG burg "fortress, citadel";
OHG Burgunt (a female personal name)[311] |

fortis "strong, powerful; firm" ⇒
[note 83];
LL Burgundia "Burgundy";
Fr Bourgogne

|  |

bṛhát, bṛhánt- "tall, elevated";[311]
bráhman "lit. growth, expansion, development
> outpouring of the heart
> prayer, sacred word, mantra"; brahmán "worshiper";[312][313]
barháyati "to invigorate"

| Av barəzah‑ "height", Harā Bərəzaitī "a mythical mountain" (litt. "High Watchpost")  | OCS

brěgŭ "hill, slope; bank, shore"

|  | MIr brí, MW bre, MBre bre, Gaul -briga "elevation, hill"; Gaul Brigantes (ethnonym); Celt Brigantia (name of a goddess),[311] Ir Brigid (goddess) < PCelt *Brigantī "The High One"  | barjr "high"  |  | A pärk- "to elevate"; B pärkare "long"  | parkuš "tall"
*weh₁-, *weh₁ros
"true"
[314][315][316] | OE wǣr "true"  | *wers as in allawerei "simplicity"
Ger wahr
Dut waar
"true"  | vērus
"true" (> very,[bp] verify, verity, etc.)  |  |  |  | OCS věra "faith, belief"  |  | OIr. fír "true", W gwir "true"  |  | urtë “quiet” <PAlb *wara  |  |
*medʰyo- "mid, middle"  | mid, middle (< OE mid, middel)  | midjis "middle"  | medius "middle"  | més(s)os "middle"  | mádʰya- "middle"  | Av maiδya- "middle"  | OCS meždu "between", Russ. meža "boundary"  | OPrus meddin "forest" (between villages), Lith medis, Latv mežs "tree"  | OIr mid- "middle" < *medʰu-; MW mei- "middle" < *medʰyo- | mēǰ "middle"  | mes, mjet "in between, middle"  |  |
*meǵ- "big"  | much (< OE myc̣el "big, many")  | mikils "big"  | magnus "big"  | mégas "big"  | máha-, mahā́nt- "big"  | Av mazant- "big"  |  | OPrus mazs "smaller", Lith mažas "small"  | OIr mochtae, MIr mag-, maige "big", MW mael "prince", W maes "field"  | mec "big"  | madh "big"  | A mak, B makā "much"  | mekkis "big"
*dlongʰos, *dl̥h₁gʰós "long";[317] | long (< OE long, lang);
| langs "long"  | longus "long"  | dolikhós "long, protracted";
| dīrghá- "long"  | Av darəga "long"  | OCS dlĭgŭ "long";
| Lith ilgas "long"  |  |  | gjatë "long"  |  | talugai- "long"
*gʷerH₂- "heavy"  |  | kaúrus "heavy"  | grāvis "heavy"  | barús "heavy"  | gurú- "heavy"  | Av gouru- "heavy-", NPers girān "heavy" < *grāna- (influenced by *frāna "full")  | OCS gromada "big size, huge", gruz "a load, something heavy",  | OPrus garrin "tree", Lith geras "good"  | MIr bair "heavy (?)", W bryw "strong"  |  | zor "brute force; great effort"  | A kra-marts "heavy (?)", B krā-mär "burden" < *gʷroH₂-mVr- |
*h₁le(n)gʷʰ-, *h₁ln̥gʷʰ-ro-, *h₁ln̥gʷʰ-u-[bq] "light (in weight)"  | light (< OE lēoht)  | leihts "light" < *h₁lengʷʰ-tos; OHG lungar "fast" < *h₁ln̥gʷʰ-ros | levis "light" < *h₁legʷʰ-us | elakʷʰús "small" < *h₁ln̥gʷʰ-us, elapʰrós "light, quick" < *h₁ln̥gʷʰ-ros | lagʰú-, ragʰú- "quick, light, small"  | Av ragu-, fem. rǝvī "fast", superl. rǝnjišta- "fastest"  | OCS lŭgŭkŭ "light"  | OPrus langus "light", langsta "window", lankewingis "flexible", linktwei "to bend", Lith lengvas "light", lankstus "flexible", langas "window", lenkti "to bend"  | OIr laigiu, laugu, MW llei "smaller"  | lanǰ "breast"  | lehtë "light-weight"  | B lankutse "light"  |
*h₂élyos, *h₂ényos "other"; *h₂énteros "second"  | else (< OE elles); other (< OE ōþer)  | aljis, anþar "other"  | alius "other"  | állos "other"  | anyá-, ántara- "other"; aryas, Aryan, "else"  | Av anya-, ainya-, OPers aniya- "other"; Av airiia, Aryan, "friend", "faithful", airiio "elsehow"; Ossetian ändär "other"; East Iranian hal-ci "whoever"  | Old Sorbian wutory "other" < PSlav *ǫtorŭ | OPrus antars "second", Lith antras "second"  | OIr aile, W ail "other";
Gaul allos "other, second"[318] | ayl "other"  | lloj “sort, type”  | A ālya-kə, B alye-kə "another"  | Lydian aλa- "other"
*néwo- "new"  | new (< OE nīwe)  | niujis "new"  | novus "new"  | né(w)os "new"  | náva- "new"  | Av nava- "new"  | OCS novŭ "new"  | OPrus nawas "new", Lith naujas "new"  | OIr nūë, W newydd "new"  | nor "new" < *nowero- |  | A ñu, B ñune "new"  | newa- "new"
*h₂yuHn̥- "young"  | young (< OE ġeong < *h₂yuHn̥ḱós)  | juggs "young"  | juvenis "young", iuvencus "young"/"bullock"  |  | yúvan- (yū́nas) "young"  | Av yvan-, yavan- (yūnō) "youth, young man"  | OCS junŭ "young"  | Lith jaunas "young"  | OIr ōac "young", W ieuanc "young" < *H₂yuHn̥k̂ós |  |  |  |
*sen- "old"  |  | sineigs "old (person)"  | senex "old"  | hénos "former, from a former period"  | sánas "old"  | Av hana- "old"  | OCS sedyi "grey-headed"  | OPrus sentwei "to get old", Lith senas "old"  | OIr sen "old", Old Welsh hen "old"  | hin "old"  |  |  |
*nogʷ- "naked"  | naked (< OE nacod "naked")  | naqaþs "naked"  | nudus "naked"  | gumnós "naked"  | nagnás "naked"  | NPers loxt "naked"  | OCS nagŭ "naked"  | OPrus nags "naked", Lith nuogas "naked"  | OIr nocht "naked"; W noeth "naked, bare"  |  |  |  | nekumant- "naked, bare"
*bʰosós "bare, barefoot"[319] | bare (< OE bær)  |  |  |  |  |  | OCS bosŭ "barefooted, unshod"  | Lith basas "barefooted"  |  |  |  |  |
*n̥mr̥tós "immortal"[320] |  |  |  | ámbrotos "immortal, divine"  | amṛ́ta- "immortal"  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |
*h₂eḱ- "sharp"[321] | edge (< OE eċġ)  |  | aceō (acēre) "I am sour";
acidus "sour";
acētum "vinegar";
acus "needle, pin";
astus "craft, guile", astūtus "shrewd, astute"  | akmé "point, edge"; oxús "sharp, pointed; quick; clever"  | aśman "stone, rock; sharp one"  | Persian āčār "pickle, marinade"  | OCS ostĭnŭ "sharp point"  | Lith akstinas "pointy and sharp item"  | W eithin gorse  |  | teh “blade” from eh “sharpen”  |  |
*bel- "strong"[322] |  |  | dēbilis[br] "feeble, weak"  | βελτίων "better"  | bála- "force, strength, power"  |  | Russ bolʹšój "big, large, great"  |  |  |  |  |  |

## Light and color

[edit]

PIE | English | Gothic | Latin | Ancient Greek | Sanskrit | Iranian | Slavic | Baltic | Celtic | Armenian | Albanian | Tocharian | Hittite

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*lewk- "light, brightness"  | light (< OE lēoht)  | liuhaþ (liuhadis) "light"  | lūceō (lūcēre) "to shine", lūx "light"  | leukós "bright, shining, white"; Leuce "white (poplar); name of a nymph"; Leucothea "bright goddess"  | rócate "(he) shines", roká- "light", loka- "world, place"  | Av raočant- "shining", raočah "light"; OPers raučah

NPers rowshan "light"; Kurd roj "sun, light, day", ron "light"

| OCS luča "ray, flash" < *loukyā | OPrus lauk "bright", lauksna "star", laukas "field", Lith laukas "outside, field"  | OIr luchair "shine"; W llachar "bright", llug "shimmer"  | loys "light"  |  | AB lyuk/luk- "to shine"  | luk(k)- "to shine"
*bʰel- "to shine"[323] | balefire (< OE bǣlfȳr)  | ON bál "fire"  | fulgeō "I flash, glitter";
flagrō "I burn, blaze";
flamma "flame, fire"  | phlégō "I scorch, kindle"; Phlegyas "fiery"; Phlegethon "flaming";
phlégma "flame, inflammation"; phalós "white"  | bhrája- "fire, shining";
bhāla- "splendor"  |  | OCS bělŭ "white"  | Lith baltas, Latv balts "fair, white"  |  |  | balë “white spot”  |  |
*h₂erǵ- "shining, bright"

*h₂r̥ǵn̥tóm "white metal (silver)"[324]

|  |  | argentum "silver (metal)"; Fal arcentelom "a small silver coin"  | Myc a-ku-ro,[325] árguros "silver"; argós "white, bright";[bs] Argiope "silver face"  | Skt rajatá\- "silver; silver-coloured"; árjuna- "white, clear, silvery"[327] | Av ərəzatəm "silver"  | Ru yarkiy “the bright one”; yarkostj “brightness”  |  | Celtib arkato[bezom] "silver [mine]"; Ir Airget[lám] "silver[-hand] (title of Nuada)"; OIr argat, OW argant "silver"  | arcat‘ "silver"  |  | A ārkyant "silver"; A ārki-, B ārkwi "white"  | ḫarkiš "white, bright"

*ḱweyt-
"to shine, white"
[328] [329] [330] [331]

white
(< OE hwīt)

ƕeits
"white"

|  |  |

śvetá-
"white; bright";
śvindate
"to shine";
áśvitan
"to become bright"

Av spaēta "white; bright";
NPers sefid "white"

OCS světŭ "light, world";
světiti
"to shine, illuminate";
svĭtěti
"to get bright";
svěšta
"candle";
cvětŭ
"bright color; bloom, flower"

Lith šviesà "light";
šviẽsti "to shine"

|  |  |  |  |

*kr̥snós
"black; dark, dusky"
[332] [333] [330] [334]

|  |  |  |  |

kṛṣṇa-
"black, dark, dark-blue" > Kṛṣṇa-

| NPers kersne "dirt, dirty"  |

OCS črŭnŭ "black"

[note 84]

Lith kir̃snas "black (of a horse)";
OPrus kirsnan "black"

|  |  | sorrë “crow” <PAlb *tšārnā  |  |
*h₁rewdʰ-, *h₁rowdʰ-os, *h₁rudʰ-rós[bq] "red"  | red (< OE rēad < *h₁rowdʰ-os)  | rauþs (raudis) "red" < *h₁rowdʰ-os | ruber "red" < *h₁rudʰ-rós; Umb rufru "red"  | Myc e-ru-ta-ra, e-ru-to-ro;[335] erutʰrós "red" < *h₁rudʰ-rós; Erytheia "name of a nymph" (litt. "the red one");  | rudʰirá- "red" < *H₁rudʰ-rós mixed with *H₁rudʰ-i-; rṓhita- "red"; lōhá- "reddish" < *H₁roudʰ-os | Av raoiδita- "red"  | OCS rudŭ "red"; Czech rudá "red";[bt] Pol rudy "red-haired"[337] | Lith raũdonas "red", raũdas "reddish-brown", rudas "brown"  | OIr rúad, W rhudd "red", rhwd "rust";[338] Gaul Roud- (in personal names)[339] |  | pruth "redhead" (< PAlb *apa-ruđa)  | A rtär, B ratre "red" < *h₁rudʰ-rós |
*gʰel-, ǵʰelh₃- "green, yellow"[340] | gold; yellow (< OE geolu); yolk (< OE ġeoloca)  | gulþ "gold"  | helvus "honey-yellow"; gilvus "pale yellow (of horses)"[341][bu] | kʰlōrós "pale green";[bv] Chloe "blooming; epithet of Demeter"  | híraņya- "gold"; hári- "yellow"  | Av zaranyam "gold"; zári "yellow"; Zarinaia < Saka *Zarinayā "the golden one [name of a queen]"  | OCS zelenĭ "green"; Rus zóloto "gold";
Pol złoty "gold"; żółty "yellow"  | Latv zèlts "gold"; Lith geltas "yellow"; žel̃vas "golden"; žalias "green"  | MWel gell "yellow"  |  | ? diell “sun” <PAlb *delwa  |  |

*ḱey-
"grey, dark shade"
[345] [346] [330] [347]

hue
(< OE hīew "appearance, form; hue, color")

hiwi
"form, show, appearance"

|  |  |

śyāvá-
"dark; deep brown";
śyāmá-
"dark, black, blue, brown, grey"

[note 85]

Av siiāuua "dark" (cf. Siyâvash < Siiāuuaršan "the one with black stallions")[348]

| Pol siwy "grey"  |

Lith šývas "light grey"

|  |  |  |  |

*bʰer-, bʰerH-
"brown"
[349] [350] [330] [351]
(See also *bʰébʰrus)

bear (animal)
(< OE bera);
brown
(< OE brūn)

ON bjǫrn
"bear (animal)";

|  |

phrū́nē
"toad"

babhrú
"deep brown, reddish brown; tawny"

|  |  |

Lith bė́ras "reddish brown"

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## Positive qualities

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*h₁wésus
"good, excellent"
[352][353]
[354][355] |  | iusiza
"better";
(Germanic names, e.g., Wisigoth-
"the Visigoths")  |  |  | vásu
"excellent, good; beneficient; goods, property"  | Av vohū "good"  | OCS veselŭ "merry, joyful, happy"  |  | Gaul Vesu- (in personal names: Vesuavus, Segovesus, Bellovesus)  |  |  |  | Luw wāsu- "good"; Pal wašu "well"[356]
*h₁su-
"good"
[357][358]
[354][359] |  |  |  | eu-
"good, well" (when used prefixally), e.g.,
eúphoros
"well-bearing" (> "euphoria");
eukháristos
"good grace";
euángelos
"bringing good news"  | su-
"good" (used prefixally), e.g.,
suprabhātam
"good morning" (See also bhā́s);
supraśna-
"inquiry as to welfare, lit. good question"  | Av hu "good"  | OCS sŭ- "good" (used prefixally), e.g., sŭ-čęstĭnŭ "happy, lit. good part"; sŭdravĭje "health", Russ zdoróv'je;
sŭrěsti "to meet, encounter"  |  | W hy- "good, well"  |  |  |  |
*h₁sónts
"being, existing, real, true"
[360][361]
[354][362]
(See also *H₁es-)  | sooth
(< OE sōþ "truth");
soothe
(< OE sōþian "to prove the validity of, to confirm as true");
soothsayer (originally "truth-teller")
(< PGmc sanþaz + sagjaną "truth + say");
sin (implying "truly guilty")
(< OE synn);
OE sōþlīċe "truly, really", later "amen"  | sunjis
"true, truthful, correct"  | sōns
"guilty, criminal" (compare sin);
insōns
"innocent";[bw]
sonticus
"dangerous, serious, critical"  |  | sát
"being, essence, reality" (also used in compounds, e.g., sad·guru);
sattvá-
"essence, existence, spirit; creature";
satyá-
"true, real, genuine; sincere, honest, valid";
satī́
"good, virtuous, faithful wife" (> suttee)  |  |  |  |  |  | senë/send”thing”

gjë “thing” < all from PAlb *sana

|  |

*sweh₂d-, swéh₂dus
"sweet"
[363] [364] [365]

sweet
(< OE swēte)

|  |

suāvis
"sweet, pleasant, delicious"

hēdús
"sweet"

svādú
"delicious, tasty, sweet"

|  |  |  |  |  |  |  |

## Construction, fabrication

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*h₂éyos "copper, bronze"[136] | ore (< OE ār)  | aiz "copper"  | aes "copper, bronze, brass; money, fee"  |  | áyas "metal, iron"  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |
*dʰwer- "door, doorway, gate"  | door (< OE dor, duru)  | daúr, daúrō "door"  | forēs (pl.) "door"  | tʰurā "door"  | dvā́r, dvā́ras (pl.) "door"  | Av dvarǝm (acc.) "gate, court"; OPers duvarayā "at the gate" NPers dar "door"  | OCS dvĭri "door"  | OPrus dwarris "gate, goal", dwars "estate", Lith durys "door", dvaras "estate", vartai "gate", Latg durovys "door", vuorti "gate"  | OIr dorus "door" < Proto-Celtic *dworestu-, W dôr "door" < *dʰureH₂ | duṙn "door"  | derë "door"  | B twere "doors"  | an-durza "within"
h₂(e)nh₂t- "doorpost"[366] |  |  | antae "anteroom"  |  | ā́tā "doorpost"  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |
*dem-
"to build (up), put together"
[367][368][369] | timber
(< OE timber "building material");
teem
(< OE temian "to fit");
toft
(< OE toft)  | timrjan
"build, construct, strengthen"  |  | démō
"to build, construct, make"  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |
*domo-, *domu- "house", "home"  |  |  | domus (domūs) "house"  | dómos "house"  | dámas "house"  | Av dąm, dąmi "in the house"; dǝmā̆na-, nmāna- "house" < *dm-ā̆na- | OCS domŭ "house"  | OPrus dimstis "porch",  Lith dimstis "entryway"

Lith namas "house"

| MIr dom-liacc "house of stones"  | tun "house"  | dhomë "room"  | ?A tem-, B tam- "be born"  |
*gʰerdʰ-, *gʰordʰ-os- "enclosure, fence"  | yard (< OE ġeard "enclosure"); garden (< AngNor gardin < Frank *gardo)  | gards "yard, court"; ON garðr "fence, enclosed space"  | hortus "garden"  | kʰórtos "feeding place for animals"  | gṛhá "house"  | Av gərəδa "daeva cave"  | OCS gradŭ "fortification; city"  | Latv gãrds; Lith gar̃das "fold, pen"  | OIr gort "standing crop", W garth "cliff; enclosure"  | OArm gerdastan "the body of servants and captives; estate" (either a borrowing from Iranian or inherited)  | gardh "fence, enclosure, barricade"  |  |
*kʷekʷlo- "wheel"
(See also *kʷel-)  | wheel (< OE hwēol, hweogol < PGerm *hweg(w)ulaz < *kʷekʷlós)  | ON hjōl, hvēl "wheel" < PGerm *hweh(w)ulaz < *kʷékʷlos |  | kúklos "circle", (pl.) "wheels"  | cakrá- "wheel"  | Av čaxra- "wheel"  | OCS kolo "wheel"  | OPrus kellin "wheel", Lith kaklas "neck"  |  |  |  | A kukäl, B kokale "wagon"  | kugullas "donut"[370]
*Hreth₂- "wheel", "wagon"  |  | OHG Rad "wheel"  | rota "wheel", "wagon"  |  | rátha "chariot, car"  | Av raθa "wagon", "chariot"  |  | Lith rãtai "wagon" (pl.), rãtas "wheel" (sg.)  | OIr roth "wheel", "circle", W rhod wheel  |  | rreth "ring, hoop, tyre (for carriages)" (< *Hróth₂ikos)  |  |
*néh₂us "vessel, boat"  | OE nōwend "shipmaster, sailor"  | ON naust "boathouse"; OIc nōr "ship"  | nāvis "ship"  | naûs "ship";

Myc na-u-do-mo "shipbuilders"[371]

| naú, nāva "ship"  | Pers nâv "boat, ship" (archaic)  |  |  | OIr nó, nau "boat"  | OArm naw "ship, boat"  |  |  |
*h₂wĺ̥h₁neh₂ "wool"  | wool (< OE wull)  | wulla "wool"  | lāna "wool"  | lênos "wool, fleece (pl.)", Dor lânos | ū́rṇā "wool, woolen thread"  | Av varənā "wool"  | OCS vlĭna "wool", OESlav vŭlna "wool"  | Latv vil̃na, Lith vìlna "wool", OPrus wilna "skirt (made of wool)"  | OIr olann, MBret gloan, glan, OW gulan "wool"  | OArm gełmn "fleece, wool"  |  |  | ḫulanaš "wool"
*s(y)uH- "to sew"  | sew (< OE sēowan)  | siujan "to sew"  | suō (suere) "to sew"; sūtūra "thread, suture"[372] | humḗn "sinew"  | sī́vyati "(he) sews", syūtá- "sewn"; sū́tra- "thread, string"[373] |  | OCS šijǫ (šiti) "to sew"  | OPrus šutun "to sew", Lith siūti "to sew", Latg šyut "to sew"  |  |  |  |  | sum(m)anza(n), šuel (?), šuil (?) "thread"
*teks- "to fashion, construct"  | OE þeox "spear"  | OHG dehsa, dehsala "hatchet"  | texō (texere) "to weave"  | téktōn "carpenter", tíktō "I give birth"  | takṣati, tā́ṣṭi "(he) fashions"  | Av tašaiti "(he) cuts out, manufactures"; OPers us-tašanā "stairway" < "*construction"; MPers tāšīδan "to do carpentry"  | OCS tešǫ (tesati) "to hew",  | OPrus tesatun "to hew", Lith tašyti "to hew"  | OIr tāl "axe" < *tōkslo- |  | teshë “cloth, robe”  |  | takkeszi "puts together"
*webʰ- "to weave"  | weave (< OE wefan), web (<P.Gmc. *wabjan)  | OHG weban "to weave"; ON vefa |  | hupʰaínō "I weave"  | ubhnā́ti "ties together"; ūṛna-vābhi- "spider" (litt. "wool-weaver")  | Av ubdaēna- "made of cloth"; NPers bāfad "(he) weaves"  | viti "weave"  | Lith vyti "to twist"  | W gweu "knit, weave"  |  | venj "I weave" < *webʰnyō | A wpantär (them. pres.),[374][375]

B wāp- "to weave"

| wēpta- "wove"[376]
*werǵ- "to work"  | work (< OE weorc, wyrc̣an)  | waúrkjan "to work"  | urgeō (urgēre) "to push, drive"  | (w)érgon "work", érdō, hrézdō "I work" < *wérĝ-yoH₂, *wréĝ-yoH₂ | varcas "activity" (? not in Pokorny)  | Av varəza- "work, activity", vərəzyeiti "(he) works"; NPers varz, barz "field work, husbandry"  | vrǔšiti "to act, to do"  | OPrus wargs "bad, evil, malicious, vicious", wargtwei "to torment oneself, to suffer", Lith vargas "the state of going through bad/unlucky events"  | MW gwreith "deed" < *wreĝ-tu- | gorc "work "  | rregj "to clean"  | A wärk-, B wārk- "to shear"  |
*wes- "to clothe, wear clothes"  | wear (< OE werian)  | wasjan "to clothe"  | vestis "clothing"  | héstai "gets dressed"  | váste "(s/he) gets dressed"; vástra- "clothing"  | Av vaste, vaŋhaiti "(he) gets dressed"  |  | OPrus westi "corset"  | W gwisg "clothing"  | z-genum "I put on (clothes)" < *wes-nu- | vesh "dress"
veshje "clothing"  | B wastsi, wästsi "clothing"  | wassezzi "(he) clothes"

## Self-motion, rest

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PIE | English | Gothic | Latin | Ancient Greek | Sanskrit | Iranian | Slavic | Baltic | Celtic | Armenian | Albanian | Tocharian | Hittite

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*h₁es- "to be", *h₁es-ti "is", *h₁és-mi "am"
Cf. Indo-European copula
(See also *h₁sónts)  | is (< OE is), am | ist "is"  | sum (esse) "I am (to be)"; est "it is"  | estí "is,"; Dorian Greek entí "(they) are" <\- *h₁s-enti | ásti "is"; ásmi "am"  | Av asti "is"; Persian ast "is"  | OCS jestŭ "is"  | OPrus ast "is", ēst "almost", Lith esti "is"  | OIr is "is"; OW hint "(they) are" <\- *h₁s-enti; W sydd "(which) is"  | em "I am"  | është "is"  | B ste "is"  | ēszi "is"
*bʰuh₂- "to become"
Cf. Indo-European copula | be (< OE bēon); OE būan "to dwell"  | bauan "to dwell"  | fuī "I was"  | pʰúomai "I become", épʰū "became"  | bʰávati "become, is", ábʰūt "became, was"  | Av bavaiti, OPers bavatiy "(he) becomes"  | OCS byti "to become, be"  | OPrus butwei "to be", Lith būti "to be"  | Gaul biiete "be! (imperative)";[377][bx]
OIr buith "being", W bod "to be"  | busanim "sprout up"  | buj, bûj "I dwell, stay overnight" < *bunjō |  |
*sed-, *si-sd- "to sit"  | sit (< OE sittan < *sed-yo-nom)  | sitan "to sit"  | sedeō (sedēre) "to sit", sīdō "I sit down" < *si-sd-oH₂ | hézdomai "I sit" < *sed-yo-, hizdō "I set" < *si-sd-oH₂ | sátsi "(he) sits", aor. ásadat "sat"; sī́dati "(he) sits" < *si-sd-eti; Upaniṣad lit. "sit-down-beside" < upa: 'by, beside', ni: 'down', sad: 'sit'  | Av ni-šaŋhasti "(he) sits down", opt. hazdyā-t "(he) should sit", hiδaiti "(he) sits" < *si-sd-eti; OPers caus. niya-šād-ayam "I set"  | OCS sěždǫ (sěděti) "to sit"  | OPrus sistwei "to sit down", Lith sedėti "to be sitting", sėstis "to sit down"  | OIr sa(i)did "sits"; Br hezañ "to stop"; W eistedd "to sit"  | nstim "I sit" (< *ni-zdyō), hecanim (< *sed-s-an-yō) "I sit on, I ride"  | shëtis "to walk"  |  |
*legʰ- "to lie down"  | lie (< OE lic̣gan)  | ligan "to lie down"  | lectus "bed"  | lékʰomai "I lie down"  | laṅghate "(he) leans, lies down"  | NPers ley "lie down"  | OCS ležǫ (ležati) "to lie down"  | OPrus laztwei "to lie down"  | OIr laigid "lies down"  |  | lagje "city quarter"  | A läk- "to lie", B lyśalyñe "(act of) lying down"  | lagari "(he) lies down"
*ḱey-
"to lie down; settle, bed, cozy, familiar"
[378][379]
[380][381][382] | home (< OE hām "village, home" < *k̂oi-mos);
hewe "domestic, servant"
(< OE hīwa "family member")  | háims (háimáis) "village, town" < *k̂oi-mis;
heiwafrauja
"marriage"  | cīvis "city dweller, citizen" < *k̂ei-wis ⇒
[note 86];
cūnae
"cradle; nest";
Cūnīna
(Roman goddess who protects infants in the cradle)
cieō;
"I put in motion; act, move, stir; rouse" ⇒
[note 87] | keîmai
"I lie (idle, sick, dead, etc.)";
kíō
"I go" (Homeric);
kīnéō
"I move, set in motion, remove; inflect (grammar); meddle; stir on" (> kinetic, cinema, etc.);
koítē
"bed, place of rest; lair; lodging";
koitā́zō
"I put to bed, cause to rest"  | śētē (older śáyē) "(he) lies", śērē "they lie";
śayú
"orphan";
śéva-
"dear, precious";
śivá-
"favorable, happy, fortunate; auspicious" (later applied to the god Rudra, first as Śiva-rudra, then simply Śiva; also spelled Shiva)  | Av saēte "(he) lies", sōire "they lie"  | OCS sěmija "family";
sěmĭ "household member"  | OPrus seimi "family", kaims "village", Lith šeima "family", kaimas "village";
sieva "wife"  | OIr cóim, cóem, OW cum "dear"  | sirem "I love" < *k̂eiro- | komb “nation, people”  |  | kitta, kittari "lies"; Luwian ziyari "lies"
*tḱey-
"to settle, live; cultivate"
[383][384]
[385][386][387] |  |  | sinō
"I let, permit, allow; set down";
situs
"permitted, allowed; laid, set down; placed" ⇒
[note 88];
dēsinō
"I leave off, cease, desist" (> desinence);
pōnō < po + sinō
"I place, put, lay; set up" ⇒
[note 89] | ktízō
"I found, build, establish; populate; produce";
eüktímenos
"well-built, nice place";
ktísis
"a founding, settling; creature";
ktílos
"tame, docile, obidient";
ktísma
"colony, foundation"  | kṣéti
"(s/he) abides, stays, dwells; remains";
kṣití
"abode, habitation, dwelling; the earth"  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |
*steh₂- "to stand (i.e. be standing)"  | stand (< OE standan)  | standan "to stand"; OHG stān, stēn "to stand"  | stō (stāre) "to stand", sistō (sistere) "to cause to stand"  | Doric hístāmi "I stand"  | sthā- / tíṣṭhati "(he) stands"  | Av hištaiti "(he) stands"; OPers impf. a-ištata "(he) stood"  | OCS stajǫ (stati) "to stand up"  | OPrus stalitwei "to stand", Lith stovėti "to stand"  | OIr tair-(ṡ)issiur "I stand"; W sefyll "to stand"  | stanam "I build; gain"  | mbështet, pshtet "I support"  | B stäm- "to stand", ste "is", "stare" "(they) are"  | istanta- "to stay, delay"
*h₁ey- "to go"  | yede (< OE ēode "went")  | iddja "went"  | eō (īre) "to go"  | eĩmi "I (will) go"  | éti "(he) goes", yánti "(they) go"  | Av aēiti "(he) goes", yeinti "(they) go"; OPers aitiy "goes"  | OCS jiditi "to move away, to arrive", jidene "coming"  | OPrus eitwei "to go", Lith eiti "to walk"  | W wyf "I am"; OIr ethaid "goes" < *it-āt- | iǰanem (aorist ēǰ) "I climb down" < *i-gh- | iki "to leave; flee" *H₁(e)i-K- | A yā "he went", B yatsi "to go" < *yā- | īt "go!"
*gʷem- "to come"[388] | come (< OE cuman)  | qiman "to come"; OSax cuman [an liudi] "to come (to people) [to be born]"  | veniō (venīre) "to come"[by] | baínō "I go"  | gámati "(he) goes", aor. ágan, gan "(he) went"  | Av ǰamaiti "goes"; OAv inj. uz-ǰǝ̄n "(he) goes", pl. gǝmǝn "they go"  |  | OPrus gimtwei "to be born", Lith gimti "to be born", Latv dzimt "to bear (a son)"  |  | ekn (< *h₁e-gʷem-t) "(he) came"  |  | A käm-, kum-, B käm-, kam-, śem "to come"  | Luw zammantis "newborn child" (?)
*Hyewdʰ-
"to move swiftly, to move upright, to rise (as if to fight)"[389][390] |  |  | iubeō "I authorize, legitimate; bid, command, order";
iussus "order, command, decree, ordinance"  | euthús "straight, direct";
eîthar "at once, immediately, forthwith";
husmī́nē "battle, conflict, combat"  | yúdhyate
"to fight, battle; wage war";
yodháyati
"to engage in battle; to overcome in war, to be a match for; to lead to war, to cause to fight";
yuddhá-
"battle, fight, war";
yoddhṛ
"fighter, warrior, soldier";
yudhmá-
"hero, warrior"  |  | OCS oiminŭ "warrior";
Pol judzić "to incite, instigate"  | Lith judėti "to move"  |  |  |  |  |
*peth₂-
"to spread out; fly (spread wings)"
[116][117][391][392]
(See also *péth₂r̥)  | fathom
(< OE fæþm)  |  | petō
"I ask, beg, request; aim; attack, thrust at";
pateō
"I am open; accessible, attainable; increase, extend" (> patent);
pandō
"I spread, open out, extend; unfold, expand" (> expand);
passus < *pat-s-tus
"spread out; step, pace" (> pass);
impetus
"attack, assault; rapid motion";
petulāns
"impudent, wanton; petulant" > petulant;
patera
"broad flat dish, saucer";
propitius
"favorable, well-disposed" (> propitious)  | pétomai
"I fly; rush, dart; make haste";
pī́ptō
"I fall, throw self down";
petánnūmi
"I spread out, open";
ptôma
"fall; misfortune, calamity; ruin" (>
symptom);
ptôsis
"falling; (grammar) case, inflection";
ptōtikós
"capable of inflexion";
pétalon "leaf (plant, flower or tree)" >
petal | pátati
"(s/he) flies; descends, falls";
pātáyati
"(s/he) causes to fly, throws; causes to fall; pours, spills"  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |
*ped-
"to walk, step; stumble, fall"
[393][394][99][395]
(See also *pōds)  | fetter
(< OE feter);
OE fæt "step; stride; pace, gait  |  | impediō
"I hinder, impede, obstruct" (>
impede);
expediō
"I unfetter; remove impediments; prepare" (> expedite);
pecco < *ped-co
"I sin, transgress; offend" ⇒
[note 90];
pedica
"fetter, shackle; snare";
pessum < *ped·tum
"to the lowest part; to the bottom; in ruin";
pessimus
"worst, lowest" (>
pessimism);
peior
"worse" (>
pejorative);
oppidum
"town" (step > ground > town)  | pédon
"ground, earth";
pedíon
"open country, plain, field; female genitals";
pēdón
"oar blade, oar";
pēdálion
"steering paddle";
pezós < *peďďós
"on foot, walking; on land, infantry";
pódion
"base" ⇒
[note 91] | pádyate
"(s/he) moves, goes; falls";
pādáyati
"(s/he) causes to fall, drops";
pada-
"step, stride, pace; footstep, vestige; plot of ground; a fourth"  |  | padati, pasti
"to fall";
pěšĭ
"on foot, pedestrian";
padežĭ
"fall; downfall, disaster";
pod
"ground, floor"  |  |  |  |  |  |
*sekʷ- "to follow"  | OE sec̣g "follower, companion, man"  | ON seggr "hero"  | sequor (sequī) "to follow" ⇒
[note 92] | hépomai "I follow"  | sácate "(he) follows"  | Av hačaitē, hačaiti "(he) follows"  | šagati "to walk, stride, step";
Russ šag "step"  | OPrus sektwei "to shallow [To breathe lightly]", Lith sekti "to follow"  | OIr sechithir "follows"  |  | shoh “ I see”  |  |
*steygʰ-
"to go, climb, march"
[396][397]
[260][398] | stair
(< OE stǣġer);
sty
(< OE stīgan);
stile
(< OE stiġel, stigol)  | steigan "climb" Ger steigen "to ascend, climb, rise"  | vestīgō
"I follow a track, search" (>
investigate);
vestīgium
"footprint, track; trace, mark; sole of foot" (> "vestige")  | stíkhos
"a row (of soldiers); a line of poetry" > Russ stix "verse, a line of poetry; poem (plu)";
stoîkhos
"row, course, file";
stoikheîon
"one of a row, one of a series; element" > stoichio- (> stoichiometry, etc.);
stókhos
"pillar of brick; target"  | stighnóti
"(s/he) steps, steps up, mounts"  |  | OCS stignǫti "to attain; reach";
stĭza
"path"  |  |  |  | ? Shteg “path”  |  |
*wert-
"to turn, rotate"
[399][400]
[401][402] | -ward
(< OE -weard "facing, turned toward");
worth (obsolete meaning "to become", compare German werden)
(< OE weorþ);
weird
(< OE wyrd, wurd "fate, destiny");
OE weorþung "an evaluation, appreciation"  | wairþan "become, happen" Ger werden
"to become, to get; to turn; to be, happen";
Wurst
"sausage, wurst" (< PGmc "something twisted")  | vertō
"I turn, revolve; turn around, reverse, retreat" ⇒
[note 93];
vertex, vortex "whirlpool";
vertīgō "giddiness";
prōsus, prorsus < proversus
"forwards, towards" > prose;[bz]
re- < PIE *wret-, metathesis of *wert-
"re-" (> re- (again, repetition, etc.))  |  | vartate
"(it) turns, rotates; moves, advances; occurs";
vartana-
"a turning; conduct, behavior, intercourse";
vartayáti
"(it) turns" (transitive, causative);
vártman
"track; way, course, path"  |  | OCS vrĭtěti "to turn";
vrotiti
"to return";
vrěteno
"spindle";
vrota
"gate, door";
vratŭ
"turn, rotor, wheel";
vrěmę < *vertmen "hour; time" (Compare Skt vártman)  | Lith versti "to turn"  |  |  | rris “to grow, to increase”  |  |
*bʰegʷ- "to run, flee"[403] |  |  |  | phobéō "I put to flight, terrify, alarm; threaten"; phóbos "fear, terror; fright, panic; flight, retreat"  | bhājáyati "(s/he) causes to flee"  | Kurd bazdan "to run, to escape"  | OCS běgati, běžati "to flee, run, escape";  | Lith bėgti "to run"  |  |  |  |  |
*bʰewg- "to flee"[404] |  |  | fugiō "I flee"; fuga "flight, escape"  | pheúgō "I flee"; phugḗ "flight, escape"  |  |  |  | Lith baugus "scary", baugštus "scared easily"  |  |  |  |  |

## Object motion

[edit]

PIE | English | Gothic | Latin | Ancient Greek | Sanskrit | Iranian | Slavic | Baltic | Celtic | Armenian | Albanian | Tocharian | Hittite

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*bʰer- "to carry"  | bear (< OE beran);
burden, burthen (< OE byrþen)  | baíran "to carry"  | ferō (ferre) "to carry"; lucifer "light-bearing, light-bringing"  | pʰerō "I carry"; khristóphoros "Christ-bearing"  | bʰarati "(he) carries"  | Av baraiti "(he) carries"; OPers barantiy "they carry"; NPers bordan "to carry"; Kurd birin "to carry, to take"  | OCS berǫ (bĭrati) "to carry"  | Lith berti "to pour non liquid"  | OIr biru "I carry"; W beru "to flow"  | berem "I carry"  | bie "I carry"; barrë "load, burden"  |  |
*weǵʰ- "to convey"  | weigh (< OE wegan "carry"); way (< OE weġ); wain "wagon" (< OE wæġn)[ca] | ga-wigan "to move, shake"  | vehō (vehere) "to convey"  | Pamphylian wekʰétō "he should bring"; Cypriot éwekse "brought there"  | váhati "(he) drives"; vahana- (< vah) "divine mount or vehicle of Hindu deities" (lit. "a carrying")  | Av vazaiti "(he) leads, carries"  | OCS vezǫ (vesti) "to drive"  | OPrus weztun "to ride", Lith vežti "to drive"  | OIr fēn, W gwain (type of wagon) < *weǵʰ-no-; W arwain "to lead"  |  | vjedh "I steal"  |  | Hier Luw wa-zi/a- "drive"
*yew-, *yewg-
"to join, yoke, tie together"
[405][406]
(See also yugóm)  |  | juk
"yoke"
ON eykr
draft animal;
ON eyki
vehicle, cart | iungō
"I yoke, join" ⇒
[note 94];
iūxtā
"nearly; near, close to";
coniunx, coniux
"spouse, partner (husband or wife)"  | zeúgnūmi
"I yoke, saddle; join, link together";
zeûgma
"band, bond, that which is used for joining; bridge of boats";
zeûgos
"pair, two things, persons or animals seen as a pair"  | yunákti
"(s/he) yokes, harnesses, joins";
yóga-
"yoking, act of joining; yoke, team, vehicle; employment, use, performance; remedy, cure; means, device, way, manner, method; trick, fraud; undertaking; connection, relation; fitness, suitability; application, concentration, union, yoga";[407]
yóktra-
"fastening or tying instrument; rope, thong, halter";
yugmá-
"pair, couple; Gemini (zodiac sign); junction, confluence";
yújya-
"union, alliance";
yugya-
"a vehicle, chariot; draft animal";
yuj (root noun)
"a yoke-fellow, companion, associate; pair, couple; the Aśvins"  |  |  | Lith jungiu "I join"  |  |  |  |  |
*h₂eǵ- "to lead, drive"  |  | ON aka "to drive"  | agō (agere) "to drive, do"  | ágō "I lead"  | ájati "(he) drives"  | Av azaiti "(he) drives"; Kurd ajotin "to drive"  | ehati "to drive"  |  | OIr ad-aig "compels"; OW agit, hegit "goes"  | acem "I lead"  |  | A ak-, B āk- "go, lead"  |
*h₂eḱs- "axis, axle" < *h₂eǵ-[136][408] | OE eax |  | axis "axle"  |  | ákṣa- "axle"  |  | Russian osь "axis, axle"  | Lith ašis "axle"  | W echel "axle, axis"  |  | ashkë “wood splinter <PAlb a(k)škā “axis”  |  |
*dʰeh₁-, dʰh₁- "to place, put"  | do (< OE dōn)  | deds "deed"  | faciō (facere) "to do" < *dʰh₁-k-yoh₂; con-ditus "built" (orig. "put together"), ab-ditus "removed" (orig. "put away") < Proto-Italic *-θatos < *dʰh₁-tos | títʰēmi "I put" < *dʰí-dʰeh₁-mi | dádʰāti "(he) puts" < *dʰé-dʰeh₁-ti | Av daδāiti "(he) puts"; OPers impf. adadā "(he) established"  | OCS děti "to lay"  | OPrus ditun "to put", Lith dėti "to put"  | Gaulish dede "he put (pt.)"; W dodi "to place, to put";OIr -tarti "he gives" < Proto-Celtic *to-ro-ad-dīt < *-dʰeh₁-t | dnel "to put"; ed "he put (past)"  | dhatë "place, location" < *dʰh₁-teh₂ | A tā-, täs-, tas-, B tes- "to lay" < *dʰeh₁-s- | dāi "puts"
*stel-
"to put, place, locate; be set, firm"
[409][410][260][411] | stall
(< OE steall);
stell (non-standard) "to place, set up"
(< OE stellan)  | Ger stellen
"to put, place, position"  | locus < *stlocus
"place, spot, location" ⇒
[note 95];
stultus, stolidus
"foolish, stupid";
stolō
"shoot, branch" >
stolon (botany);
stolus < AG stólos
"navigation; fleet equipment"  | stéllō
"I send; make ready, prepare; summon";
stólos
"expedition; army, fleet";
apóstolos
"one sent forth; messenger, envoy" >
apostle;
epistolḗ < epistéllō
"message, letter; commission; will" ⇒
[note 96];
stḗlē
"block of stone, buttress; boundary post" >
stele, stela | sthala-
"place, ground, location"  |  | OCS stĭlati "to spread"  | Lith stalas "table"  |  |  | shtjell “loosen, I wind up”  |  |
*deH₃-, dʰH̥₃- "to give"  |  |  | dō (dare) "to give";
dator "giver, donor";
dōnum "gift"  | dídōmi "I give"  | dádāti "(he) gives";
dātṛ "giver, donor";
dānam "gift, giving"  | Av dadāiti "(he) gives"; OPers impv. dadātuv "let him give"; NPers dãdan "to give"  | OCS damĭ "I will give"  | OPrus datun "to give", Lith duoti "to give"  | OIr dān, W dawn "gift"  | tam "I give"  | dhashë "I gave" < *dH̥₃-sm̥ |  | dāi "takes"
*kap- "to grab"[412][413] | have (< OE habban), heave (< OE hebban);
haven
"hæfen"  | haban "to have", hafjan "to lift"  | capiō (capere) "to take"  | káptō "I snatch, swallow";
kaûkos
"cup" > Lat caucus | kapaṭī "two handfuls"  | NPers časpīdan, čapsīdan, cafsīdan "to grasp, seize"  | Ukrainian khapaty "to grab"  | OPrus kaps "grave", Lith kapas "grave", kapt "expression to indicate grabbing.  | OIr cacht "female slave", W caeth "slave, captive" < *kap-tos "taken"  |  | kap "I grasp, grab", kam "I have"  |  |
*gʰabʰ- "to seize, take"  | give (< OE ġiefan)  | giban "to give"  | habeō (habēre) "to have"  |  | gábʰastis "forearm, hand"  | OPers grab "to seize"; Kurd girtin "to take, to seize"  | Russ. xvatát "to snatch, suffice"  | OPrus gabtun "to catch", Lith gebėti "to have the ability"  | OIr gaibid "takes"; W gafael "to take hold, to grip"  |  |  |  |
*gʷʰen- "to strike, kill"  | bane (< OE bana "murderer")  | banja "blow, wound, ulcer"  | dē-fendō (dēfendere) "to ward off, defend", of-fendō (offendere) "to bump, offend"  | tʰeínō "I kill" < *gʷʰen-yoH₂, épepʰnon "I killed" < redup. \+ *gʷʰn-om | hánti "(he) strikes, kills" < *gʷʰen-ti, gʰnánti "they strike, kill"; vṛtra·han "Vṛtra-killer, a name of Indra"  | Av ǰainti "(he) strikes, kills", ni-γne (mid.) "I strike down"; OPers impf. ajanam "I struck down"  | OCS ženǫ (gŭnati) "drive (animals to pasture)", žĭnjǫ (žęti) "reap"  | OPrus gintun "to defend", Lith ginti " to defend", ganyti "to drive animals to pasture"  | OIr gonim "I wound, kill"; W gwanu "to stab"  | ǰnem "I strike" < *gʷʰen-oH₂, ǰnǰem "I destroy" < *gʷʰen-yoH₂ | gjanj "I hunt" < *gʷʰen-yoH₂ | B käsk- "to scatter to destruction" < *gʷʰn̥-sk- | kuēnzi "kills" < *gʷʰen-ti
*bʰeyd- "to split, cleave"[414] | bit (< OE bite);bite (< OE bitan); bait (< ON beita)  | beitan "bite"  | 'findō "I split";
fissus < fid·tus "split";
fissiō "splitting, fission"  |  | bhid-, bhinátti "(s/he) splits, breaks";
bhedati "(s/he) splits"; bhinná < bhid·ná "split, cloven"  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |
*der- "to tear, crack; split, separate"[415] | tear (< OE teran);
turd (< OE tord)  | *taurþs "destruction, a teardown"  |  | dérō "to skin, flay";
dérma "skin, hide"  | dṛṇā́ti "(s/he) tears, rends, rips; splits open, bursts"  |  | OCS dĭrati "to tear, flay"  | Lith dirti "to skin"  |  |  | djerr “I destroy <PIE *dr̥-néH-ti |  |
*bʰreg- "to break"[416] | break (< OE brecan);
breech, breeches (< OE brēċ)  | brikan "break, wreck, compete"  | frango "I break, shatter";
frāctus "broken";
fragilis "breakable"  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |
*sek-
"to cut off, sever"[417][418][cb] | saw (tool) (< OE sagu);
sax "slate hammer" (< OE seax);
seax (directly borrowed from OE seax);
zax (< OE seax);
Saxon (< Proto-Germanic *sahsą “rock, knife”)  |  | secō, sectum "I cut, cut off; cleave; castrate; wound; hurt" ⇒
[note 97];
segmen, segmentum "piece; a cutting, cut; slice; segment";
signum "sign, mark, signal; seal, signet; emblem, etc";
sexus "division; sex; gender";
saxum "stone, rock"  |  |  |  | OCS sěšti "to cut, to mow"
Pol siekać "to cut"  |  |  |  | shat/shatë “mattock, hoe” <PIE *sēk-teh₂- |  |
*(s)ker-
"to cut"[419][420]
(See also: *sek-)  | shear
(< OE scieran);
share
(< OE sċearu);
shard, sherd
(< OE sċeard );
shred
(< OE sċrēad);
scrap
(< ON skrapa);
scrape
(< ON skrapa);
short
(< OE sċort);
screen
< PGmc *skirmiz
"fur, hide"
> Yid shirem "umbrella";
Italian schermo "screen";
Russ šírma
"screen, shield";
shirt
(< OE sċyrte);
skirt
(< ON skyrta);
scar
(< PGmc *skardaz
"gap, cut");
score
(< OE scoru)  |  | curtus
"short; broken";
corium
"skin, hide, leather";
carō, carnis "flesh, meat, pulp" ⇒
[note 98];
cēna
"dinner, supper ('portion')";
cortex "bark of a tree, cork"
> cork;
scortum
"a skin, hide; harlot";
scrotum;
scrautum "a quiver made of hide";
scrūta "rubbish, broken trash" > Lat scrūtor
"I search, examine thoroughly" ⇒
[note 99];
scrūpus
"a rough sharp stone; anxiety, uneasiness";
scrūpulus
"a small sharp or pointed stone; anxiety, uneasiness, doubt" ⇒
[note 100] | keírō "I shear, shave, cut hair; ravage; destroy; cut short, lessen";
kormós "trunk of a tree; log of timber";
kérma "fragment; coin; cash"  | kartati, kṛṇátti, kṛntáte "(s/he) cuts";
cárman
"skin; hide, pelt";
kṛtí "knife, dagger"  |  | OCS skora "bast, skin";
kora "bark";
OCS xrabrŭ "brave"  | Lith skersti "to cut (especially animal's neck)"  | W ysgaru "to separate, to divorce"  |  | shqerr “to tear, scratch” <PAlb *skera  |  |
*skey-
*skeyd-
"to split, dissect, divide"[421][422]
(See also: *sek-, *(s)ker-)  | shed
(< OE sċēadan);
sheath, sheathe
(< OE sċēaþ);
shide
"a piece of wood, firewood" (< OE sċīd);
shite, shit
(< OE sċītan)  |  | sciō "I can, know, understand, have knowledge" > science;
scindō, scissus "I cut, tear, rend; tear off; destroy"  | skhízō "I split, cleave" > schizophrenia;
skhísma "split, divided; division" > schism;
skhísis "cleaving, parting, division; vulva"  | chítti "split, division";
√chid-, chinatti "(s/he) splits, cuts off, divides"[423] |  | OCS cěditi "to strain, filter";
čistiti "to clean, purify";
štedrŭ "generous";
štitŭ "shield"  | Lith skiesti "to dilute", skaidyti "to divide into pieces"  |  |  | shqisë “sense”  |  |
*h₃er- "to move, to stir; to rise, spring; quarrel, fight"[424][425] |  |  | orior "I rise, get up";
oriēns "rising" > orient;
origo "act, event or process of coming into existence; source" > origin | órnūmi "I set upon, awaken, raise, excite, stir up";
oûros "fair wind";
éris "strife, quarrel; rivalry"  | ṛṇoti "to attack, rise";
ṛtí "quarrel, strife; attack"  |  | OCS ratĭ "war, battle"  |  |  |  |  |  |
*h₃reyH- "to move, set in motion; flow, stream (of water); pour, rain; churn"[424][425] | ride (< OE rīdan);
raid (< OE rād);
run (< OE iernan);
-rith "small stream (found in surnames and placenames)"(< OE rīþ)  |  | rīvus "stream" > rival (lit. "using the same stream as another"), derive;
irrīto "to irritate"  |  | riṇā́ti "to make flow, release";
rītí "motion, course; current; custom, rite";
rétas "flow, gush, current, stream; seed, sperm"  |  | OCS rinǫti "to push, shove"  |  | Gau rēda "chariot";
Gau rēnos "river, waterway" > Lat Rhēnus > Rhine |  | re “clouds” <PAlb *rina  |  |
*selǵ-
"to let go, send, release"
[426][427]
[428][429] | sulk
(< OE āsolcen < āseolcan "to be slow; weak, slothful")  |  |  |  | sṛjáti
"(it) lets go, discharges, emits";
sarjáyati
"causes to let loose, creates";
sṛṣṭá-
"let go, discharged, abandoned";
sṛ́ṣṭi
"letting go, emission; production, procreation; creation, creation of the world";
sárga-
"pouring, rush";
sṛká-
"arrow, spear"  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |
*kʷel-, kʷelh₁-
"to turn"
[430][431]
[432][433][434]
(See also *kʷekʷlo-)  | halse "neck, throat"
(< OE heals)  | hals
"neck"  | colō
"I till, cultivate (land); inhabit";
cultus
"tilled, cultivated" ⇒
[note 101];
colōnus
"farmer; colonist, inhabitant";
-cola
"inhabitant; tiller, cultivator; worshipper";
colōnia
"colony, settlement; possession" ⇒
[note 102];
collum
"neck, throat (one that turns)" ⇒
[note 103];
inquilīnus
"sojourner, tenant, lodger"[cc] | pélō
"in motion, go; become";
pólos
"pivot, hinge; axis, pole star" > pole;
pálin
"back, backwards; again, once more" ⇒
[note 104];
télos
"completion, maturity; fulfilment; result, product" > teleology, etc.;
Aristotélēs
"excellent perfection";
teléō
"bring about, complete, fulfill; perform, accomplish";
têle
"far off, far away" ⇒
[note 105];
pálai
"long ago";
palaiós
"old, aged; ancient" > paleolithic, etc.  | cárati
"it moves, walks, stirs; travels";
caraṇa-, calana-
"motion; action; behavior, conduct"  |  | OCS kologŭ "Yule (lit. turn)";
kolovrotŭ
"circulation, whirlpool; wheel and axle";
Bul kolovóz
"rut, wheel track";
koláč
"a type of (round) bread"  |  |  |  | sjell “to turn, to bring” <PAlb *tšela  |  |
*welH-, *wel-
"to turn, to wind, roll"
[435][436]
[401][437][438] | wallow
(< OE wielwan);
well (up) (gush)
(< OE wellan, willan);
well (water source, where the water 'wells up')
(< OE wielle);
wall (to boil, spring)
(< OE weallan);
walk
(< OE wealcan);
wale
(< OE walu "ridge, bank")  | walwjan
"to roll";
Ger Walz (< walzen "to dance")
"the waltz";
Welle
"wave"  | volvō
"I roll, tumble" ⇒
[note 106]
volūmen
"roll, scroll, book; turn; fold" > volume;
vallis
"valley; hollow" ⇒
[note 107];
vallum
"wall, rampart";
intervallum
"space between walls" > interval;
volūcra
"a worm, caterpillar";
valgus
"knock-kneed, unstraight";
valva
"folding door" > valve;
vulva
"womb"  | eilúō
"I wrap, enfold; crawl";
hélix
"anything twisted" ⇒
[note 108];
hólmos
"round, smooth stone; cylindrical bow, dial"  | valati, valate
"(it) turns, turns to; moves to; covers";
úlba-
"cover, envelope; womb, vulva";
valayá-
"coil";
ūrmí
"wave"  |  | OCS vlĭna "wave";
vlŭnenije
"undulation, swell; turmoil, agitation";
Russ valítʹ
"to knock down, kill; cut, fell";
val
"roller, billow; rampart; shaft"  | Lith vilnìs "wave"  |  | OldArm geł "snake, dragon"  |  |  |
*weyp- or *weyb-
"to shake, tremble, agitate; sway, swing; turn, wind"
[439][440]
[401][441][442] | wipe
(< OE wīpian);
whip
(< OE wippen);
weave ("to wander")
(< ON veifa "wave, flag");
OE wifer "arrow, missile; sword";
swivel
(< OE swifan + el);
waive < waif ("ownerless, homeless")
(< ON veif);[cd]
gimp
(< OF wimpil "head scarf");
gimlet
(< AF wimble "drill")> | biwaibjan
"to wind around, wrap";
faurwaipjan
"to bind, muzzle"  | vibrō
"I shake, agitate; tremble; glimmer" > veer, vibrate, etc.  |  | vip-, vépate
"it trembles, shakes, shivers, vibrates, quivers";
viprá-
"excited, stirred; inspired"  |  |  | Lith viẽpti "to make a face, gape";
vaipī́tis
"to grimace, bend";
vī́burti
"to swing, turn around"  |  |  |  |  |
*leykʷ-, *li-ne-kʷ- "to leave behind"  | OE lēon "to lend"  | leiƕan "to lend"  | linquō (linquere) "to leave behind"  | leípō, limpánō "I leave behind"  | riṇákti "(he) leaves behind", 3rd. pl. riñcanti "they leave behind"  | Av -irinaxti "(he) frees"; NPers rēxtan "to pour out"  | OBulg otŭ-lěkŭ "something left over", lišiti "to rob" < *leikʷ-s-, Ukr lyshyty "to leave behind"[443] | OPrus palaistun "to leave behind", Lith likti "to stay"  | OIr lēicid "(he) leaves behind, releases"  | lkʿanem "I leave behind"  | Alb Lej leave |  |
*Hrewk-
"to dig, till (soil)";
*HrewH-
"to dig, to root"[444][445]
(See also *Hrew-, *Hrewp-)  | rock (as in 'to move, sway') (< OE roccian);
rag (< ON rǫggr)  |  | runcō "I weed, clear of weeds, weed out";
ruō "I dig out";
rutrum "shovel"  |  | luñcati "(s/he) plucks, pulls out, tears off; peels"  |  | OCS ryti "to dig";
OCS rylo "spade, snouts"  |  |  |  |  |  |
*Hrewp-
"to break, tear up"[444][445]
(See also *Hrew-, *Hrewk-)  | reave, reeve, reve, bereave (< OE (be)rēofan)  |  | rumpō "I break, burst, tear, rend; split" > rout, ruption, abrupt, etc.  |  | rópa- "disturbing, confusing; fissure";
lopa- "breaking, injury, destruction"  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |
*h₁reh₁- "to row"[136][446] | rudder (< OE rōþor)  |  | rēmus "oar"  | erétēs "(in the plural) oars"  | áritra- "propelling, driving"  |  |  |  | W rhwyf "spade, shovel"  |  |  |  |

## Time

[edit]

PIE | English | Gothic | Latin | Ancient Greek | Sanskrit | Iranian | Slavic | Baltic | Celtic | Armenian | Albanian | Tocharian | Hittite

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*nu-
"now"
[447] [448] [449] [450]

now,
Scot noo
(< OE nū)

"now"

num, nunc (num + -ce)
"now";
nūper
"lately, recently"

nûn, nun, nu
"now"

"now, so now, now then; at once";
nū́
"now";
nūtane
"current, present"

| Avestan nū "now"  |

OCS nyně "now";

"but"

Lith nū, nù "now";
nũn
"now, today";
nūnaĩ
"now, today, nowadays"

|  |  |

"when";

"now";

|  | nu
"now, and"
*dʰǵʰyés "yesterday"  | yesterday (< OE ġeostra)  | gistra- "tomorrow (?)"  | heri "yesterday"  | kʰtʰés "yesterday"  | hyás "yesterday" < *ǵʰyés | Av zyō, OPers diya(ka) "yesterday"  |  |  | OIr in-dē, W ddoe "yesterday"  |  | dje "yesterday"  |  |
*nokʷts (nekʷts) "night"  | night (< OE neaht, niht < *nokʷtis)  | nahts (nahts) "night" < *nokʷts | nox (noctis) "night"  | núks (núktos) "night"  | nák (instr. pl. náktīs) "night"  | Proto-Iranian *náxts, Kurd nixte "rainy, cloudy (lack of sunlight)"  | OCS noštĭ "night"  | OPrus nakts "night", Lith naktis "night"  | OIr i-nnocht, W heno "tonight"  |  | natë "night"  | A n[a]ktim "nightly", B nekciye "in the evening"  | nekuz (gen. sg.) "of evening", nekuzzi "it becomes dark"
*wek(ʷ)speros "evening"  | west (< OE west)  |  | vesper "evening"  | hésperos "of the evening; western"[ce] |  |  | OCS večerŭ "evening"; Rus Zorya Vechernyaya "deity of the evening star"  | Latv vakars, Lith vãkaras "evening"; Vakarine "goddess of the evening star"  | OIr ucher "evening"  | OArm gišer "night; darkness"  |  |  |
*h₂éwsōs "dawn", *h₂ews-tero- "east", *h₂ewso- "gold"  | eastern (< OE ēasterne)  | ON austr "east"  | aurōra "dawn" (< *ausōsa, by rhot), aurum "gold" (< *ausom)  | Doric āṓs "dawn"; Aeolic aúōs, ā́wōs "dawn"  | uṣās (uṣásas), acc. uṣā́sam "dawn"  | Av ušā̊ (ušaŋhō), acc. ušā̊ŋhǝm "dawn"  | OCS (j)utro "morning"  | OPrus austra "dawn", auss "gold"; Lith aušra "dawn", auksas "gold"; Latv ausma, ausmina "dawn"  | OIr fāir "sunrise", W gwawr "dawn" < *wōsri- | ?os-ki "gold"  |  | ?A wäs "gold"  |
*ken-
"to arise, begin"
[451][452]
[453][454] | begin
(< OE beginnan)  | duginnan
"to begin"  | recēns
"new, fresh, young" > recent | kainós
"new, recent; fresh, unused; unusual" > Cenozoic | kanyā̀, kaníyā
"maiden, virgin; daughter";
kanī́na-
"young, youthful"  |  | OCS načęti "to begin";
konŭ
"beginning, end";
konĭcĭ
"end";
zakonŭ
"law";
štenę
"young animal"  |  |  |  |  |  |
*ǵʰyem-, ǵʰeym- "winter"  |  | ON gói "winter month"  | hiems "winter"  | kʰeĩma "winter"  | híma\- "winter", hemantá- "in winter"  | Av zyā̊ (acc. zyąm, gen. zimō) "winter"  | OCS zima "winter"  | OPrus zeima "winter", Lith žiema "winter"  | Gaul Giamonios "winter month";[cf][53][455]

OIr gam "winter", gem-adaig "winter night"; OW gaem "winter"

| jmeṙ "winter", jiwn "snow"  | Gheg dimën, Tosk dimër(ë) "winter"  | ? A śärme "winter"; ? B śimpriye "winter".[cg] | gimmanza "winter", gimi "in winter"
*semh₂- "summer"  | summer (< OE sumor)  | OHG sumar, OIc sumar "summer"  |  |  | sámā "season; year"  | Av ham- "summer"; Pers hâmin "summer"; Khot-Saka hamāñarva "summer season"  |  |  | Gaul Samon(ios) "summer month";

OIr sam "summer"; OW ham, OBret ham "summer"

| OArm am "year", amaṙn "summer"  |  | A şme "summer"; B ṣmāye "summer" (adj.), ywārś-ṣmañe "midsummer"[458] |
*wés-r̥, wes-n-és "spring"  |  | ON vár "spring"  | vēr "spring"  | (w)éar "spring"  | vasan-tá- "spring"  | Av vaŋri "in spring"; OPers θūra-vāhara- | OCS vesna "spring"  | OPrus wassara "spring", Lith vasara "summer", pavasaris "spring", vėsu "cool"  | OIr errach "spring"< *ferrach < *wesr-āko-; OW guiannuin "in spring" < *wes-n̥t-eino- | garun "spring"< *wesr- |  |  |
*wet- "year", *per-ut- "last year"  | wether "castrated male sheep" (< OE weþer),  | OHG widar "male sheep", MHG vert "last year" <\- *per-ut-, ON fjorð "last year" <\- *per-ut- | vetus (veteris) "old"  | (w)étos "year", pérusi "last year"  | vatsá-, vatsará- "year", par-út "last year"  | Sogdian wtšnyy (read wat(u)šanē) "old"  | OCS vetŭchŭ "old"  | OLith vẽtušas "old"  | MIr feis, Cornish guis "sow" < *wet-si- | heru "last year" < *peruti | vit (pl. vjet) "year"  |  | witt- "year"
*h₂et- "to go, year"[459] |  | aþnam (Dat. Pl.) "years"  | annus < atnus "year"  |  | átati "(it) goes, walks, wanders"; hā́yana- "yearly"  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |
*yeh₁r- "year"  | year (< OE ġēar)  | jēr "year"  | hōrnus "this year's" < *hōyōr- | hōra "time, year" < *yoH₁r- |  | Av yārə "year"  | Russ. CH jara "spring"  | OLith Jórė "spring festival"  |  |  |  |  |
*h₂óyu "long time, lifetime"  |  | aiws "eternity"  | aevum aeternum, aeternitas "lifetime"  |  | āyus "life, age" (as in the word āyur·veda, "knowledge of (long) life")  |  |  |  | Gaul aiu- "eternity, longevity"[460] |  |  |  |

## Ideas and rituals

[edit]

PIE | English | Gothic | Latin | Ancient Greek | Sanskrit | Iranian | Slavic | Baltic | Celtic | Armenian | Albanian | Tocharian | Hittite

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*ǵʰew- "to pour, libate, invoke"[320] | god (< OE god < PIE. ǵʰutós "invoked, libated")  | giutan "pour" ?guta "Goth"  | fundō "I pour"  |  | hotrá "libation"; hotṛ "priest, offerer of libations"; juhóti "to worship, sacrifice, present an oblation"; hóma "oblation, a Vedic ritual"  |  |  |  |  |  | gumoj “I pour”  |  |
*h₁yaǵ- "to sacrifice, worship"[320] |  |  | ieientō "to eat breakfast"  | hágios "devoted to the gods, holy, pious"  | yájati "(s/he) worships"; yajña "worship, devotion, prayer"; yájus "religious reverence, worship, sacrifice";  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |
*ḱréddʰh₁eti "to believe" < *ḱred- “heart” +  *dʰh₁eti "place"[320]
(See also *k̂erd-)  |  |  | crēdō "I believe, I trust in, I confide in" (> creed, credo)  |  | śraddhā́  "faith, trust, confidence, loyalty", śrad-dadʰāti "(he) trusts, believes"  | Av zrazdā- "to believe" < *srazdā[ch] |  |  | Old Irish cretim, W credaf "I believe"  |  |  |  |
*gʷerH-
"to praise, express approval; to elevate"
[461][462][463] |  |  | grātus
"pleasing";
grātia
"grace, thankfulness";
grātuītus
"freely given, free"  |  | járate
"(s/he) praises, invokes";
gṛṇā́ti
"(s/he) calls, invokes, mentions with praise, extols";
gūrtá-
"agreeable, pleasing, lovely; approved, welcome";
gūrtí
"approval, praise; benediction"  |  | OCS žrĭti "to sacrifice";
žrĭtva
"sacrifice, offering";
žrĭcĭ
"priest"  |  | OIr bard, W bardd "bard"  |  | grah “ to incite, to roar”  |  |
*h₁wegʷʰ- "to promise, vow; praise"[464][465] |  |  | voveō, vōtum "I vow, promise; dedicate, devote; wish for"  | eúkhomai "I pray, vow, wish for; profess";
eûkhos "prayer, object of prayer; boast; vow"  | óhate "(s/he) says";
ukthá "saying; sentence, verse; eulogy"  | Av uxδa "word"  |  |  |  |  |  |  |
*ḱwen-, *ḱwen-tos "holy"[320][310] |  | hunsl "sacrifice"  |  |  |  | Av spəṇta "holy"[466] | OCS svętŭ "holy"  | Lith šveñtas "holy"  |  |  |  |  |
*seh₂k-
"holy"[467][468] |  |  | sanciō "I render, appoint as sacred; devote, consecrate, dedicate";
sānctus "sacred, made inviolable; venerable, blessed, saintly";
sacer "sacred, holy, dedicated, consecrated; devoted"  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |

## Unclassified

[edit]

PIE | English | Gothic | Latin | Ancient Greek | Sanskrit | Iranian | Slavic | Baltic | Celtic | Armenian | Albanian | Tocharian | Hittite

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*gʰedʰ- "to unite, join, suit"[469] | good (< OE gōd);
gather (< OE gaderian);
together (< OE togædere)  | goþs "good"  |  |  |  |  | godǔ "suitable time, holiday, feast, right time, time, term, year";[ci]
OCS godina "hour; time";
godĭnŭ
"suitable"  |  |  |  |  |  |
*bʰed- "to improve, make better"[470] | better (< OE betera);
batten (< ON batna "to grow better, improve, recover");
boot[cj] (< OE bōt "help, relief, advantage, remedy")  | bota "gain, benefit, advantage"
batiza "better"  |  |  | bhadrá- "blessed, auspicious, fortunate, prosperous, happy; good, gracious, friendly, kind; excellent, fair, lovely, pleasant, dear"  |  |  |  | W bodd "consent, will"  |  | betë “good, right”  |  |
*h₂el- "to grow, nourish"[471] | old (< OE eald, ald); alderman (< OE ealdorman)  | aljan "to cause to grow fat, fatten"
alþeis "old"  | *oleō (*olēre) "I grow";
alō (alere) "I foster, I nourish; I raise";
alimentum "food, nourishment; obligation to one's parents";
alumnus "nourished, fostered";
alimōnia "food, nourishment";
altus "high, tall";
indolēs "innate, inborn; talent";
adolescēns "growing up";
adultus "grown-up, matured"  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |
*h₃erdʰ- "to increase, grow; upright, high"[472][473] |  |  | arbor (< OLat arbōs < PIta *arðōs) "tree (high plant)";
arduus "lofty, high, steep, elevated; arduous"  | orthós "straight, upright, erect; straight forward"  | ūrdhvá "rising, raised, erected; upright, high, above";
ṛ́ddhi "growth, increase; prosperity; elevation"  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |
*bʰeh₂g- "to divide, distribute, allot"[474] | baksheesh (< Pers baxšidan "to give, grant, bestow")  |  |  | éphagon "I ate, devoured (took my share)" > -phagy, (o)esophagus | bhakṣá- "food, drink, delight"; bhájati "to distribute, divide, allot, chooe, serve"  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |
*deh₂-
*deh₂y-
"to share, divide"[475][476] | time (< OE tīma);
tide (< OE tīd)  |  |  | daíomai "I divide, share; host (a feast)";
dêmos "district, country, land; the common people; free citizens, sovereign people; deme";
daís "feast, banquet";
daitrós "one who carves and portions out meat at table";
daímōn "god, goddess; departed soul; demon"  | dītí "brightness, time";
dā́ti, dyáti "(s/he) cuts, clips, mows, separates, divides";
dātrá- "allotted share"  |  |  |  |  |  | ditë “day”  |  |
*deh₂p-
"to sacrifice, lose"[475][476] | tap "hit lightly" (< OE tappen);
tip "touch quietly, bump quietly" (< OE tippen)  | ON tafn "sacrifice"  | daps "a sacrificial or solemn feast, religious banquet; meal";
damnum < dapnum "damage, injury; (financial) loss; fine"  | dáptō "I eat, devour; consume, corrode";
dapánē "cost, expenditure; extravagance"  | dāpayati "(s/he) divides"  |  |  |  | Ga duan "song, poem" (< PC *daunā)  | tawn "feast"  |  | A tāpal "food"  | tappala- "person responsible for court cooking"
*delh₁-
"to split, divide"[477][478] | tell, teller (< OE tellen);
tale (< OE talu);
talk (< OE tealcian)  |  | dolō "I hew, chop into shape; fashion, devise";
doleō "I hurt, suffer; I grieve for, lament";
dolor "pain, ache, hurt; anguish, grief, sorrow"  |  | dalati "it bursts";
dālayati "(s/he) splits, cracks";
dala- "deal, portion, piece, half";
|  | OCS delěti, odolěti "to overcome, defeat";
Russ dólja "share, fate"  |  | W delw "statue, image"  |  |  |  |
*dʰayl-
"part, watershed"  | deal (< OE dǣl);
dole (< OE dāl)  | dails "part, portion, share"  |  |  |  |  | OCS děliti "to divide";
OCS dělŭ "part"  |  |  |  |  |  |
*bʰeh₂- "to shine, glow"[479] |  |  | faveō "I favor";
favor "id";
faustus "favorable, fortunate";
fautor "patron, protector, promoter"  | phaínō "I shine, appear, bring to light"  | bhā́s "light"; bhānú "light, ray, sun"  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |
*bʰewg- "to enjoy, benefit"[480] |  |  | fungor "I perform, execute, discharge; finish, complete, end" > fungible, defunct;
fūnctiō "performance, execution (of a task)" > function |  | bhuj-, bhunákti "(s/he) enjoys; consumes, eats, drinks; uses, utilizes"  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |
*bʰruHg- "to make use of, have enjoyment of"[481] | brook (< OE brūcan) "(old meaning) to use, enjoy";
Ger brauchen "to need, require"  | brukjan "to use"  | fruor "I enjoy, derive pleasure from";
frūctus "enjoyment, delight, satisfaction; produce, product, fruit; profit, yield, outcome" ⇒
[note 109];
frūmentum "corn, grain";
frūx, frūgēs "fruits of the earth, produce" > frugal |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |
*deyḱ- "to point out";[482] | toe (< OE tā);
token (< OE tācn);
teach (< OE tǣċan)  | gateihan "announce, proclaim, declare"
PGmc *taihwǭ "toe"; *tīhwaną "to show, announce"  | dīcō "I say, utter; mention, talk";
digitus "finger, toe, digit"  | díkē "custom, manner, fashion; law, order, right; judgement, justice";
deîgma "specimen, sample; pattern"; deíknumi, "I point out, show"  | diśáti "(s/he) points out, shows;teaches, informs; orders, commands, bids";
deśá- "point, region, spot, part; province, country"  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |
*h₂eyḱ- "to own, obtain, come in possession of";
*h₂eh₂óyḱe- "to possess, own"[483][484] | own
(< OE āgen);
owe
(< OE āgan);
OE āga "owner";
ought, aught (< OE ǣht)  | aigan "own, possess"  |  |  | √īś, īṣṭe "(s/he) owns, possesses, is master of; rules";
īśá- "owning";
īśāná-, īśvara- "owner, master; ruler; epithets of the god Śiva"  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |
*seǵʰ-
"to hold, overpower"[485][486] | OE siġe "victory" < PGmc segaz (In personal names, e.g., Sigmund, Siegfried, etc.)  | sigis "victory";
sigislaun "prize, spoils"  | sevērus "severe, serious, strict, stern, stringent, austere, harsh, grave"  | ékhō "I have, possess; hold, am able" ⇒
[note 110];
ískhō "I hold back, restrain; stay; hold fast, maintain";
iskhū́s "strength, power, might";
héxis "possession, act of having; a certain state, condition" ⇒
[note 111];
skhêma "form, shape, figure; appearance, show; bearing, look, air; stateliness, dignity; fashion, manner; character, persona; state, nature; species, kind; dance; sketch, outline, plan, scheme" ⇒
[note 112];
okhurós "firm, lasting, stout";
skholḗ "leisure, free time; rest; philosophy; place where lectures are given" ⇒
[note 113];
Héktōr lit. "conqueror";
skhétlios "able to hold out, steadfast, unflinching"  | sáhate "(s/he) overcomes, vanquishes, conquers, prevails; is able, capable; bears, endures";
sáhas "strength, power, force";
sā́ḍhṛ[ck] "conqueror"  |  |  |  | Gaul Sego- (in personal and tribal names) "victory"[487] |  |  |  |
*h₃erbʰ- "to change status, ownership";
*h₃órbʰos "servant, worker, slave; orphan"[488][489] | erf "heritage, inheritance" (< OE erfe);  | arbaiþs "labour, work, toil"
arbja "heir" arbjo "heiress" Ger arbeit "work", Erbe heir | orbus "orphaned, parentless"  | orphanós "orphan; childless; bereft"  | árbha- "orphan; child; small"  |  | OCS rabŭ "servant, slave" (< *ārbǔ);[490]
Czech orbota "hard work, slavery" > robot;
Pol robić "to make, to do"  |  |  |  |  |  |
*Hrew- "to tear out, dig out, open, acquire"[444][445]
(See also *Hrewp-, *Hrewk-)  |  |  | rudis "rough, raw, uncultivated; unrefined, unskilled" ⇒
[note 114] |  | róman "hair, body hair"  |  | OCS runo "fleece"  |  |  |  |  |  |

## Derivatives

[edit]

1. ^ maternal, maternity, matron, matrimony, matrix, matriculate, material, matter, madeira, alma mater, etc.
2. ^ Dēmḗtēr Demeter;
mētrópolis "metropolis, lit., mother-city"
3. ^ paternal, paternity, patron, patronize, pattern, patrimony, patriot, expatriate, patrician, perpetrate, compadre, etc.
4. ^ fraternal, fraternity, fraternize, friar,[b] confrere
5. ^ sorority
6. ^ nepotism
7. ^ avuncular
8. ^ human, humanity, ad hominem, etc
9. ^ virile, virtue, triumvir(ate), etc.[o]
10. ^ regal, regalia, regicide, royal, etc.
11. ^ corps, corpse, corporal, corporation, incorporate, etc.
12. ^ cap, cape, chapeau, capital, chapter, capitulate, decapitate, per capita, kaput, etc.
13. ^ language, lingo etc.
14. ^ ocular, binoculars, etc.
15. ^ core, cordial, record, accord, discord, concord, accordion, misericordia, courage, etc.
16. ^ cruel, crude
17. ^ tripod, podium, etc.
18. ^ manual, manufacture, manuscript, manipulate, manifest, maintain, manage, manumission, emancipate, mandate, demand, commend, countermand, mandatory, masturbate etc.
19. ^ pecunious, impecunious
20. ^ a b auspices, auspicious
21. ^ grain, granary, granule, granite, pomegranate, etc.
22. ^ agrarian, agriculture, pilgrim, peregrinate, etc.
23. ^ promulgate, emulsion, etc.
24. ^ molar (tooth)
25. ^ immolate
26. ^ maul, mallet, malleable
27. ^ Spanish 'zumo' via Arabic
28. ^ fervent, fervor, fervid, effervescence
29. ^ saline, salsa, sauce, salad, sausage (salchicha, saucisse), salami, salary
30. ^ semen, seminar, seminary, seminal, disseminate, inseminate, season, sative, etc.
31. ^ member, membrane
32. ^ "dorm, dormitory, dorter"
33. ^ progeny, progenitor
34. ^ nee[av]
35. ^ nascent
36. ^ native, nativity, etc.
37. ^ Spa Navidad "Christmas"
38. ^ nature, natural, etc.
39. ^ nation, national, etc.
40. ^ Natalia, Natalie, Natasha, Noël, etc.
41. ^ general, generic, generate, generous, congenital, degenerate, gender, genre, etc.
42. ^ gent, gentle, gentleman, gentile, genteel, etc.
43. ^ genitive, primogeniture, etc.
44. ^ ingenuous, ingenu, ingenue
45. ^ ingenious, engine, engineer, gin (instrument, as in cotton gin), etc.
46. ^ germ, germinate, germane, etc., but not German
47. ^ genitals, genitalia
48. ^ genesis, genes, genetic, etc.
49. ^ auction, etc.
50. ^ author, etc.
51. ^ augment, etc.
52. ^ augury, inaugurate, etc.
53. ^ August, etc.
54. ^ auxiliary, etc.
55. ^ "audio, audience, obey, obedience, auditorium, etc."
56. ^ aesthetic
57. ^ memento
58. ^ reminisce
59. ^ memory
60. ^ monster
61. ^ mathematics
62. ^ "memory, remember, etc."
63. ^ "mora, moratory, moratorium"
64. ^ "martyr"
65. ^ dekko
66. ^ aspect, inspect, respect, prospect, perspective, retrospect, despicable, conspicuous, perspicuous, perspicacious, spectacle, spectacular, etc etc.
67. ^ species, spice, special, specify, specific
68. ^ spectre, spectrum
69. ^ speculate
70. ^ scope, -scope, -scopy
71. ^ bishop, episcopal
72. ^ skeptic, skeptical, skepticism
73. ^ council, conciliate, etc.
74. ^ clamor, claim, exclamation, etc.
75. ^ clear, clarify, etc.
76. ^ stylus, style (originally same meaning as stylus: a particular form of writing > style)
77. ^ humble, humility, exhume, etc
78. ^ "incinerate, cinerary, cinerarium"
79. ^ "foment, fomentation"
80. ^ "fever, febrile"
81. ^ "February"
82. ^ pollute, pollution
83. ^ fort, forte, fortitude, fortification, force, effort, etc
84. ^ chernozem, chernukha, Cherno(byl)
85. ^  ?Siam
86. ^ civic, city, citizen, etc.
87. ^ cite, incite, excite, Incitātus (Caligula's horse), resuscitate, solicit, etc.
88. ^ site, situation, etc.
89. ^ expose, exponent, depose, deponent, oppose, opponent, proponent, posit, position, positive, post, etc.
90. ^
impeccable, impeach
91. ^ podium, pew
92. ^ sequence, second, segue, etc.
93. ^ vert-, verse, versus, version, invert, convert, inverse, reverse, controversy, anniversary etc.
94. ^ join, joinder, joint, junction, juncture, conjugal, conjugate, conjunct, adjunct, injunction, rejoin, rejoinder, jostle, joust, adjust, etc.
95. ^ local, locate, locality, locomotion, allocate, etc.
96. ^ epistle, pistle, epistolary, etc.
97. ^ sect (or possibly from Lat. sequi, "follow"), -sect, sectile, section, sector, dissect, insect, intersect, resect, transect, etc.
98. ^ carnal, carnage, carnation, carnival, carrion, caruncle, carnivorous, charnel, charcuterie, incarnate, etc., Spa carne
99. ^ scrutiny, scrutinize, inscrutable, etc.
100. ^ scruple, scrupulous, etc.
101. ^ cult, culture, cultivate, incult, etc.
102. ^ colony, colonial, etc.
103. ^ collar, accolade, decollate, etc
104. ^ palindrome, palimpsest, palinode
105. ^ telegraph, television, etc.
106. ^ evolve, revolve, involve, involucrum, convolve, devolve, voluble etc.;
107. ^ vale, valley
108. ^ helix, helical, helicopter
109. ^ fruit, fructose
110. ^ eunuch (lit. bed-keeper)
111. ^ hectic
112. ^ scheme, schematic
113. ^ school, scholar, scholastic
114. ^ rude, rudimentary, erudite

## Footnotes

[edit]

1. ^ Reflexes of the stem in daughter languages also refer to deified beings and deities within their respective mythologies/religions: Old English Mōdraniht ('Night of the Mothers'); Celtic and Germanic Matres and Matronae (Latin for 'Mothers and Matrons'); Latvian Māte ('Mother'); Gaulish Dea Matrona ('Divine Mother Goddess'); Sanskrit Matrikas ('Divine Mothers').
2. ^ e.g., black friar
3. ^ Phralipe, or Pralipe, "brotherhood", name of several Gypsy/Romany organizations, including a music band and a literary magazine.
4. ^ sw- > xw-
5. ^ kʿoyr *swesōr; kʿeʿ < *swesros; kʿor-kʿ < *swesŏres.
6. ^ Varias García (2017) pointed out that a tablet from Mycene uses "tu-ka-te", whereas tablets from Knossos, Pylos and Thebes use "ko-wa" (*korwa, later koré 'maiden, girl').[21]
7. ^ Although this word is attested in Hittite, it is considered a loanword from Luwian. While scholarship recognizes the likelihood of its being the reflex of the root in Anatolian, its appearance in Hittite and Luwian would indicate a different meaning, however.[26][27]
8. ^ The root could also be found in Anatolian languages with later attestation: Isaurian personal name Τουάτρης Touatris; Pisidian name Δωταρι Dotari.[28] However, Simon Zsolt questions the interpretation of Dotari as a reflex, since this word is attested as a compound in male names.[29]
9. ^ Other interpretations are "son of the yew" or "son of the boar".[34]
10. ^ The word is attested in Plate III of the Botorrita plaques. Patrizia de Bernardo Stempel interprets "-SUNOS" as the remnant of the root in the Celtic branch.[22][35]
11. ^ This is the other possible attestation of the root in the Celtic branch.[36]
12. ^ As argued by Peyrot and Meng (2021).[42]
13. ^ cf. divide
14. ^ bridegome in Middle English, subsequently influenced by groom (archaically "servant, man").
15. ^ But not virus
16. ^ See also Thr goni "woman".[51]
17. ^ See also Phry knaiko, knaikan "woman".[52]
18. ^ Joseph Vendryes had suggested that compound names with the stem seem to be common around the southeast and the Balkans.[63] However, the stem "is attested ... in Messapic, in Osco-Umbrian, in Venetic, in Gaulish, in Celtiberian, in Brittonic languages, in Welsh, in German and in the Baltic languages",[64] as seen, for instance, in Illyrian Teuta (a Illyrian female ruler); Messapic teuta (community) and Taotor (name of deity); tribal name Teutons.
19. ^ However, Robert Beekes suggests a non-Indo-European, substrate origin for the stem and its reflexes.[65]
20. ^ Woudhuizen lists possible reflexes: Phrygian totos, teutous; Mycenaean te-u-ta-(ko-ro).[52] Another reflex appears in Thracian personal name Tautomedes, cited by J. P. Mallory,[68] and Ancient Macedonian (Pelasgian?) general Teutamus.[65]
21. ^ hēm- < *ām- (with h- after hum- "you (pl.)") < *asm- < *n̥sm-.
22. ^ a b OE ēow (acc., dat.) and ēow-ic̣ (acc., with the same -c̣ ending visible in 1st. sg. acc. mēc̣ "me", also modern German mich "me"), likewise Old High German iuwih "you (acc./dat. pl.)" (modern euch), appear to have the same origin as izw- in Gothic izwis "you (acc./dat. pl)", with unexplained loss of -z-. izwis appears to come from stem izw- plus originally genitive -is, where izw- comes ultimately from PIE *us-we with the loss of u- also visible in Avestan and Celtic, followed by the addition of a prothetic i-. (Ringe, 2006)
23. ^ Cf. Latin ne-que, Gothic ni-h, Hittite ni-kku, Lydian ni-k "and not, nor".
24. ^ All suggested etymologies of një "one" are highly speculative, at best. This etymology is one of two given by E. Hamp in Indo-European Numerals (Jadranka Gvozdanović, ed., 1992), pp. 903-904; the other is simply from PIE *eni- (or H₂en-), a PIE deictic particle visible in Sanskrit anyá- "the other", OCS onŭ "that one", Lithuanian anàs "that one". Michiel de Vaan, in a review of Demiraj's Sistemi i numerimit, suggests PIE *H₂en-io-no- > pre-Proto-Albanian *ëńán > Proto-Albanian *ńâ > një. M. Huld (Basic Albanian Etymologies, p. 101) attempts to derive një from PIE *sm-iH₂, feminine of *sem "one" and reflected in Ancient Greek mía; this etymology is also tentatively suggested in Don Ringe et al. "IE and Computational Cladistics", p. 75 (Transactions of the Philological Society 100, 2002).
25. ^ For example, qñnã-tba "twelve" (litt. "ten" plus "two").[72]
26. ^ See also: Umb peturpursus "quadruped".
27. ^ Cf. Thr ketri- "four".[75]
28. ^ See also: Osc pomp- "five".[76]
29. ^ See also Phry pinke "five".[52]
30. ^ Built upon osmŭ "eighth" < *H₁ok̂t-mo-.
31. ^ With nasalization after *septḿ̥ "seven".
32. ^ There is the possibility that Lycian sñta could mean either "ten" or "(one) hundred".[77][80]
33. ^ But not kephalḗ!
34. ^ Possible Anatolian reflex of the root, as posited by Sasseville (2020).[109]
35. ^ Only in *aíƕatundi "bramble", literally "horse-tooth".
36. ^ Expected form is *vōs, not *bōs; evidently this is a borrowing from Oscan or Umbrian.
37. ^ bóu, báu are archaic genitives; later báo, bó.
38. ^ Celtic river-goddess
39. ^ In the latter case, a direct parallel to Skt. go·vinda- "cow-finder"
40. ^ River in Ireland
41. ^ Proposed by Yakubovich and Sasseville (2018).[123]
42. ^ Cf. also Phry ἔξις or ἔζις (ezi) "hedgehog".
43. ^ In ancient Roman tradition, the Avernus was a lake where birds died as they flew near it.
44. ^ See also Illyrian tribal name Enchele "eel-people".
45. ^ The name migrated to Eastern Europe,[148] assumed the form "azhdaja" and the meaning "dragon", "dragoness"[149] or "water snake"[150] in Balkanic and Slavic languages.[151]
46. ^ See also Ovinnik 'a spirit of the barn'.[189]
47. ^ a b Lit. drinking implement
48. ^ Via French né, née
49. ^ Cf. Sanskrit janitár-, Greek genetḗr, genétōr, Latin genitor "procreator".
50. ^ Seen in many personal or tribal names: Biuitoni, Biuonia, Dago-bius, etc
51. ^ This borrowing is found in almost every Slavic language and is said to be "without doubt the most famous Germanic loanword in Slavic" (Pronk-Tiethoff (2013))
52. ^ Derived by some from *men- "to think"
53. ^ standard present tense formed using a suppletive root
54. ^ all Slavic languages
55. ^ Under the misguided influence of Greek stûlos "pillar"
56. ^ Cf. Asteria (litt.) "starry one"; Astraeus "god of dusk" (litt. "starry"); Astraea "star-maiden"; Cretan king Asterion "starry".
57. ^ acc. stā̆rǝm, gen. stārō, pl. nom. staras-ča, stārō, acc. strǝ̄uš, gen. strǝ̄m, dat. stǝrǝbyō.
58. ^ Tīw < *déywos was the Germanic god of war, but originally was a sky-god and head of the gods, like Zeus.
59. ^ *déywos > Lat. deus; gen. *deiwī > Lat. dīvī. From each stem a full declension was formed.
60. ^ According to linguist Vitaly Shevoroshkin, the noun exists in other Anatolian languages: Lycian ziw-; Lydian civ-; Luwian Tiwa-; Palaic Tija-.[122]
61. ^ Other dialectal variants are Cretan awélios or ābélios; Doric āélios.
62. ^ Seen in chamomile (from khamaimēlon "earth-apple") and chameleon (from khamailéōn "earth-lion").[187]
63. ^ a b c d It is unclear how the original PIE forms produced the attested daughter-language forms. After the loss of laryngeals, original *péh₂wr̥, ph₂unés would regularly produce *pāwr̥, punés. It is possible that this form was considered too strange-looking, with the result that the u vowel was borrowed from the second stem into the first, yielding *púwr̥, punés. This compressed to *pūr, punés, and this stem set, or its regularized version *pūr, purés, might form the basis of the Umbrian, Greek and Armenian forms. For Germanic, however, something else must be at work. Ringe (2006) suggests that the following sequence of events produced Gothic fōn: Collective péh₂wōr -> ph₂uṓr (cf. Tocharian B puwar) > puōr > Proto-Germanic fuwōr > fwōr > fōr -> fōn (using -n- from the oblique stem), where -> indicates a change due to analogy, while > indicates a regular sound change. His explanation of funins and fuïr is very tentative and complicated. Pokorny's suggestion for Germanic is rather different. He derives fōn from *fwōn, with no further derivation, but probably different from Ringe's. fuïr comes from *puweri, a locative that could be formed from a nominative *púwr̥ or possibly from a stem *pur-. It suffices to say that the processes involved are not well understood.
64. ^ Februārius mēnsis \- Roman month of expiation
65. ^ Cf. Thracian river name Struma and river-god Strymon; Illyrian toponyms Stravianae and Strevintia; Lith. (dial.) river name Straujà; Old Prussian place-names Strewe, Stromyke and Strowange.[294] Stravianae (or Stravijanu) is tentatively located by scholars near the modern day city of Našice, in east Croatia.[295]
66. ^ The literal meaning is "place between the rivers".
67. ^ Scholarly opinion seems to agree that the word must have referred to a large body of water.
68. ^ Replaced OE sār, compare Ger sehr
69. ^ a b *H₁le(n)gʷʰ- and *h₁rewdʰ- are both roots that form Caland-type adjectives. These roots are notable in that they form zero-stem adjectives with certain characteristic suffixes, especially -ro- and -u-, along with -i- in compounds. Other examples are *h₂erǵ- "white" (cf. Greek argós < *argrós "white", Sanskrit ṛjrá- "brilliant", Tocharian B ārkwi "white", Greek argi-kéraunos "with bright lightning") and *dʰewb- "deep" (cf. Lithuanian dubùs "hollow" < *dʰub-u-, Tocharian B tapre "high" < *dʰub-ro-).
70. ^ contested
71. ^ Cf. also Thrac arzas "white".[326]
72. ^ Etymon rudá appears in idiomatic expressions denoting "anger".[336]
73. ^ Latin etymons galbus ("yellow") and galbinus ("greenish-yellow") are also suggested to derive from this root.[342]
74. ^ See also: Phr glouros "gold".[343][344]
75. ^ Not cognate
76. ^ ibetis uciu andecari biiete \- 'drink from here and be nice' - Limé (Aisne) inscrpition
77. ^ See also Umbrian benust (Latin uenerit) and Oscan kúm-bened (Latin conuentio).
78. ^ Now compare 'prose' and 'verse'
79. ^ wagon is a loan-word from Dutch.
80. ^ Some of these words might instead derive from *sekʷ- "to follow"
81. ^ Not related to Spanish alquilar
82. ^ Probably
83. ^ See also Hesperus "evening star"; Hesperides "daughters of the evening; nymphs of the west".
84. ^ Attested in the Coligny calendar, written in Gaulish language.
85. ^ Douglas Q. Adams reads the words as "winter, wintry", although there are other interpretations.[456][457]
86. ^ Influenced by zǝrǝd "heart".
87. ^ Range of meanings across the different Slavic languages
88. ^ as in 'to boot', 'bootless'
89. ^ exact cognate of Héktōr

## Tabular notes

[edit]

1. ^ a b c Complex ablauting stem:  | Singular | Plural

|
|

Language | Nom | Acc | Gen | Dat | Nom | Acc | Gen
PIE | gʷṓws | gʷṓm | gʷéws | gʷéwey | gʷówes | gʷówm̥s | gʷéwoHom
Sanskrit | gáus | gā́m | gṓs | gávē | gā́vas | gā́s | gávām
Avestan | gāuš | gąm | gāuš | gave | gā̆vō | gā̊ | gavąm
2. ^ Complex ablauting stem:  Language | Nom | Acc | Voc | Gen | Dat | Loc | Instr Pl

|
|
|
|
|
|
|

PIE | d(i)yḗws | dyḗm | dyéw | diw-és, -ós | diwéy | dyéwi and dyéw | ?
Greek | Zdeús | Zdẽn | Zdeũ | Di(w)ós | Di(w)í |
Sanskrit | d(i)yāús | dyā́m | ? | divás, dyōs | divḗ | dyáví, diví | dyú-bhis
3. ^ a b Complex ablauting stem:  Language | Nom | Acc | Voc | Gen | Dat | Loc | Instr Pl

|
|
|
|
|
|
|

PIE | d(i)yēus | dyēum | dyĕu | diw-és, -ós | diwéi | dyéwi and dyēu | ?
Greek | Zdeús | Zdẽn | Zdeũ | Di(w)ós | Di(w)í |
Sanskrit | d(i)yāús | dyā́m | ? | divás, dyōs | divḗ | dyáví, diví | dyú-bhis

## References

[edit]

1. ^ Dnghu, pp. 1993-1994.
2. ^ Pokorny, pp. 700-701.
3. ^ a b Dnghu, p. 2394.
4. ^ a b Pokorny, p. 829.
5. ^ a b Mallory & Adams (2006), p. 210.
6. ^ Dnghu, pp. 485-486.
7. ^ Pokorny, pp. 163-164.
8. ^ a b Mallory & Adams (2006), p. 214.
9. ^ Yūsuke, Sumi (2018). New Express Romani (Gypsy). p. 142.
10. ^ Kenrick, Donald (2007). Historical Dictionary of the Gypsies. Scarecrow Press. pp. 195, 204. ISBN 978-0-8108-5468-0.
11. ^ Zair, Nicholas (2012). The Reflexes of the Proto-Indo-European Laryngeals in Celtic. Brill. p. 110\. doi:10.1163/9789004233096. ISBN 978-90-04-22539-8.
12. ^ Campbell, George L. with King, Gareth. Compendium of the World's Languages. Routledge. 2013. p. 86. ISBN 978-0-415-62191-5
13. ^ Dnghu, p. 3027.
14. ^ Pokorny, p. 1051.
15. ^ Witczak, Krzysztof Tomasz (1 December 2015). "Gaulish SUIOREBE 'with two sisters'". Lingua Posnaniensis. 57 (2): 59–62\. doi:10.1515/linpo-2015-0011. S2CID 56122374.
16. ^ Kloekhorst, Alwin (2011). "The accentuation of the PIE word for 'daughter'". Accent Matters. pp. 235–243\. doi:10.1163/9789401200325_009. ISBN 978-90-420-3332-0.
17. ^ Dnghu, pp. 757-758.
18. ^ Pokorny, p. 277.
19. ^ Mallory & Adams (2006), p. 213.
20. ^ García, Carlos Varias. "De synonymia Mycenaea: términos griegos equivalentes de distintos reinos micénicos". In: Conuentus Classicorum: temas y formas del Mundo Clásico. Coord. por Jesús de la Villa, Emma Falque Rey, José Francisco González Castro, María José Muñoz Jiménez, Vol. 1, 2017. pp. 382-383. ISBN 978-84-697-8214-9
21. ^ García, Carlos Varias. "De synonymia Mycenaea: términos griegos equivalentes de distintos reinos micénicos". In: Conuentus Classicorum: temas y formas del Mundo Clásico. Coord. por Jesús de la Villa, Emma Falque Rey, José Francisco González Castro, María José Muñoz Jiménez, Vol. 1, 2017. p. 388. ISBN 978-84-697-8214-9
22. ^ a b Bernardo Stempel, Patrizia de (January 2013). "Celtic 'son', 'daughter', other descendants, and *sunus in Early Celtic". Indogermanische Forschungen. 118 (2013). doi:10.1515/indo.2013.118.2013.259. S2CID 199664295.
23. ^ Stifter, David (2006). "Contributions to Celtiberian Etymology II". Palaeohispanica. Revista sobre lenguas y culturas de la Hispania Antigua (6): 237–245\. Archived from the original on 2022-06-27. Retrieved 2022-06-27.
24. ^ Hughes, Art J. (2023). "A synchronic and diachronic reappraisal of Indo-European *dʱug̑ʱh2ter- 'daughter' and *suhxnú- 'son' in Celtic dialects, Insular and Continental". Dialectologia et Geolinguistica. 31 (1): 117–134\. doi:10.1515/dialect-2023-0006.
25. ^ Oshiro, Terumasa (1990). "On Kinship Terms in Hieroglyphic Luwian". Orient. 26: 86–93\. doi:10.5356/orient1960.26.86. S2CID 162342792. INIST 6146291.
26. ^ Milanova, Veronika (2019). "MUNUS/Fduttarii̯ata/I- and Some Other Indo-European Maidens". Hrozný and Hittite. pp. 277–294\. doi:10.1163/9789004413122_015. ISBN 978-90-04-41312-2. S2CID 213576150.
27. ^ Kloekhorst, Alwin. Etymological Dictionary of the Hittite Inherited Lexicon. Leiden Indo-European Etymological Dictionary Series 5. Leiden, The Netherlands; Boston, 2008. pp. 1042-1044. https://hdl.handle.net/1887/11996
28. ^ Blažek, Václav. “Indo-European kinship terms in *-ə̯2TER.” (2001). In: Grammaticvs: studia linguistica Adolfo Erharto quinque et septuagenario oblata. Šefčík, Ondřej (editor); Vykypěl, Bohumil (editor). Vyd. 1. V Brně: Masarykova univerzita, 2001. p. 25. http://hdl.handle.net/11222.digilib/123188
29. ^ Simon, Zsolt (2017). "Selected Pisidian problems and the position of Pisidian within the Anatolian languages". Journal of Language Relationship. 15 (1): 37. doi:10.31826/jlr-2017-151-207. S2CID 212688432.
30. ^ a b Dnghu, p. 2642.
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233. ^ Pokorny, pp. 726-728
234. ^ Monier Williams, p. 785.
235. ^ Dnghu, pp. 2800-2801.
236. ^ Pokorny, pp. 969-970.
237. ^ Monier Williams, p. 1271.
238. ^ Dnghu, p. 3142.
239. ^ Pokorny, p. 1088.
240. ^ Dnghu, p. 2094.
241. ^ Pokorny, pp. 737-738.
242. ^ Monier Williams, p. 831.
243. ^ Dnghu, pp. 598-599.
244. ^ Pokorny, p. 213.
245. ^ a b c Mallory & Adams (2006), p. 325.
246. ^ Monier Williams, p. 491.
247. ^ Dnghu, p. 2840.
248. ^ Pokorny, p. 984.
249. ^ Monier Williams, p. 611.
250. ^ Dnghu, p. 1798.
251. ^ Pokorny, pp. 638-639.
252. ^ Monier Williams, p. 280.
253. ^ Dnghu, p. 329
254. ^ Dnghu, pp. 1497-1499
255. ^ Pokorny, pp. 548-550
256. ^ Pokorny, pp. 161-162
257. ^ Delamarre (2003), p. 50.
258. ^ Dnghu, pp. 2926-2927.
259. ^ Pokorny, pp. 1016-1017.
260. ^ a b c Mallory & Adams (2006), p. 513.
261. ^ Monier Williams, p. 454.
262. ^ Dnghu, pp. 3050-3052.
263. ^ Pokorny, pp. 1053-1054.
264. ^ a b c d Mallory & Adams (2006), p. 123
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267. ^ Dnghu, p. 64.
268. ^ Pokorny, pp. 18-22.
269. ^ a b c Mallory & Adams (2006), p. 121.
270. ^ Monier Williams, p. 114.
271. ^ Dnghu, p. 1902.
272. ^ Pokorny, p. 678.
273. ^ a b c Mallory & Adams (2006), p. 122.
274. ^ Still scanned as three syllables in some passages of the Rigveda, Ringe (2006) p. 77.
275. ^ Monier Williams, p. 557.
276. ^ Ringe (2006) p. 77, sourced to Melchert (1994) p. 54.
277. ^ Mallory, p. 202.
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280. ^ Dnghu, pp. 265-266
281. ^ Pokorny, pp. 68-69
282. ^ Dnghu, p. 1517.
283. ^ Pokorny, p. .
284. ^ Dnghu, pp. 652-653.
285. ^ Pokorny, pp. 240-241.
286. ^ Monier Williams, p. 477.
287. ^ Dnghu, p. 954
288. ^ Pokorny, p. 347
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298. ^ MMW, p. 509.
299. ^ Mallory, p. 106.
300. ^ Dnghu, pp. 664-665.
301. ^ Pokorny, p. 245-246.
302. ^ Dnghu, p. 2074.
303. ^ Pokorny, p. 738.
304. ^ Monier Williams, pp. 791, 812.
305. ^ Dnghu, p. 517
306. ^ Delamarre (2003), p. 82.
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308. ^ Pokorny, pp. 140-141.
309. ^ Monier Williams, p. 737.
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315. ^ Pokorny, pp. 1165-1166.
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317. ^ Dnghu, p. 576
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319. ^ Dnghu, p. 478.
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346. ^ Pokorny, pp. 540-541.
347. ^ Monier Williams, p. 1094.
348. ^ KAYĀNIĀN vi. Siiāuuaršan, Siyāwaxš, Siāvaš, Encyclopedia Iranica
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359. ^ Monier Williams, pp. 1219-1221.
360. ^ Dnghu, pp. 940-943.
361. ^ Pokorny, pp. 340-342.
362. ^ Monier Williams, p. 1134.
363. ^ Pokorny, pp. 1039-1040.
364. ^ Mallory & Adams (2006), p. 255.
365. ^ Monier Williams, p. 1279.
366. ^ Beekes, p. 34.
367. ^ Dnghu, pp.583-586.
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379. ^ Pokorny, pp. 539-540.
380. ^ Mallory & Adams (2006), p. 206.
381. ^ Monier Williams, p. 1074.
382. ^ Rix (2001), p. 321.
383. ^ Dnghu, p. 1737.
384. ^ Pokorny, p. 626.
385. ^ Mallory & Adams (2006), p. 223.
386. ^ Monier Williams, p. 328.
387. ^ Rix (2001), pp. 643-644.
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390. ^ Pokorny, pp. 511-512
391. ^ Mallory & Adams (2006), p. 181
392. ^ Monier Williams, p. 580.
393. ^ Dnghu, pp. 2386-2389
394. ^ Pokorny, pp. 790-792
395. ^ Monier Williams, p. 582.
396. ^ Dnghu, pp. 2924-2925.
397. ^ Pokorny, pp. 1017-1018.
398. ^ Monier Williams, p. 1258.
399. ^ Dnghu, pp. 3352-3354.
400. ^ Pokorny, pp. 1156-1158.
401. ^ a b c Mallory & Adams (2006), p. 378.
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403. ^ Dnghu, p. 342
404. ^ Dnghu, p. 429
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408. ^ Pokorny, p. 4.
409. ^ Dnghu, pp. 2934-2936.
410. ^ Pokorny, pp. 1019-1020.
411. ^ Monier Williams, p. 1261.
412. ^ Dnghu, pp. 1446-1449
413. ^ Pokorny, pp. 527-528
414. ^ Dnghu, p. 346
415. ^ Dnghu, p. 613
416. ^ Dnghu, p. 488
417. ^ Dnghu, pp. 2660-2661
418. ^ Pokorny, pp. 895-896
419. ^ Dnghu, pp. 2704-2717
420. ^ Pokorny, pp. 938-947
421. ^ Dnghu, pp. 2735-2740
422. ^ Pokorny, pp. 919-922
423. ^ Monier Williams, p. 406.
424. ^ a b Dnghu, pp. 922-932
425. ^ a b Pokorny, pp. 326-332
426. ^ Dnghu, p. 2594.
427. ^ Pokorny, pp. 900-901.
428. ^ Mallory & Adams (2006), p. 391.
429. ^ Monier Williams, p. 1245.
430. ^ Dnghu, pp. 1800-1802.
431. ^ Pokorny, pp. 639-640.
432. ^ Mallory & Adams (2006), p. 494.
433. ^ Monier Williams, p. 389.
434. ^ Helmut, p. 386.
435. ^ Dnghu, pp. 3299-3305.
436. ^ Pokorny, pp. 1140-1144.
437. ^ Monier Williams, p. 927.
438. ^ Helmut (2001), p. 677.
439. ^ Dnghu, pp. 3274-3275.
440. ^ Pokorny, pp. 1131-1132.
441. ^ Monier Williams, p. 972.
442. ^ Rix (2001), p. 671.
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446. ^ Pokorny, p. 338.
447. ^ Dnghu, p. 2213.
448. ^ Pokorny, p. 770.
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450. ^ Monier Williams, p. 567.
451. ^ Dnghu, p. 1524.
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## Bibliography

[edit]

* Pokorny, Julius (1959). Indogermanisches etymologisches Wörterbuch.
* Dnghu. Proto-Indo-European Etymological Dictionary. (A revised edition of Julius Pokorny's Indogermanisches Etymologisches Wörterbuch, CCA-GNU)
* Beekes, Robert (1995). Comparative Indo-European Linguistics. J. Benjamins Pub. ISBN 1-55619-504-4.
* Beekes, Robert S. P. (2009). Etymological Dictionary of Greek. Brill Academic Publishers. ISBN 978-90-04-17418-4.
* Mallory, James; Adams, DQ (24 August 2006). The Oxford Introduction to Proto-Indo-European and the Proto-Indo-European World (2006 ed.). Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-928791-0.
* Kölligan, Daniel (2018). "The lexicon of Proto-Indo-European". Handbook of Comparative and Historical Indo-European Linguistics. pp. 2229–2279\. doi:10.1515/9783110542431-045. ISBN 978-3-11-054243-1. S2CID 134708437.
* Delamarre, Xavier. Le Vocabulaire Indo-Européen. Paris: Librairie d'Amérique et d'Orient. 1984. ISBN 2-7200-1028-6
* Delamarre, Xavier (2003). Dictionnaire de la langue gauloise: Une approche linguistique du vieux-celtique continental. Errance. ISBN 9782877723695.
* Kloekhorst, Alwin. Etymological Dictionary of the Hittite Inherited Lexicon. Leiden Indo-European Etymological Dictionary Series 5. Leiden, The Netherlands; Boston, 2008. https://hdl.handle.net/1887/11996
* Matasovic, Ranko. Etymological Dictionary Of Proto Celtic. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill. 2009. ISBN 978-90-04-17336-1
* Monier-Williams, Monier (1960). A Sanskrit-English. Oxford: Oxford Clarendon.

## Further reading

[edit]

On numerals:

* Bjørn, Rasmus (2019). "Nouns and Foreign Numerals: Anatolian 'Four' and the Development of the PIE Decimal System". Dispersals and Diversification. pp. 54–76\. doi:10.1163/9789004416192_004. ISBN 978-90-04-41450-1. S2CID 213661601.
* Bomhard, Allan R. (2008). "Some thoughts on the Proto-Indo-European cardinal numbers". In Hot Pursuit of Language in Prehistory. pp. 213–221\. doi:10.1075/z.145.18bom. ISBN 978-90-272-3252-6.
* Prósper, Blanca María (2014). "The Indo-european ordinal numerals 'fourth' and 'fifth' and the reconstruction of the Celtic and Italic numeral systems". Die Sprache. 51 (1): 1–50\. doi:10.13173/SPR.51.1.001.
* de Vaan, Michiel (2019). "Proto-Indo-European *sm and *si 'one'". The Precursors of Proto-Indo-European. pp. 203–218\. doi:10.1163/9789004409354_015. ISBN 978-90-04-40934-7. S2CID 213154612.

On nature and the passage of time:

* Blažek, Václav. "Astronomická terminologie v indoevropských jazycích" [Astronomic terminology in Indo-European languages]. In: Sborník prací Filozofické fakulty brněnské univerzity. A, Řada jazykovědná = Linguistica Brunensia. 2005, vol. 54, iss. A53, pp. [31]-49. ISSN 0231-7567.
* Huld, Martin E. (1986). "Proto- and post-Indo-European designations for 'sun'". Zeitschrift für vergleichende Sprachforschung. 99 (2): 194–202\. JSTOR 40848835.
* Paraskiewicz, Kinga (2002). "The names of seasons of the year in Iranian languages". Studia Etymologica Cracoviensia. 7: 67–78.

On animals:

* Gąsiorowski, Piotr (2013). "Gruit Grus: The Indo-European Names of the Crane". Studia Etymologica Cracoviensia. 18 (1): 51–68\. hdl:10593/2391.
* Hammer, Niels (2015). "Eurasian Cranes, Demoiselle Cranes, PIE +ger-and Onomatopoetics". The Journal of Indo-European Studies. 43 (1–2): 81–99\. ProQuest 1692251424.1–2&rft.pages=81-99&rft.date=2015&rft.aulast=Hammer&rft.aufirst=Niels&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:Indo-European+vocabulary" class="Z3988">
* Huld, Martin E. (2014). "Armenian agraw and an Indo-European Word for 'Crow, Raven'". The Journal of Indo-European Studies. 42 (3–4): 294–301\. ProQuest 1628229687.3–4&rft.pages=294-301&rft.date=2014&rft.aulast=Huld&rft.aufirst=Martin+E.&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:Indo-European+vocabulary" class="Z3988">
* Huard, Athanaric. "On Tocharian B kents* and PIE *g̑hans- ‘goose’". In: wékwos: Revue d'études indo-européennes. Volume 5. Les Cent Chemins. 2019. ISBN 979-8581017487.
* Palmér, Axel I.; Jakob, Anthony; Thorsø, Rasmus; Sluis, Paulus van; Swanenvleugel, Cid; Kroonen, Guus (18 March 2021). "Proto-Indo-European 'fox' and the reconstruction of an athematic ḱ-stem". Indo-European Linguistics. 9 (1): 234–263\. doi:10.1163/22125892-bja10008. hdl:1887/3212933. S2CID 233677001.
* Nurkiyazova, Sevindj (13 May 2019). "The English Word That Hasn't Changed in Sound or Meaning in 8,000 Years". Nautilus.

On kinship and family:

* Blažek, Václav. "Indo-European *suHnu- 'son' and his relatives". In: Indogermanistik und Linguistik im Dialog. Akten der XIII. Fachtagung der Indogermanischen Gesellschaft von 21. bis 27. September 2008 in Salzburg, hrg. Thomas Krisch & Thomas Lindner. Wiesbaden: Reichert, 2011. pp. 79–89. ISBN 978-3-89500-681-4
* Cooper, Brian. "The Lexicology and Etymology of Russian Family Relationships". In: Studia Etymologica Cracoviensia Vol. 14. Issue 1. Kraków: 2009. pp. 153–176. ISBN 978-83-233-2758-5
* Fernández, Esteban Ngomo (2022). "La palabra para 'hija' en indoeuropeo: un análisis comparativo" [THE WORD FOR ‘DAUGHTER’ IN INDO-EUROPEAN: A COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS]. Revista Española de Lingüística (in Spanish). 52 (1): 169–182\. doi:10.31810/RSEL.52.1.5. S2CID 250377644.
* Friedrich, Paul (January 1966). "Proto-Indo-European Kinship". Ethnology. 5 (1): 1–36\. doi:10.2307/3772899. JSTOR 3772899.
* Galton, Herbert (1957). "The Indo-European Kinship Terminology". Zeitschrift für Ethnologie. 82 (1): 121–138\. JSTOR 25840433.
* Hettrich, Heinrich (1985). "Indo-European Kinship Terminology in linguistics and Anthropology". Anthropological Linguistics. 27 (4): 453–480\. JSTOR 30028080.
* Heltoft, Lars (29 April 2020). "The Malt stone as evidence for a morphological archaism: Reconstructing the Proto-Nordic and Proto-Germanic systems of kinship terms". NOWELE. 73 (1): 4–20\. doi:10.1075/nowele.00031.hel. S2CID 219013196.
* Humphreys, S. C. (2017). "Proto-Indo-European Kinship and Society: Kin Terms". The Journal of Indo-European Studies. 45 (3–4): 373–425\. ProQuest 2070902282.3–4&rft.pages=373-425&rft.date=2017&rft.aulast=Humphreys&rft.aufirst=S.+C.&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:Indo-European+vocabulary" class="Z3988">
* Kullanda, Sergey (February 2002). "Indo-European 'Kinship Terms' Revisited". Current Anthropology. 43 (1): 89–111\. doi:10.1086/324127. S2CID 224797067.
* Milanova, Veronika (2020). "Brothers and Many Others: The Concept 'Offspring' and its Semantic Extensions in IndoEuropean Languages". The Journal of Indo-European Studies. 48 (1–2): 189–217\. ProQuest 2429828943.1–2&rft.pages=189-217&rft.date=2020&rft.aulast=Milanova&rft.aufirst=Veronika&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:Indo-European+vocabulary" class="Z3988">
* Pârvulescu, Adrian (1 January 1989). "Blood and IE. Kinship Terminology". Indogermanische Forschungen. 94 (1): 67–88\. doi:10.1515/if-1989-0107. S2CID 171400036.
* Rau, Jeremy (2011). "Indo-European Kinship Terminology: *ph₂tr-ou̯-/ph₂tr̥-u̯- and its Derivatives". Historische Sprachforschung / Historical Linguistics. 124: 1–25\. doi:10.13109/hisp.2011.124.1.1. JSTOR 41553560.
* Starke, Frank (1987). "Die Vertretungen von uridg. *d h ugh₂tér- "Tochter" in den luwischen Sprachen und ihre Stammbildung". Zeitschrift für vergleichende Sprachforschung. 100 (2): 243–269\. JSTOR 40848875.

On agriculture and produce:

* Blažek, Václav. "On Indo-European ‘barley’". In: Simmelkjaer Sandgaard Hansen, Bjarne; Nielsen Whitehead, Benedicte; Olander, Thomas; Olsen, Birgit Anette. Etymology and the European Lexicon. Proceedings of the 14th Fachtagung der Indogermanischen Gesellschaft (17-22 September 2012, Copenhagen). Wiesbaden: Reichert Verlag, 2016. pp. 53–68. ISBN 978-3-95490-202-6
* Hyllested, Adam (2019). "Did Proto-Indo-European Have a Word for Wheat? Hittite šeppit(t)- Revisited and the Rise of Post-PIE Cereal Terminology". Dispersals and Diversification. pp. 130–143\. doi:10.1163/9789004416192_007. ISBN 978-90-04-41450-1. S2CID 213979041.
* Mikić, Aleksandar (14 December 2011). "A note on some Proto-Indo-European roots related to grain legumes". Indogermanische Forschungen. 116 (2011): 60–71\. doi:10.1515/9783110239485.60. S2CID 170487201.
* Mikić, Aleksandar (2015). "Palaeolinguistics and ancient Eurasian pulse crops". Current Science. 108 (1): 45–50\. JSTOR 24216173.
* Garnier, Romain; Sagart, Laurent; Sagot, Benoît (2017). "Milk and the Indo-Europeans". Language Dispersal Beyond Farming. pp. 291–311\. doi:10.1075/z.215.13gar. ISBN 978-90-272-1255-9. S2CID 165681446.
* Schürr, Diether (1 January 2019). "Urindogermanisch Wein und Met in den anatolischen Sprachen". Aramazd. 13 (1): 44–59.

On colors:

* Shields, Kenneth (1979). "Indo-European Basic Colour Terms". Canadian Journal of Linguistics. 24 (2): 142–146\. doi:10.1017/S0008413100023409. S2CID 148651177.

On verbs related to action and motion:

* Verkerk, Annemarie (10 April 2015). "Where do all the motion verbs come from?: The speed of development of manner verbs and path verbs in Indo-European". Diachronica. 32 (1): 69–104\. doi:10.1075/dia.32.1.03ver. hdl:11858/00-001M-0000-0026-D05D-6.

On bodily functions:

* Kocharov, Petr (2016). "Proto-Indo-European lexical aspect and stem patterns". Faits de Langues. 47 (1): 75–88\. doi:10.1163/19589514-047-01-900000005. S2CID 211952112. [on PIE roots for sleep and dream]

## External links

[edit]

Look up Category:Proto-Indo-European terms by etymology in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.

* Query Julius Pokorny's landmark Indogermanisches Etymologisches Wörterbuch, the standard reference for Indo-European vocabulary. Complete coverage of cognates of each root (although Hittite and Tocharian coverage is spotty), highly accurate forms. Beware, roots are given in pre-laryngeal form and glosses are in German.
* American Heritage Indo-European Roots Index
* Database query to the online version of Pokorny's PIE dictionary
* Index to the online version of Pokorny's PIE dictionary
* Jonathan Slocum, Indo-European Lexicon from the University of Texas Linguistic Research Center
* IE-CoR (Indo-European Cognate Relationships)

* v
* t
* e

Proto-Indo-European language

Phonology|

* Accent
* Centum and satem
* Glottalic theory
* Laryngeal theory
* s-mobile
* Sound laws
* asno law
* boukólos rule
* *kʷetwóres rule
* Glossary of sound laws
* Brugmann's
* Bartholomae's
* Fortunatov's
* Grassmann's
* Osthoff's
* Pinault's
* Siebs's
* Sievers's (Edgerton's converse)
* Stang's
* Szemerényi's
* Weise's

Morphology|

* Ablaut
* Caland system
* h₂e-conjugation
* Narten present
* Nasal infix
* Root
* Thematic vowel
* Vṛddhi

Parts of speech|

* Nominals (nouns and adjectives)
* Numerals
* Particles
* Pronouns
* Verbs
* copula
* Vocabulary

Main sources|

* Indogermanisches etymologisches Wörterbuch (IEW)
* Lexikon der indogermanischen Verben (LIV)
* Lexikon der indogermanischen Partikeln und Pronominalstämme (LIPP)
* Nomina im Indogermanischen Lexikon (NIL)
* Indo-European Etymological Dictionary (IEED)

Artificial compositions|

* Schleicher's fable
* The king and the god

Theories|

* Kurgan hypothesis
* Schleicher theories
* Anatolian hypothesis
* Armenian hypothesis
* Outdated theories:
* Beech argument
* North European hypothesis

Society|

* Proto-Indo-European mythology
* Proto-Indo-European society
* Indo-European migrations
* Proto-Indo-European homeland
* Salmon problem

See also|

* Indo-European studies
* Encyclopedia of Indo-European Culture (EIE)

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