Insular Government of the Philippine Islands

1902–1935 US territory of the Philippines

Philippine Insular Government

Gobierno Insular Filipino (Spanish)

1899–1935

Flag of the United States
Flag of the Philippines
(1920–1935)[1]

Coat of arms
(1905–1935)

Anthems: "Hail, Columbia" (until 1931)

"The Star-Spangled Banner"(from 1931)

"The Philippine Hymn"

1921 map of the Philippine Islands

Status| Unincorporated and organized United States territory[a]
Capital

and largest city

| Manila
Official languages| English • Spanish
Common languages| Philippine languages • Hokkien[b]
Religion

(1910)

| 78.7% Catholicism
21.3% other (including Indigenous Philippine folk religions and Islam)[2]
Demonym(s)| Filipino
Philippine Islander
(uncommon)
Philippine
(used for certain common nouns)
Government| Devolved presidential dependency
President|

• 1899–1901 (first)

| William McKinley

• 1933–1935 (last)

| Franklin D. Roosevelt
Governor-General|

• 1900–1904

| William Howard Taft

• 1913–1921

| Francis B. Harrison

• 1921–1927

| Leonard Wood

• 1927–1929

| Henry L. Stimson

• 1929–1932

| Dwight F. Davis

• 1933–1935

| Frank Murphy
Legislature| Philippine Legislature

• Upper house

| Philippine Commission
(1902–1907 unicameral)
Philippine Commission
(1907–1916)
Senate
(1916–1935)

• Lower house

| Philippine Assembly
(1907–1916)
House of Representatives
(1916–1935)
History|

• Established

| April 11, 1899

• Treaty of Paris ratified

| April 11, 1899

• Philippine Organic Act

| July 1, 1902

• Jones Law

| August 29, 1916

• Tydings–McDuffie Act

| November 15, 1935
Area
1903[3]| 297,916 km2 (115,026 sq mi)
1918[4]| 296,296 km2 (114,401 sq mi)
Population

• 1903[3]

| 7,635,426

• 1918[4]

| 10,350,640
Currency| Philippine peso (₱)
Time zone| UTC+08:00 (PST)

Preceded by | Succeeded by

|

|  | Military Government of the Philippine Islands

|

| Sultanate of Sulu
| Commonwealth of the Philippines |

|

The Philippine Insular Government[6] (Spanish: Gobierno de las Islas Filipinas[7]) was an unincorporated territory of the United States that was established on April 11, 1899 upon ratification of the 1898 Treaty of Paris.[8] It was reorganized in 1935 in preparation for later independence.[9][10][11] The Insular Government was preceded by the Military Government of the Philippine Islands and was followed by the Commonwealth of the Philippines.

The Philippines were acquired from Spain by the United States in 1898 following the Spanish–American War. Resistance led to the Philippine–American War, in which the United States suppressed the nascent First Philippine Republic. In 1902, the United States Congress passed the Philippine Organic Act, which organized the government and served as its basic law. This act provided for a governor-general appointed by the president of the United States, as well as a bicameral Philippine Legislature with the appointed Philippine Commission as the upper house and a fully elected, fully Filipino elected lower house, the Philippine Assembly. The Internal Revenue Law of 1904 provided for general internal revenue taxes, documentary taxes and transfer of livestock. A wide variety of revenue stamps were issued in denominations ranging from one centavo to 20,000 pesos.

The term "insular" refers to the fact that the government operated under the authority of the Bureau of Insular Affairs. Puerto Rico also had an insular government at this time. From 1901 to 1922, the U.S. Supreme Court wrestled with the constitutional status of these governments in the Insular Cases.[12] In Dorr v. United States (1904), the court ruled that Filipinos did not have a constitutional right to trial by jury.[12] In the Philippines itself, the term "insular" had limited usage. On banknotes, postage stamps, and the coat of arms, the government referred to itself simply as the "Philippine Islands".

The 1902 Philippine Organic Act was replaced in 1916 by the Jones Law, which ended the Philippine Commission and provided for both houses of the Philippine Legislature to be elected. In 1935, the Insular Government was replaced by the Commonwealth. Commonwealth status was intended to last ten years, during which the country would be prepared for independence.

## History

[edit]

Main article: History of the Philippines (1898–1946)

The Insular Government evolved from the Taft Commission, or Second Philippine Commission, appointed on March 16, 1900. This group was headed by William Howard Taft, and was granted legislative powers by President William McKinley in September 1900. The commission created a judicial system, an educational system, a civil service, and a legal code. The legality of these actions was contested until the passage of the Spooner Amendment in 1901, which granted the U.S. president authority to govern the Philippines.[13]

This revenue stamp for the Philippine Islands was issued in 1930.

The Insular Government saw its mission as one of tutelage, preparing the Philippines for eventual independence.[14] On July 4, 1901, Taft was appointed "civil governor", who also named his cabinet at his inaugural address.[15] Military Governor Adna Chaffee retained authority in disturbed areas. On July 4, 1902, the office of military governor was abolished, and Taft became the first US governor-general of the Philippine Islands.[16]

The Philippine Organic Act disestablished the Catholic Church as the state religion. In 1904, Taft negotiated the purchase of 390,000 acres (160,000 ha) of church property for $7.5 million.[17] Despite this, the Insular Government failed to investigate the land titles of the friars' and restore them to the patrimony of the Filipinos. The Insular Government then established a land titling system for these lands, but due to a small surveyor staff, a lot of parcels of land remained untitled.[18]

Two years after the completion and publication of a census, a general election was conducted for the choice of delegates to a popular assembly. An elected Philippine Assembly was convened in 1907 as the lower house of a bicameral legislature, with the Philippine Commission as the upper house. The 1909 U.S. Payne–Aldrich Tariff Act provided for free trade with the Philippines.[19] Every year from 1907, the Philippine Assembly (and later the Philippine Legislature) passed resolutions expressing the Filipino desire for independence.

### Jones Law

[edit]

Philippine nationalists led by Manuel L. Quezon and Sergio Osmeña enthusiastically endorsed the draft Jones Bill of 1912, which provided for Philippine independence after eight years, but later changed their views, opting for a bill which focused less on time than on the conditions of independence. The nationalists demanded complete and absolute independence to be guaranteed by the United States, since they feared that too-rapid independence from American rule without such guarantees might cause the Philippines to fall into Japanese hands. The Jones Bill was rewritten and passed a Congress controlled by Democrats in 1916 with a later date of independence.[20] The Democratic Party in the United States had strongly opposed acquisitions of the Philippines in the first place, and increasingly became committed to independence. The election of Democrat Woodrow Wilson, who advocated a constitutional government in the Philippines as a step towards independence, in 1912 opened up the opportunity.[21] He appointed Francis Burton Harrison as governor, and Harrison replaced mainlanders with Filipinos in the bureaucracy. At his departure in 1921, of the 13,757 government bureaucrats, 13,143 were Filipinos; they occupied 56 of the top 69 positions.[22]

This poster advertises the passage of the Jones Law

The Jones Law, or Philippine Autonomy Act, replaced the Organic Act. Its preamble stated that the eventual independence of the Philippines would be American policy, subject to the establishment of a stable government. The law maintained an appointed governor-general, but established a bicameral Philippine Legislature to replace the elected Philippine Assembly (lower house); it replaced the appointive Philippine Commission (upper house) with an elected senate.[23]

Filipino activists suspended the independence campaign during the First World War and supported the United States and the Allies of World War I against the German Empire. After the war, they resumed their independence drive with great vigour.[24] On March 17, 1919, the Philippine Legislature passed a "Declaration of Purposes", which stated the inflexible desire of the Filipino people to be free and sovereign. A Commission of Independence was created to study ways and means of attaining liberation ideal. This commission recommended the sending of an independence mission to the United States.[25] The "Declaration of Purposes" referred to the Jones Law as a veritable pact, or covenant, between the American and Filipino peoples whereby the United States promised to recognize the independence of the Philippines as soon as a stable government should be established. American Governor-General Harrison had concurred in the report of the Philippine Legislature as to a stable government.[26]

The Philippine Legislature funded an independence mission to the United States in 1919. The mission departed Manila on February 28 and met in America with and presented their case to Secretary of War Newton D. Baker.[27] US President Woodrow Wilson, in his 1921 farewell message to Congress, certified that the Filipino people had performed the condition imposed on them as a prerequisite to independence, declaring that, this having been done, the duty of the U.S. is to grant Philippine independence.[28] Neither Congress nor Warren G. Harding, Wilson's successor as president, acted on Wilson's recommendation.[29] In 1921, US President Harding sent William Cameron Forbes and Leonard Wood as heads of the Wood-Forbes Commission to investigate conditions in the Philippines.[30][31] The Commission concluded that Filipinos were not yet ready for independence from the United States, a finding that was widely criticized in the Philippines.[32]

Manila 1920 Insular Government Era.

### Road to commonwealth status

[edit]

After the first independence mission, public funding of such missions was ruled illegal. Subsequent independence missions in 1922, 1923, 1930, 1931, 1932, and two missions in 1933 were funded by voluntary contributions. Numerous independence bills were submitted to the US Congress, which passed the Hare–Hawes–Cutting Bill on December 30, 1932. US President Herbert Hoover vetoed the bill on January 13, 1933. Congress overrode the veto on January 17, and the Hare–Hawes–Cutting Act became US law. The law promised Philippine independence after 10 years, but reserved several military and naval bases for the United States, as well as imposing tariffs and quotas on Philippine exports. The law also required the Philippine Senate to ratify the law. Quezon urged the Philippine Senate to reject the bill, which it did. Quezon himself led the twelfth independence mission to Washington to secure a better independence act. The result was the Tydings–McDuffie Act of 1934 which was very similar to the Hare–Hawes–Cutting Act except in minor details. The Tydings–McDuffie Act was ratified by the Philippine Senate. The law provided for the granting of Philippine independence by 1946.[33]

The Tydings–McDuffie Act provided for the drafting and guidelines of a constitution for a ten-year "transitional period" as the Commonwealth of the Philippines before the granting of Philippine independence. On May 5, 1934, the Philippines Legislature passed an act setting the election of convention delegates. Governor-General Frank Murphy designated July 10 as the election date, and the Convention held its inaugural session on July 30. The completed draft Constitution was approved by the Convention on February 8, 1935, approved by US President Franklin Roosevelt on March 23, and ratified by popular vote on May 14. The first election under the new 1935 constitution was held on September 17, and on November 15, 1935, the Commonwealth was established.[34]

## Governor-general

[edit]

Main article: Governor-General of the Philippines

William Howard Taft was the first civil governor of the Philippine Islands

On July 4, 1901, executive authority over the islands was transferred to the president of the Philippine Commission, who had the title of "civil governor"—a position appointed by the president of the United States and approved by the United States Senate. For the first year a military governor, Adna Chaffee, ruled parts of the country still resisting American rule, concurrent with civil governor William Howard Taft.[35] Disagreements between the two were not uncommon.[36] The following year, on July 4, 1902, the civil governor became the sole executive authority of the islands.[37] Chaffee remained as Commander of the Philippine Division until September 30, 1902.[38]

The title was changed to "Governor-General" in 1905 by Act of Congress (Public 43 – February 6, 1905).[37]

### Governor Harrison

[edit]

Harrison in 1913

Francis Burton Harrison was Governor-General from 1913 to 1921 under President Woodrow Wilson, a Democrat. He advocated for and oversaw the process of Filipinization, or the transfer of authority to Filipinos in the United States territory's Insular Government to better prepare for independence. He was governor-general during the passages of the Philippine Autonomy Act, otherwise known as the Jones Act, which converted the partially elected Philippine Legislature with the appointed Philippine Commission as the upper house and the elected Philippine Assembly as the lower house, to a fully elected Philippine Legislature with the Philippine Senate replacing the now-dissolved Philippine Commission and the Philippine Assembly renamed the House of Representatives of the Philippines.[39]

Despite the length of his tenure as governor-general he vetoed only five bills, the least number by any American governor-general in the Philippines.[citation needed] His pro-Filipino stance made him a popular figure in the Philippines but also the object of criticism of conservative Americans who viewed his liberal governance as not supportive enough of US interests.[40]

Under his administration, the Governor-General's Spanish-era mansion called Malacañang Palace was expanded with the construction of an executive building. When he left the Philippines, Harrison lived in Scotland until being recalled to the Philippines in 1934 during a period of transition from an unincorporated territory of the United States to the Commonwealth of the Philippines.

In 1921, Republican president Warren G. Harding sent William Cameron Forbes and Leonard Wood as heads of the Wood-Forbes Commission to investigate conditions in the Philippines.[30][31] The Commission concluded that Filipinos were not yet ready for independence from the United States, a finding that was widely criticized in the Philippines.[41]

On November 15, 1935, the Commonwealth government was inaugurated. The office of President of the Philippines was created to replace the Governor-General as Chief Executive, taking over many of the former's duties. The American Governor-General then became known as the High Commissioner to the Philippines.

## Resident commissioners

[edit]

Main article: Resident Commissioner of the Philippines

From the passage of the Organic Act until independence, the Philippine Islands were represented in the United States House of Representatives by two, and then one, resident commissioners of the Philippines. Similar to delegates and the Resident Commissioner of Puerto Rico, they were nonvoting members of Congress.

Resident commissioners of the Philippines seat A. left: Benito Cosmé Legarda y Tuason, term. 1907-1912. middle: Tomas Earnshaw y Noguera, term. 1913-1916. right: Jaime Carlos de Veyra y Díaz, term. 1916-1923.

## Territorial divisions

[edit]

Administrative divisions of the Philippine Islands since 1908. Group photo of the Philippine Exposition Board with the governors of the different provinces in the Philippine Islands, published c. 1905

### Provinces

[edit]

* Luzon Island (25 administrative units): Bulacán, Pampanga, Zambales, Bataan, Nueva Écija, Tarlac, La Unión, Cavite, Laguna, Rizal, Batangas, Pangasinan, Ilocos Norte, Ilocos Sur, Tayabas, Abra, Lepanto-Bontoc, Cagayán (including Babuyan Islands), Isabela, Nueva Vizcaya, Albay, Camarines Norte, Camarines Sur, Sorsogon.
* Mindoro, Luban, Ilin (one administrative unit): Mindoro.
* Panay Island (three administrative units): Cápiz, Iloilo, Antique.
* Negros (2 administrative units): Negros Occidental and Negros Oriental
* Samar (one administrative unit): Samar.
* Leyte (one administrative unit): Leyte.
* Palawan and Calamian Islands (one administrative unit): Palawan.
* Cebú (one administrative unit): Cebú.
* Mindanao (four administrative units): Agusan, Misamis, Moro Province (including Sulu Archipelago), and Surigao.

### Sub-provinces

[edit]

* Abra (from Ilocos Sur)
* Amburayan (from Lepanto-Bontoc)
* Apayao (from Cagayan)
* Batanes (from Cagayan)
* Bontoc (from Lepanto-Bontoc)
* Bukidnon (from Agusan)
* Butuan (from Agusan)
* Catanduanes (from Albay)
* Kalinga (from Lepanto-Bontoc)
* Lepanto (from Lepanto-Bontoc)
* Marinduque (from Tayabas)
* Masbate (from Sorsogon)
* Romblon (from Capiz)

Military districts El Príncipe and Binangonan de Lampon were separated from Nueva Écija and Laguna and transferred to Tayabas in 1902. Morong was converted to a regular province of Rizal in 1901; Manila Province (except the City of Manila) was transferred to Rizal in the same year. Romblon became a regular province in 1901, but was created as a sub-province of Capiz once again in 1907 and reestablished as a separate province in 1918. In 1908, Abra was annexed into Ilocos Sur in an attempt to resolve Abra's financial difficulties, but was re-established as a province under Act 2683 on March 9, 1917. Batanes was created as a sub-province of Cagayan on August 20, 1907 by the approval of Act No. 1693; in 1909, the new American authorities organized it into an independent province, upon the approval of Act No. 1952.

## See also

[edit]

* History of the Philippines (1898–1946)
* United States Military Government of the Philippine Islands
* First Philippine Republic
* Second Philippine Republic
* Commonwealth of the Philippines
* Insular Government of Porto Rico
* Naval Government of Guam

## Notes

[edit]

1. ^ The Philippine islands belonged to, but were not a part of, the United States. See the page for the Insular Cases for more information.
2. ^ Among Chinese Filipinos

## References

[edit]

1. ^ "Act No. 2928, March 26, 1920". Official Gazette of the Republic of the Philippines. March 26, 1920 – via Official Gazette of the Philippine Government.
2. ^ "The Global Catholic Population". February 13, 2013.
3. ^ a b Brewer, Isaac Williams (1906). Notes on the vital statistics of the Philippine census of 1903. [Philadelphia. p. 1.
4. ^ a b Census of the Philippine Islands taken under the direction of the Philippine Legislature in the year 1918. Manila, Bureau of printing. 1920.
5. ^ Section 60 of the Revised Motor Vehicle Law, Act No. 3992, December 3, 1932. "Drive on Left Side of Road. — Unless a different cause of action is required in the interest of the safety and security of life, person, or property, or because of unreasonable difficulty of operation in compliance herewith, every person operating a motor vehicle or guiding an animal drawn vehicle on a highway shall pass to the left when meeting persons or vehicles coming toward him, and to the right when overtaking persons or vehicles going the same direction, and, when turning to the right in going from one highway into another, every vehicle shall be conducted to the left of the center of the intersection of the highways."
6. ^ This form of the name appeared in the titles of US Supreme Court cases, but was otherwise rarely used. See Costas v. Government of the Philippine Islands, 221 U.S. 623, 1911. The Administrative Code of the Philippine Islands of 1917 gives the formal name of the state as either "Insular Government" or "Government of the Philippine Islands" (p. 5).
7. ^ see, for example, the Spanish version of Law No. 1290, as published in Leyes públicas aprobadas por la Comisión en Filipinas durante el periodo del 1 de Septiembre de 1904 al 31 de Agosto de 1905 comprende desde la ley no. 1226 hasta la no. 1381, inclusive
8. ^ "Definitions of Insular Area Political Organizations". Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of the Interior. June 12, 2015. Archived from the original on July 13, 2018. Retrieved March 3, 2018. "A United States insular area from April 11, 1899"
9. ^ Ooi 2004, p. 387.
10. ^ Zaide 1994, p. 319.
11. ^ Roosevelt, Franklin D (November 14, 1935), Proclamation 2148 on the Establishment of the Commonwealth of the Philippines, The American Presidency Project, University of California at Santa Barbara, "This Proclamation shall be effective upon its promulgation at Manila, Philippine Islands, on November 15, 1935, by the Secretary of War of the United States of America, who is hereby designated as my representative for that purpose."
12. ^ a b "Insular Cases," Dictionary of American History, 2003.
13. ^ Escalante, Rene R. (2007). The Bearer of Pax Americana: The Philippine Career of William H. Taft, 1900–1903. Quezon City, Philippines: New Day Publishers. p. 91\. ISBN 978-971-10-1166-6.
14. ^ Dolan, Ronald E., ed. (1991). "United States Rule". Philippines: A Country Study. GPO for the Library of Congress.
15. ^ "July 4 Gives Civil Rule to the Filipinos". Chicago Tribune. Manila. July 4, 1901. Archived from the original on April 10, 2017. Retrieved April 9, 2017.
16. ^ Ellis 2008, p. 2163
17. ^ "American President A Reference Resource Archived 2013-08-07 at the Wayback Machine", Miller Center, University of Virginia
18. ^ Corpuz, Onofre (1997). An Economic History of the Philippines.
19. ^ Stanley D. Solvick, "William Howard Taft and the Payne-Aldrich Tariff." Mississippi Valley Historical Review 50.3 (1963): 424–442 online.
20. ^ Wong Kwok Chu, "The Jones Bills 1912–16: A Reappraisal of Filipino Views on Independence", Journal of Southeast Asian Studies 1982 13(2): 252–269
21. ^ Roy Watson Curry, "Woodrow Wilson and Philippine Policy." Mississippi Valley Historical Review 41.3 (1954): 435-452. online
22. ^ Tony Smith, America's mission call in the United States and the worldwide struggle for democracy in the twentieth century (1994) pp 44-46.
23. ^ Philippine Autonomy Act of 1916 (Jones Law)
24. ^ Zaide 1994, p. 312 Ch.24
25. ^ Zaide 1994, pp. 312–313 Ch.24
26. ^ H. W. Brands, Bound to empire: the United States and the Philippines (Oxford UP, 1992) pp 104-118.
27. ^ Zaide 1994, p. 313
28. ^ Kalaw 1921, pp. 144–146
29. ^ "The Philippines, 1898–1946". History, Art & archives. U.S. Government House of Representatives. Retrieved September 20, 2022.
30. ^ a b "W. Cameron Forbes for Envoy to Japan; Bostonian Selected by President Hoover to Succeed W.R. Castle Jr.; Forbes was in Philippines; Served There as Vice Governor and Governor General Under Roosevelt and Taft," New York Times. June 3, 1930.
31. ^ a b Jones, O. Garfield (September 28, 1921), "What Wood and Forbes Have Done In The Philippines", The Outlook, 129: 133–135, retrieved July 30, 2009
32. ^ Encyclopædia Britannica, "Wood-Forbes Mission"
33. ^ Zaide 1994, pp. 314–315 Ch.24
34. ^ Zaide 1994, pp. 315–319 Ch.24
35. ^ Elliott (1917), p. 4
36. ^ Tanner (1901), p. 383
37. ^ a b Elliott (1917), p. 509
38. ^ Philippine Academy of Social Sciences (1967). Philippine social sciences and humanities review. pp. 40.
39. ^ Brands, 1992. pp 107-131.
40. ^ Jose, Ricardo Trota. (2004). "Harrison, Francis Burton (1873–1957) – Champion of Filipinization". In Ooi Keat Gin (Ed.), Southeast Asia: A Historical Encyclopedia, from Angkor Wat to East Timor, Volume 1. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO. pp. 563–564. ISBN 1-57607-770-5.
41. ^ Encyclopædia Britannica, "Wood-Forbes Mission"

### Bibliography

[edit]

* Brands, H. W. Bound to Empire: The United States and the Philippines (1992) excerpt
* Casambre, Napoleon J. (August 1969). "The Response to Harrison's Administration in the Philippines, 1913-1921" (PDF). Asian Studies. 7 (2): 156–170.
* Dolan, Ronald E., ed. (1991–1996). "United States Rule". Philippines: A Country Study. Washington: GPO for the Library of Congress. ISBN 0-8444-0748-8.
* Elliott, Charles Burke (1917). The Philippines: To the End of the Commission Government, a Study in Tropical Democracy. The Bobbs-Merrill Company.
* Ellis, Edward S. (2008). Library of American History from the Discovery of America to the Present Time. Lightning Source Incorporated. ISBN 978-1-4437-7649-3.
* Kalaw, Maximo M. (March 2007) [1921]. The Present Government of the Philippines. Read Books. ISBN 978-1-4067-4636-5.
* Morison, Elting E. Turmoil and Tradition: A Study of the Life and Times of Henry L. Stimson. (1960) pp 280–298. online
* Ooi, Keat Gin (2004). Southeast Asia: A Historical Encyclopedia, from Angkor Wat to East Timor. ABC-CLIO. ISBN 978-1-57607-770-2.
* Onorato, Michael Paul (1970). "Governor General Francis Burton Harrison and His Administration: A Reappraisal". Philippine Studies. 18 (1): 178–186\. doi:10.13185/2244-1638.2125. ISSN 2244-1093.
* Seekins, Donald M. (1993), "The First Phase of United States Rule, 1898–1935", in Dolan, Ronald E. (ed.), Philippines: A Country Study (4th ed.), Washington, D.C.: Federal Research Division, Library of Congress
* Smith, Tony. America's mission call in the United States and the worldwide struggle for democracy in the twentieth century (1994) pp 37–59.
* Stimson, Henry L. and McGeorge Bundy.  On Active Services in Peace and War. (1948) pp 117–154. online
* Zaide, Sonia M. (1994). The Philippines: A Unique Nation. All-Nations Publishing Co. ISBN 971-642-071-4.

## Further reading

[edit]

* Philippines. Civil Service Board (1906). Annual Report of the Philippine Civil Service Board to the Civil Governor of the Philippine Islands, Issue 5. Contributors United States. Philippine Commission (1900–1916), United States. Bureau of Insular Affairs. Bureau of Public Printing. ISBN 9715501680. Retrieved April 24, 2014. `{{cite book}}`: ISBN / Date incompatibility (help)

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* League to Enforce Peace
* "Citizenship in a Republic" (1910 speech)
* "Progressive Cause Greater Than Any Individual" (1912 post-assassination-attempt speech)
* Theodore Roosevelt: An Autobiography (1913 book)
* The Forum magazine articles
* Theodore Roosevelt Cyclopedia
* Archival collections

Elections|

* 1898 New York state election
* Republican National Convention: 1900
* 1904
* 1912
* 1916
* United States presidential elections: 1900
* 1904
* 1912

Legacy|

* Bibliography
* Mount Rushmore
* Mount Roosevelt
* Theodore Roosevelt Center and Digital Library
* White House Roosevelt Room
* Theodore Roosevelt National Park
* Theodore Roosevelt Wilderness
* Theodore Roosevelt Island
* Roosevelt National Forest
* Roosevelt Park (San Antonio)
* Roosevelt Study Center
* Theodore Roosevelt Association
* Mount Rushmore Anniversary coins
* Statues
* New York City
* Portland, Oregon
* Theodore Roosevelt Memorial Park
* Monument Assemblage
* Theodore Roosevelt Monument
* Roosevelt Memorial, Portland, Oregon
* Proposed presidential library
* Theodore Roosevelt United States Courthouse
* Roosevelt River
* Theodore Roosevelt Bridge
* Theodore Roosevelt Memorial Bridge
* Theodore Roosevelt Award
* SS President Roosevelt
* USS Theodore Roosevelt (1906, 1961, 1984)
* Roosevelt Road
* U.S. postage stamps

Popular
culture|

* Teddy bear
* "Speak softly, and carry a big stick"
* Books
* Films
* Terrible Teddy, the Grizzly King, 1901 film
* The 'Teddy' Bears, 1907 film
* Roosevelt in Africa, 1910 documentary
* The Rough Riders, 1927 film
* Teddy, the Rough Rider, 1940 film
* Rough Riders, 1997 miniseries
* The Roosevelts, 2014 documentary
* Theodore Roosevelt, 2022 miniseries
* Elkhorn, 2024 series

Related|

* Political positions
* "Bully pulpit"
* Ananias Club
* "Nature fakers"
* League to Enforce Peace
* A Guest of Honor
* "Muckraker"
* "Roosevelt Republican"
* Barnes vs. Roosevelt libel trial

Family|

* Alice Hathaway Lee (first wife)
* Edith Kermit Carow (second wife)
* Alice Lee Roosevelt (daughter)
* Theodore Roosevelt III (son)
* Kermit Roosevelt (son)
* Ethel Carow Roosevelt (daughter)
* Archibald Roosevelt (son)
* Quentin Roosevelt (son)
* Theodore Roosevelt IV (grandson)
* Cornelius V. S. Roosevelt III (grandson)
* Quentin Roosevelt II (grandson)
* Kermit Roosevelt Jr. (grandson)
* Joseph Willard Roosevelt (grandson)
* Edith Roosevelt Derby (granddaughter)
* Theodora Roosevelt (granddaughter)
* Theodore Roosevelt Sr. (father)
* Martha Bulloch Roosevelt (mother)
* Anna "Bamie" Roosevelt (sister)
* Elliott Bulloch Roosevelt (brother)
* Corinne Roosevelt (sister)
* Cornelius Roosevelt (grandfather)
* James Stephens Bulloch (grandfather)
* James Alfred Roosevelt (uncle)
* Robert Barnhill Roosevelt
* Anna Eleanor Roosevelt (niece)
* Gracie Hall Roosevelt (nephew)
* Pete (dog)

* ← William McKinley
* William Howard Taft →

* ← Garret Hobart

* Category

* v
* t
* e

William Howard Taft

* 10th Chief Justice of the United States (1921–1930)
* 27th President of the United States (1909–1913)
* 3rd Provisional Governor of Cuba (1904)
* 42nd United States Secretary of War (1904–1908)
* Governor-General of the Philippines (1901–1904)
* 6th Solicitor General of the United States (1890–1892)

Presidency
(timeline)|

* 1909 inauguration
* Dollar diplomacy
* Income Tax amendment
* Payne–Aldrich Tariff Act
* Weeks Act
* Federal Corrupt Practices Act
* Wireless Ship Act of 1910
* Apportionment Act of 1911
* North Pacific Fur Seal Convention of 1911
* Mann–Elkins Act
* Radio Act of 1912
* Defense Secrets Act of 1911
* Pinchot–Ballinger controversy
* Commission on Economy and Efficiency
* U.S. occupation of Nicaragua
* United States Chamber of Commerce
* Ceremonial first pitch
* State of the Union Address 1912
* Cabinet
* Judicial appointments
* Supreme Court
* First Oval Office
* Wilson transition

Chief Justice,
Supreme Court|

* Supreme Court career
* Judiciary Act of 1925
* Creation of the Supreme Court Building
* Taft Court cases

Other actions|

* Taft Commission
* Insular Government of the Philippine Islands
* Philippines Civil Governor, 1901–1904
* Taft–Katsura agreement
* 1906–1909 Occupation of Cuba
* League to Enforce Peace
* National War Labor Board

Life and legacy|

* Early life
* Birthplace, home, and historic site
* Malacañang Palace
* Woodbury Point
* Taft Bridge
* Bibliography
* U.S. Postage stamps
* SS President Taft
* Taft, Montana
* High school (New York City
* Chicago
* Los Angeles
* San Antonio)

Elections|

* 1908 Republican National Convention
* 1908 U.S. presidential election
* 1912 Republican National Convention
* 1912 U.S. presidential election

Family|

* Helen Herron Taft (wife)
* Robert Alphonso Taft (son)
* Helen Taft Manning (daughter)
* Charles Phelps Taft II (son)
* William Howard Taft III (grandson)
* Robert Alphonso Taft Jr. (grandson)
* Seth Taft (grandson)
* Alphonso Taft (father)
* Louise Taft (mother)
* Charles Phelps Taft (brother)
* Henry Waters Taft (brother)
* Horace Dutton Taft (brother)
* Peter Rawson Taft (paternal grandfather)

Related|

* Billy Possum
* Progressive Era
* Pauline Wayne (cow)
* Backstairs at the White House (1979 miniseries)
* Theodore Roosevelt (2022 miniseries)

* ← Theodore Roosevelt
* Woodrow Wilson →

* Category

* v
* t
* e

Woodrow Wilson

* 28th President of the United States (1913–1921)
* 34th Governor of New Jersey (1911–1913)
* 13th President of Princeton University (1902–1910)

Presidency
(timeline)|

* Transition
* 1913 inauguration
* 1917 inauguration
* Roosevelt desk
* Judicial appointments
* Supreme Court nominees
* Louis Brandeis Supreme Court nomination
* Cabinet
* 1919 Nobel Peace Prize
* 19th Amendment
* Silent Sentinels
* Woman Suffrage Procession
* State of the Union Address 1913
* 1914
* 1915
* 1916
* 1917
* 1918
* 1920
* Harding transition

| Foreign policy|

* Wilsonianism
* Bryan–Chamorro Treaty (1914)
* Occupation of Haiti (1915–1934)
* Occupation of the Dominican Republic (1916–1924)
* Army Appropriations Act of 1916
* Council of National Defense
* Philippine Autonomy Act (1916)
* World War I
* 1917–1918; entry
* campaigns
* home front
* Committee on Public Information
* Four Minute Men
* Fourteen Points
* The Inquiry
* American Commission to Negotiate Peace
* Armistice of 11 November 1918
* Espionage Act of 1917
* Immigration Act of 1917
* Selective Service Act of 1917
* Immigration Act of 1918
* Migratory Bird Treaty Act of 1918
* National War Labor Board (1918)
* Sedition Act of 1918
* Wartime Measure Act of 1918
* Paris Peace Conference
* 1919–1920; Racial Equality Proposal
* Pueblo speech (1919)
* Treaty of Versailles
* 1919; Big Four
* League of Nations
* 1920; charter
* Wilsonian Armenia (1920)

|

New Freedom|

* Federal racial segregation
* Federal Reserve Act
* 1913; Federal Reserve
* Newlands Labor Act
* 1913; Board of Mediation and Conciliation
* Raker Act (1913)
* Revenue Act of 1913
* Federal income tax
* Rivers and Harbors Acts
* 1913
* 1914
* 1915
* 1916
* Sabath Act (1913)
* Clayton Antitrust Act of 1914
* Cotton Futures Act of 1914
* Cutter Service Act (1914)
* Emergency Internal Revenue Tax Act (1914)
* Federal Trade Commission Act of 1914
* Federal Trade Commission
* Glacier National Park Act of 1914
* Legislative Reference Service (1914)
* Smith–Lever Act of 1914
* War Risk Insurance Act (1914)
* Locomotive Inspection Act (1915)
* National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics (1915)
* Occupancy Permits Act (1915)
* Adamson Act (1916)
* Brush Disposal Act of 1916
* Cotton Futures Act of 1916
* Federal Aid Road Act of 1916
* Federal Employees' Compensation Act (1916)
* Federal Farm Loan Act
* 1916; Farm Credit System
* Federal Farm Loan Board
* Flag Day (1916)
* Fraudulent Advertising Act of 1916
* Keating–Owen Act (1916)
* National Park Service Organic Act
* 1916; National Park Service
* Revenue Act of 1916
* Rural Post Roads Act of 1916
* Smith Act (1916)
* Stock-Raising Homestead Act (1916)
* United States Grain Standards Act of 1916
* Warehouse Act of 1916
* Wildlife Game Refuges Act of 1916
* Flood Control Act of 1917
* Smith–Hughes Act
* 1917; U.S. Federal Board for Vocational Education
* United States Railroad Administration
* 1917; USRA standard
* War Revenue Act of 1917
* Revenue Act of 1918
* Acadia National Park Act of 1919
* Grand Canyon Park Act of 1919
* Red Summer (1919)
* Wheat Price Guarantee Act (1919)
* Esch–Cummins Act
* 1920; Railroad Labor Board
* Federal Power Act
* 1920; Federal Power Commission
* Merchant Marine Act of 1920
* Mineral Leasing Act of 1920

Life|

* Birthplace and Presidential Library
* papers and manuscripts
* Boyhood home in Georgia
* Boyhood home in South Carolina
* Princeton University president
* Summer White House (Harlakenden
* Shadow Lawn)
* Woodrow Wilson House
* Gravesite

Books|

* Congressional Government (1900)
* When a Man Comes to Himself (1901)
* The New Freedom (1913)

Elections|

* 1910 New Jersey gubernatorial election
* 1912 Democratic National Convention
* 1912 U.S. presidential election
* 1916 Democratic National Convention
* 1916 U.S. presidential election

Legacy
(memorials)|

* Bibliography
* Woodrow Wilson Awards
* Woodrow Wilson Foundation
* Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars
* The Wilson Quarterly
* Woodrow Wilson School of Public and International Affairs
* High schools
* Woodrow Wilson Junior College
* Celestial Sphere Woodrow Wilson Memorial
* Woodrow Wilson (Austin statue)
* Wilson Square (Warsaw)
* Woodrow Wilson Monument (Prague)
* Woodrow Wilson Bridge
* Woodrow Wilson National Fellowship Foundation
* Mount Wilson (Vermont)
* SS President Wilson
* U.S. Postage stamps
* United States one-hundred-thousand-dollar bill

Popular
culture|

* Wilson (1944 film)
* Profiles in Courage (1965 series)
* Backstairs at the White House (1979 miniseries)
* Woodrow Wilson and the Birth of the American Century (2002 documentary)
* Wilson (2013 book)
* Suffs (2022 musical)

Family|

* Ellen Axson Wilson (wife, 1885–1914, death)
* Edith Bolling Wilson (wife, 1915–1924)
* Margaret Wilson (daughter, acting first lady)
* Jessie Wilson Sayre (daughter)
* Eleanor Wilson McAdoo (daughter)
* Francis Sayre Jr. (grandson)
* Joseph Ruggles Wilson (father)
* James Wilson (grandfather)
* Helen Woodrow Bones (cousin, secretary)
* William McAdoo (son-in-law)

Related|

* Progressive Era
* Jefferson Literary and Debating Society
* Woodrow Wilson and race

* ← William Howard Taft
* Warren G. Harding →

* Category

* v
* t
* e

Calvin Coolidge

* 30th President of the United States (1923–1929)
* 29th Vice President of the United States (1921–1923)
* 48th Governor of Massachusetts (1919–1921)

Life|

* Early life and family history
* Boyhood home and first inauguration site
* gravesite
* Calvin Coolidge House
* Early career and marriage
* Lieutenant Governor and Governor of Massachusetts
* Boston police strike (1919)
* Vice Presidency
* Retirement and death
* Presidential Library and Museum

Presidency
(timeline)|

* First inauguration
* Second inauguration
* Industry and trade
* Taxation (Revenue Act of 1924, Revenue Act of 1926, Revenue Act of 1928)
* Allegheny National Forest
* Civil rights (Indian Citizenship Act of 1924)
* Immigration Act of 1924
* Clarke–McNary Act
* Oil Pollution Act of 1924
* World War Adjusted Compensation Act (1924)
* Opposition to farm subsidies (McNary–Haugen Farm Relief Bill)
* Judiciary Act of 1925
* Federal Corrupt Practices Act Amendments of 1925
* Railway Labor Act
* Passport Act of 1926
* Flood control (Great Mississippi Flood of 1927, Flood Control Act of 1928)
* State of the Union Addresses (1926
* 1927)
* "I do not choose to run" (1927)
* Radio Act of 1927
* Federal Radio Commission
* Equal-time rule
* McFadden Act (1927)
* Brave Little State of Vermont speech (1928)
* McSweeney-McNary Act of 1928
* Migratory Bird Conservation Act
* Reed–Jenkins Act
* Foreign policy (Banana Wars, United States occupation of Nicaragua (1912–1933), United States occupation of Haiti (1915–1934), United States occupation of the Dominican Republic (1916–1924), Washington Naval Treaty (1922), Kellogg–Briand Pact (1928)
* Presidential transition of Herbert Hoover
* Cabinet
* Judicial appointments
* Harlan F. Stone Supreme Court nomination

Elections|

* 1918 Massachusetts gubernatorial election
* 1919 Massachusetts gubernatorial election
* 1920 Republican National Convention
* 1920 United States presidential election
* transition
* 1924 Republican National Convention
* 1924 United States presidential election

Books|

* The Autobiography of Calvin Coolidge (1929)

Public image|

* Things named after Coolidge
* Sesquicentennial half dollar
* U.S. postage stamps
* Coolidge effect
* SS President Coolidge
* Backstairs at the White House (1979 miniseries)

Family|

* Grace Coolidge (wife)
* John Coolidge (son)
* John Calvin Coolidge Sr. (father)
* Calvin Galusha Coolidge (grandfather)
* Arthur Brown, Olympia Brown, Charles A. Coolidge (cousins)
* Marcus A. Coolidge, Arthur W. Coolidge, Martha Coolidge, Carlos Coolidge (distant relations)
* Edmund Rice (ancestor)
* Rob Roy (family dog)
* Rebecca (pet raccoon)

* ← Warren G. Harding
* Herbert Hoover →

* ← Thomas R. Marshall
* Charles G. Dawes →

* Category

* v
* t
* e

Herbert Hoover

* 31st President of the United States (1929–1933)
* 3rd United States Secretary of Commerce (1921–1928)

Presidency
(timeline)|

* Transition
* Inauguration
* Foreign policy
* Hoover Dam
* Agricultural Marketing Act of 1929
* Federal Farm Board
* Reapportionment Act of 1929
* Wall Street crash of 1929
* Smoot–Hawley Tariff Act
* National anthem
* Economy Act of 1932
* Revenue Act of 1932
* Mexican Repatriation
* Federal Home Loan Bank Act
* Federal Home Loan Bank Board
* Federal Home Loan Banks
* Hooverville
* Bonus Army
* Banana Wars
* U.S. occupation of Nicaragua
* U.S. occupation of Haiti
* London Naval Treaty
* Hoover Moratorium
* Stimson Doctrine
* Cabinet
* Medicine Ball Cabinet
* Hooverball
* State of the Union Address, 1929
* 1930
* Presidential transition of Franklin D. Roosevelt
* Judicial appointments
* Supreme Court
* Executive Orders
* Hoover desk

Other events|

* Sons of Gwalia mine
* Zinc Corporation
* Commission for Relief in Belgium
* University Foundation
* Belgian American Educational Foundation
* American Relief Administration
* Russian Famine Relief Act
* U.S. Food Administration
* Commission for Polish Relief
* Finnish Relief Fund
* Hoover Commission

Life|

* Early life
* Birthplace and childhood home National Historic Site
* Hoover–Minthorn House
* Lou Henry Hoover House
* Rapidan Camp

Legacy|

* Bibliography
* Presidential Library, Museum, and gravesite
* Hoover Institution Library and Archives
* Hoover Tower
* Hoover Institution
* Herbert C. Hoover Building
* U.S. Postage stamp
* Hoover Medal
* Hoover Chair
* Hoover Field
* SS President Hoover
* Black Jack (riderless horse at state funeral)
* Backstairs at the White House (1979 miniseries)
* The Angel of Pennsylvania Avenue (1996 film)

Books|

* Freedom Betrayed
* English translation of De re metallica

Elections|

* Republican National Convention, 1920
* 1928
* 1932
* 1940
* 1928 United States presidential election
* 1932

Family|

* Lou Henry Hoover (wife)
* Herbert Hoover Jr. (son)
* Allan Hoover (son)
* Margaret Hoover (great-granddaughter)

* ← Calvin Coolidge
* Franklin D. Roosevelt →

* Category

* v
* t
* e

Franklin D. Roosevelt

* 32nd President of the United States (1933–1945)
* 44th Governor of New York (1929–1932)
* Assistant Secretary of the Navy (1913–1920)
* New York State Senator (1911–1913)

Presidency
(timeline)|

* Transition
* Inaugurations (1st
* 2nd
* 3rd
* 4th)
* First and second terms
* Third and fourth terms
* Foreign policy
* New Deal
* overview
* New Deal coalition
* First 100 days
* Second New Deal
* Federal Emergency Relief Administration
* Civilian Conservation Corps
* Agricultural Adjustment Act
* Emergency Banking Act
* Federal-Aid Highway Act of 1944
* Fish and Wildlife Coordination Act
* Tennessee Valley Authority
* National Labor Relations Act of 1935
* National Industrial Recovery Act of 1933
* Public Works Administration
* National Recovery Administration
* Works Progress Administration
* National Youth Administration
* Social Security Act
* Aid to Families with Dependent Children
* Communications Act of 1934
* Federal Communications Commission
* Securities and Exchange Commission
* Monetary gold ownership
* Gold Reserve Act
* Silver seizure
* Record on civil rights
* Defense industry non-discrimination
* Fair Employment Practice Committee
* Indian Reorganization Act
* Executive Orders 9066, 9102
* War Relocation Authority
* Japanese American internment
* German-American internment
* Italian-American internment
* Brownlow Committee
* Executive Office of the President
* G.I. Bill of Rights
* Cullen–Harrison Act
* Roerich Pact
* Four Freedoms
* Four Freedoms Monument
* Black Cabinet
* Jefferson's Birthday holiday
* Jefferson Memorial
* Judicial Court-Packing Bill
* Cannabis policy
* Federal Judicial appointments
* Supreme Court
* Harlan F. Stone Supreme Court nomination
* Wiley Rutledge Supreme Court nomination
* Cabinet
* "Brain Trust"
* March of Dimes
* Modern Oval Office
* Official car
* Criticism
* Franksgiving
* Executive Orders
* Presidential Proclamations

Presidential
foreign policy|

* Banana Wars
* U.S. occupation of Nicaragua, 1912–1933
* U.S. occupation of Haiti, 1915–1934
* Good Neighbor Policy (1933–1945)
* Montevideo Convention (1933)
* Second London Naval Treaty (1936)
* ABCD line (1940)
* Export Control Act
* Four Policemen
* Destroyers-for-bases deal
* Lend-Lease
* 1940 Selective Service Act
* Hull note
* Atlantic Charter (1941)
* Military history of the United States during World War II
* Home front during World War II
* Combined Munitions Assignments Board
* War Production Board
* Declaration by United Nations (1942)
* Dumbarton Oaks Conference
* World War II conferences
* Quebec Agreement
* Europe first
* Morgenthau Plan support

Presidential
speeches|

* 1932 Acceptance speech
* Commonwealth Club Address
* Madison Square Garden speech
* "Four Freedoms"
* Day of Infamy speech
* Arsenal of Democracy
* "...is fear itself"
* Fireside chats
* "Look to Norway"
* Quarantine Speech
* "The More Abundant Life"
* State of the Union Address (1934
* 1938
* 1939
* 1940
* 1941 (Four Freedoms)
* 1944 (Second Bill of Rights)
* 1945)

Other events|

* Early life, education, career
* Warm Springs Institute
* Governorship of New York
* Business Plot
* Assassination attempt

Elections|

* 1928 New York state election
* 1930
* Democratic National Convention, 1920
* 1924
* 1932
* 1936
* 1940
* 1944
* 1920 United States presidential election
* 1932
* theme song
* 1936
* 1940
* 1944

Life and homes|

* Early life and education
* Groton School
* Springwood birthplace, home, and gravesite
* Adams House
* FDR Suite
* Campobello home
* Paralytic illness
* New York State Executive Mansion
* Top Cottage
* Little White House, Warm Springs, Georgia
* Ferdinand Magellan railcar

Legacy|

* Bibliography
* Statues
* Presidential Library and Museum
* Roosevelt Institute
* Roosevelt Institute Campus Network
* Franklin Delano Roosevelt Foundation
* Franklin Delano Roosevelt Memorial
* Roosevelt Island
* Four Freedoms Park
* White House Roosevelt Room
* Roosevelt Institute for American Studies
* USS Franklin D. Roosevelt
* USS Roosevelt
* Four Freedoms Award
* Four Freedoms paintings
* Unfinished portrait
* U.S. Postage stamps
* Roosevelt dime
* I'd Rather Be Right 1937 musical
* Films
* The Roosevelt Story 1947
* Sunrise at Campobello 1960
* Eleanor and Franklin 1976, The White House Years 1977
* Backstairs at the White House 1979 miniseries
* World War II: When Lions Roared 1997 miniseries
* Warm Springs 2005
* Hyde Park on Hudson 2012
* The Roosevelts 2014 documentary
* The First Lady 2022 miniseries
* FDR 2023 miniseries
* The Six Triple Eight 2024 film
* Other namesakes

Family
(Roosevelt
• Delano)|

* Eleanor Roosevelt (wife)
* Anna Roosevelt Halsted (daughter)
* James Roosevelt II (son)
* Elliott Roosevelt (son)
* Franklin Delano Roosevelt Jr. (son)
* John Aspinwall Roosevelt II (son)
* James Roosevelt I (father)
* Sara Ann Delano (mother)
* James Roosevelt Roosevelt (half-brother)
* Isaac Roosevelt (grandfather)
* Warren Delano Jr. (grandfather)
* Fala (family dog)
* Major (family dog)

* ← Herbert Hoover
* Harry S. Truman →

* Category

*[c.]: circa
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