Iranian languages

Branch of the Indo-Iranian languages in the Indo-European language family

This article is about the language family. For languages spoken in the modern country of Iran, see Languages of Iran. For the official language of Iran, see Persian language.

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Iranian

Iranic
Geographic
distribution| West Asia, Eastern Europe, Caucasus, Central Asia, and South Asia
Ethnicity| Iranian peoples

Native speakers

| est. 200 million
Linguistic classification| Indo-European

* Indo-Iranian
* Iranian

Proto-language| Proto-Iranian
Subdivisions|

* Western
* Avestan †
* Eastern

Language codes
ISO 639-2 / 5| `ira`
Linguasphere| `58= (phylozone)`
Glottolog| `iran1269`

Distribution of the Iranian languages in and around the Iranian plateau

The Iranian languages, or the Iranic languages,[1][2] are a branch of the Indo-Iranian languages in the Indo-European language family that are spoken natively by the Iranian peoples, predominantly in the Iranian Plateau.

The Iranian languages are grouped in three stages: Old Iranian (until 400 BCE), Middle Iranian (400 BCE – 900 CE) and New Iranian (since 900 CE). The two directly attested Old Iranian languages are Old Persian (from the Achaemenid Empire) and Old Avestan (the language of the Avesta). Avesta predates Old Iranian language, Old Avestan (c. 1500 – 900 BCE)[8] and Younger Avestan (c. 900 – 400 BCE).[9] Of the Middle Iranian languages, the better understood and recorded ones are Middle Persian (from the Sasanian Empire), Parthian (from the Parthian Empire), and Bactrian (from the Kushan and Hephthalite empires).

## Number of speakers

[edit]

As of 2000s[update], Ethnologue estimates that there are 86 languages in the group.[3]

Top languages by number of native speakers  Name  | speakers

|

Persian | 92 million[citation needed]
Pashto | 50 million[citation needed]
Kurdish | 28 million[4]
Balochi | 5–8 million[5]
Caspian | 10 million[citation needed]
Luri | 5 million[citation needed]
150–200 million[6]

## Terminology and grouping

[edit]

Part of a series on

Indo-European topics

Languages

* * *

* List of Indo-European languages

* * *

Extant

* Albanoid
* Albanian
* Armenian
* Balto-Slavic
* Baltic
* Slavic
* Celtic
* Germanic
* Hellenic
* Greek
* Indo-Iranian
* Indo-Aryan
* Iranian
* Nuristani
* Italic
* Romance

Extinct

* Anatolian
* Tocharian
* Paleo-Balkan
* Dacian
* Illyrian
* Liburnian
* Messapic
* Mysian
* Paeonian
* Phrygian
* Thracian

* * *

Reconstructed

* Proto-Indo-European language

* Phonology: Sound laws, Accent, Ablaut

* * *

Hypothetical

* Balkanic
* Daco-Thracian
* Graeco-Albanian
* Graeco-Armenian
* Graeco-Aryan
* Graeco-Phrygian
* Indo-Hittite
* Italo-Celtic
* Thraco-Illyrian

* * *

Grammar

* Vocabulary
* Root
* Verbs
* Nouns
* Pronouns
* Numerals
* Particles

* * *

Other

* Proto-Albanian
* Proto-Anatolian
* Proto-Armenian
* Proto-Germanic (Proto-Norse)
* Proto-Italo-Celtic (Proto-Celtic · Proto-Italic)
* Proto-Greek
* Proto-Balto-Slavic (Proto-Slavic · Proto-Baltic)
* Proto-Indo-Iranian (Proto-Indo-Aryan, Proto-Iranian, Proto-Nuristani)

Philology

* Hittite inscriptions
* Hieroglyphic Luwian
* Linear B
* Rigveda
* Avesta
* Homer
* Behistun
* Greek epigraphy
* Phrygian epigraphy
* Messapic epigraphy
* Latin epigraphy
* Gaulish epigraphy
* Runic epigraphy
* Ogham
* Gothic Bible
* Bible translations into Armenian
* Tocharian script
* Old Irish glosses
* Albanian Kanun

Origins

* Homeland
* Proto-Indo-Europeans
* Society
* Religion

* * *

Mainstream

* Kurgan hypothesis
* Indo-European migrations
* Eurasian nomads

* * *

Alternative and fringe

* Anatolian hypothesis
* Armenian hypothesis
* Beech argument
* Indigenous Aryanism
* Baltic homeland
* Paleolithic continuity theory

Archaeology

Chalcolithic (Copper Age)

Pontic Steppe

* Domestication of the horse
* Kurgan
* Kurgan stelae
* Kurgan culture
* Steppe cultures
* Bug–Dniester
* Sredny Stog
* Dnieper–Donets
* Samara
* Khvalynsk
* Yamnaya
* Mykhailivka culture
* Novotitarovskaya culture

Caucasus

* Maykop

East Asia

* Afanasievo

Eastern Europe

* Usatove
* Cernavodă
* Cucuteni

Northern Europe

* Corded ware
* Baden
* Middle Dnieper

* * *

Bronze Age
Pontic Steppe

* Chariot
* Yamnaya
* Catacomb
* Multi-cordoned ware
* Poltavka
* Srubnaya

Northern/Eastern Steppe

* Abashevo culture
* Andronovo
* Sintashta

Europe

* Globular Amphora
* Corded ware
* Bell Beaker
* Únětice
* Trzciniec
* Nordic Bronze Age
* Terramare
* Tumulus
* Urnfield
* Proto-Villanovan
* Lusatian
* Este

South Asia

* Bishkent
* Vakhsh
* BMAC
* Ochre Coloured Pottery
* Copper Hoard
* Cemetery H
* Gandhara grave

* * *

Iron Age
Steppe

* Chernoles

Europe

* Thraco-Cimmerian
* Hallstatt
* Latial
* Jastorf

Caucasus

* Colchian

Central Asia

* Yaz

India

* Painted Grey Ware
* Northern Black Polished Ware

Peoples and societies

Bronze Age

* Anatolian peoples (Hittites)

* Armenians
* Mycenaean Greeks
* Indo-Iranians

Iron Age Indo-Aryans

* Indo-Aryans

Iranians

* Iranians

Nuristanis

* Nuristanis

East Asia

* Wusun
* Yuezhi

Europe

* Celts
* Gauls
* Celtiberians
* Insular Celts
* Cimmerians
* Hellenic peoples
* Italic peoples
* Germanic peoples
* Paleo-Balkan/Anatolia
* Thracians
* Dacians
* Illyrians
* Paeonians
* Phrygians
* Scythians

Middle Ages
East Asia

* Tocharians

Europe

* Albanians
* Balts
* Slavs
* Norsemen/Medieval Scandinavians
* Middle Ages

Indo-Aryan

* Medieval India

Iranian

* Greater Iran

Religion and mythology

Reconstructed

* Proto-Indo-European mythology
* Proto-Indo-Iranian religion
* Historical Vedic religion
* Ancient Iranian religion

* * *

Historical

* Hittite

Indo-Aryan

* Vedic
* Hinduism
* Buddhism
* Jainism
* Sikhism

Iranian

* Persian
* Zoroastrianism
* Kurdish
* Yazidism
* Yarsanism
* Scythian
* Ossetian

Others

* Armenian

European

* Paleo-Balkan (Albanian · Illyrian · Thracian · Dacian)
* Greek
* Roman
* Celtic
* Irish
* Scottish
* Breton
* Welsh
* Cornish
* Germanic
* Anglo-Saxon
* Continental
* Norse
* Baltic
* Latvian
* Lithuanian
* Slavic

Practices

* Fire rituals
* Horse sacrifice
* Sati
* Winter solstice/Yule

Indo-European studies

Scholars

* Marija Gimbutas
* J. P. Mallory

Institutes

* Copenhagen Studies in Indo-European

Publications

* Encyclopedia of Indo-European Culture
* The Horse, the Wheel, and Language
* Journal of Indo-European Studies
* Indogermanisches etymologisches Wörterbuch
* Indo-European Etymological Dictionary

Category

* v
* t
* e

### Etymology

[edit]

The term Iran derives directly from Middle Persian Ērān, first attested in a third-century inscription at Naqsh-e Rostam, with the accompanying Parthian inscription using the term Aryān, in reference to the Iranian peoples.[7] The Middle-Iranian ērān and aryān are oblique plural forms of gentilic nouns ēr- (Middle Persian) and ary- (Parthian), both deriving from Proto-Iranian language *arya- (meaning "Aryan", i.e. "of the Iranians"). [7][8] In the Iranic languages spoken on the plateau, the gentilic is attested as a self-identifier, included in ancient inscriptions and the literature of the Avesta,[9][note 1] and remains also in other Iranian ethnic names Alan (Ossetian: Ир Ir) and Iron (Ирон).[8]

### Iranian vs. Iranic

[edit]

When used as a linguistic term Iranian is applied to any language which descends from the ancestral Proto-Iranian language.[10]

Some scholars such as John R. Perry prefer the term Iranic as the anthropological name for the linguistic family and ethnic groups of this category, and Iranian for anything about the modern country of Iran. He uses the same analogue as in differentiating German from Germanic or differentiating Turkish and Turkic.[11]

This use of the term for the Iranian language family was introduced in 1836 by Christian Lassen.[12] Robert Needham Cust used the term Irano-Aryan in 1878,[13] and Orientalists such as George Abraham Grierson and Max Müller contrasted Irano-Aryan (Iranian) and Indo-Aryan (Indic[note 2]). Some recent scholarship, primarily in German, has revived this convention.[14][15][16][17]

### Grouping

[edit]

The Iranian languages are divided into the following branches:

* The Western Iranian languages, subdivided into:
* Southwestern, of which Persian (including the Dari and Tajik dialects) and Luri are the dominant members;
* Northwestern, of which the Kurdish languages are the dominant members.
* The Eastern Iranian languages, subdivided into:
* Southeastern, of which Pashto is the dominant member;
* Northeastern, by far the smallest branch, of which Ossetian is the dominant member.

According to modern scholarship, the Avestan languages are not considered to fall under these categories, and are instead sometimes classified as Central Iranian, since they diverged from Proto-Iranian before the east–west division rose to prominence. It has traditionally been viewed as Eastern Iranian; however, it lacks a large number of Eastern Iranian features and thus is only "Eastern Iranian" in the sense that it is not Western.[18]

## Proto-Iranian

[edit]

Distribution of Iranic peoples in Central Asia during the Iron Age period.

The Iranian languages all descend from a common ancestor: Proto-Iranian, which itself evolved from Proto-Indo-Iranian. This ancestor language is speculated to have origins in Central Asia, and the Andronovo culture of the Bronze Age is suggested as a candidate for the common Indo-Iranian culture around 2000 BCE.[citation needed]

The language was situated precisely in the western part of Central Asia that borders present-day Russia and Kazakhstan. It was thus in relative proximity to the other satem ethno-linguistic groups of the Indo-European family, such as Thracian, Balto-Slavic and others, and to common Indo-European's original homeland (more precisely, the Pontic-Caspian Steppe to the north of the Black Sea and the Caucasus), according to the reconstructed linguistic relationships of common Indo-European.

Proto-Iranian thus dates to some time after the Proto-Indo-Iranian breakup, or the early-2nd millennium BCE, as the Old Iranian languages began to break off and evolve separately as the various Iranian tribes migrated and settled in vast areas of southeastern Europe, the Iranian Plateau, and Central Asia.

Proto-Iranian innovations compared to Proto-Indo-Iranian include:[19] the turning of sibilant fricative *s into non-sibilant fricative glottal *h; the voiced aspirated plosives *bʰ, *dʰ, *gʰ yielding to the voiced unaspirated plosives *b, *d, *g resp.; the voiceless unaspirated stops *p, *t, *k before another consonant changing into fricatives *f, *θ, *x resp.; voiceless aspirated stops *pʰ, *tʰ, *kʰ turning into fricatives *f, *θ, *x, resp.

## Old Iranian

[edit]

The multitude of Middle Iranian languages and peoples indicate that great linguistic diversity must have existed among the ancient speakers of Iranian languages. Of that variety of languages/dialects, direct evidence of only two has survived. These are:

* Avestan, the two languages/dialects of the Avesta (the liturgical texts of Zoroastrianism).
* Old Persian, the native language of a southwestern Iranian people known as Persians.[20]

Indirectly attested Old Iranian languages are discussed below.

Old Persian was an Old Iranian dialect as it was spoken in southwestern Iran (the modern-day province of Fars) by the inhabitants of Parsa, Persia, or Persis who also gave their name to their region and language. Genuine Old Persian is best attested in one of the three languages of the Behistun inscription, composed c. 520 BCE, and which is the last inscription (and only inscription of significant length) in which Old Persian is still grammatically correct. Later inscriptions are comparatively brief, and typically simply copies of words and phrases from earlier ones, often with grammatical errors, which suggests that by the 4th century BCE the transition from Old Persian to Middle Persian was already far advanced, but efforts were still being made to retain an "old" quality for official proclamations.

The other directly attested Old Iranian dialects are the two forms of Avestan, which take their name from their use in the Avesta, the liturgical texts of indigenous Iranian religion that now goes by the name of Zoroastrianism but in the Avesta itself is simply known as vohu daena (later: behdin). The language of the Avesta is subdivided into two dialects, conventionally known as "Old (or 'Gathic') Avestan", and "Younger Avestan". These terms, which date to the 19th century, are slightly misleading since 'Younger Avestan' is not only much younger than 'Old Avestan', but also from a different geographic region. The Old Avestan dialect is very archaic, and at roughly the same stage of development as Rigvedic Sanskrit. On the other hand, Younger Avestan is at about the same linguistic stage as Old Persian, but by virtue of its use as a sacred language retained its "old" characteristics long after the Old Iranian languages had yielded to their Middle Iranian stage. Unlike Old Persian, which has Middle Persian as its known successor, Avestan has no clearly identifiable Middle Iranian stage (the effect of Middle Iranian is indistinguishable from effects due to other causes).

In addition to Old Persian and Avestan, which are the only directly attested Old Iranian languages, all Middle Iranian languages must have had a predecessor "Old Iranian" form of that language, and thus can all be said to have had an (at least hypothetical) "Old" form. Such hypothetical Old Iranian languages include Old Parthian. Additionally, the existence of unattested languages can sometimes be inferred from the impact they had on neighbouring languages. Such transfer is known to have occurred for Old Persian, which has (what is called) a "Median" substrate in some of its vocabulary.[21] Also, foreign references to languages can also provide a hint to the existence of otherwise unattested languages, for example through toponyms/ethnonyms or in the recording of vocabulary, as Herodotus did for what he called "Scythian" and in one instance, Median (σπάκα "dog").

### Isoglosses

[edit]

Conventionally, Iranian languages are grouped into "western" and "eastern" branches.[22] These terms have little meaning with respect to Old Avestan as that stage of the language may predate the settling of the Iranian peoples into western and eastern groups. The geographic terms also have little meaning when applied to Younger Avestan since it is not known where that dialect (or dialects) was spoken either. Certain is only that Avestan (all forms) and Old Persian are distinct, and since Old Persian is "western", and Avestan was not Old Persian, Avestan acquired a default assignment to "eastern". Further confusing the issue is the introduction of a western Iranian substrate in later Avestan compositions and redactions undertaken at the centers of imperial power in western Iran (either in the south-west in Persia, or in the north-west in Nisa/Parthia and Ecbatana/Media).

Two of the earliest dialectal divisions among Iranian indeed happen to not follow the later division into Western and Eastern blocks. These concern the fate of the Proto-Indo-Iranian first-series palatal consonants, *ć and *dź:[23]

* Avestan and most other Iranian languages have deaffricated and depalatalized these consonants, and have *ć > s, *dź > z.
* Old Persian, however, has fronted these consonants further: *ć > θ, *dź > *ð > d.

As a common intermediate stage, it is possible to reconstruct depalatalized affricates: *c, *dz. (This coincides with the state of affairs in the neighboring Nuristani languages.) A further complication however concerns the consonant clusters *ćw and *dźw:

* Avestan and most other Iranian languages have shifted these clusters to sp, zb.
* In Old Persian, these clusters yield s, z, with loss of the glide *w, but without further fronting.
* The Saka language, attested in the Middle Iranian period, and its modern relative Wakhi fail to fit into either group: in these, palatalization remains, and similar glide loss as in Old Persian occurs: *ćw > š, *dźw > ž.

A division of Iranian languages in at least three groups during the Old Iranian period is thus implied:

* Persid (Old Persian and its descendants)
* Sakan (Saka, Wakhi, and their Old Iranian ancestor)
* Central Iranian (all other Iranian languages)

It is possible that other distinct dialect groups were already in existence during this period. Good candidates are the hypothetical ancestor languages of Alanian/Scytho-Sarmatian subgroup of Scythian in the far northwest; and the hypothetical "Old Parthian" (the Old Iranian ancestor of Parthian) in the near northwest, where original *dw > *b (paralleling the development of *ćw).

## Middle Iranian

[edit]

What is known in Iranian linguistic history as the "Middle Iranian" era is thought to begin around the 4th century BCE lasting through the 9th century. Linguistically the Middle Iranian languages are conventionally classified into two main groups, Western and Eastern.

The Western family includes Parthian (Arsacid Pahlavi) and Middle Persian, while Bactrian, Sogdian, Khwarezmian, Saka, and Old Ossetic (Scytho-Sarmatian) fall under the Eastern category. The two languages of the Western group were linguistically very close to each other, but quite distinct from their eastern counterparts. On the other hand, the Eastern group was an areal entity whose languages retained some similarity to Avestan. They were inscribed in various Aramaic-derived alphabets which had ultimately evolved from the Achaemenid Imperial Aramaic script, though Bactrian was written using an adapted Greek script.

Middle Persian (Pahlavi) was the official language under the Sasanian dynasty in Iran. It was in use from the 3rd century CE until the beginning of the 10th century. The script used for Middle Persian in this era underwent significant maturity. Middle Persian, Parthian, and Sogdian were also used as literary languages by the Manichaeans, whose texts also survive in various non-Iranian languages, from Latin to Chinese. Manichaean texts were written in a script closely akin to the Syriac script.[24] The Achomi (Larestani/Khodmooni) language is considered a surviving remains of Pahlavi Middle Persian,[25][26][27][28][29][30][31] as well as Luri, with their respective dialects.

## New Iranian

[edit]

See also: Persian literature, Pashto literature and poetry, Ossetian literature, Kurdish literature, and Tajik literature

Dark green: countries where Iranian languages are official.
Teal: countries where Iranian languages are official in a subdivision.

Following the Muslim conquest of Persia, there were essential changes in the role of the different dialects. The old prestige form of Middle Iranian, Pahlavi, which was associated with the western Sasanian provinces of Spahan and Pars, was replaced by a new variety as the official language of the court. In 875, he Saffarid dynasty was the first in a line of many dynasties to adopt the new prestige language officially.

West Iranian varieties from eastern regions may have had a significant impact on the development of the new standard, which served as the basis for a standardised New Persian. Medieval Iranian scholars such as ibn al-Muqaffa' (8th century) and ibn al-Nadim (10th century) associated the term Dari with the eastern province of Khorasan, Pahlavi for the dialects of the northwestern areas between the province of Isfahan and Azerbaijan, and Pârsi to describe the dialects of Fars (Persia).

These scholars also noted that the unofficial language of the royalty was Khuzi, associated with the western province of Khuzestan; it was likely a late variety of the Elamite language, a language isolate that previously was the official court language of Elam in that region.

The Islamic conquest also brought with it the adoption of the Arabic script for writing Persian and much later, Kurdish, Pashto and Balochi. All three were adapted to the writing by the addition of a few letters. This development probably occurred sometime during the second half of the 8th century, when the old middle Persian script began dwindling in usage. The Arabic script remains in use in contemporary modern Persian. The Tajik alphabet, used to write the Tajik language, was initially Romanized in the 1920s under the Soviet nationalities policy. This was shifted to a Cyrillic script in the 1930s.

The geographical regions in which Iranian languages were spoken were pushed back in several areas by newly neighbouring languages. Arabic spread into some parts of Western Iran, and Turkic languages spread through much of Central Asia, displacing various Eastern Iranian languages such as Sogdian and Bactrian in what is today Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, and Tajikistan. In Eastern Europe, in what is now Ukraine, southern European Russia, and parts of the Balkans, the core region of the Eastern Iranian-speaking Scythians, Sarmatians, and Alans, had been decisively Slavicised by the various Early Slavs of the region by the 6th century.[32][33][34][35] This resulted in the displacement and extinction of the once predominant Scythian languages of the region. Sogdian's close relative, Yaghnobi, barely survives in a small area of the Zarafshan Range east of Samarkand, Wakhi is spoken by nomadic pastoralists from Afghanistan to China, and Saka survives as Ossetic in Ciscaucasia, which is the sole remnant of the once-predominant Scythian languages of the region. Minority Eastern Iranian languages survive in the Pamir Mountains; Pashto is the only widely-spoken Eastern Iranian language, with at least 90 million speakers.

## Comparison table

[edit]

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|

English  | Zaza | Sorani Kurdish | Kurmanji Kurdish | Pashto | Tati | Talyshi | Balochi | Gilaki | Mazanderani (Tabari) | Tat | Luri | Shughni | Persian | Middle Persian | Parthian | Old Persian | Avestan | Ossetian

|
|
|
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|
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|
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|
|
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|
|

beautiful | rınd, xasek  | ciwan, nayab  | rind, delal, bedew, xweşik  | x̌kūlay, x̌āista  | xojir  | ghašang  | dorr, soherâ, mah rang, sharr, juwān  | xujīrçī/xujīr  | xoşgel, xojir, xejir  | qəşəng, şihid  | qəşaŋ, xoşgel  | xushrui, xagh(fem.)

xigh(masc.)

| zibā/xuš-čehr(e)/xoşgel(ak)/ghashanq/najib  | hučihr, hužihr  | hužihr  | naiba  | xvaini, sraiia, srao-  | ræsughd
blood | goni  | xwên  | xwîn, xûn  | wīna  | xevn  | xun  | hon  | xun  | xun  | xun  | xī(n)  | xun  | xūn  | xōn  | gōxan  |  | vohuna, vaŋhutāt̰  | tug
bread | nan, non  | nan  | nan  | ḍoḍəi, məṛəi  | nun  | nun  | nān, nagan  | nön  | nun  | nun  | nu(n)  | gartha  | nān  | nān  | nān  |  | tāiiūiri, drao-naŋh (scared bread)  | dzul
bring | ardene  | /anîn, hawerdin, hênan  | anîn  | (rā)wṛəl  | vârden, biyordon  | varde  | âurten, yārag, ārag  | hävərdən, härdən, ävərdən, bərdən  | biyârden  | avardən  | o(v)erden,  | videu  | āwurdan, biyār ("(you) bring!")  | āwurdan, āwāy-, āwar-, bar-  | āwāy-, āwar-, bar-  | bara-  | bara, bar-  | xæssyn
brother | bıra  | bira  | bira  | wror  | bərâr  | bira, boli  | brāt, brās  | bərär, bərâr  | berâr, beror  | birar  | Gaghe  | værod  | barādar  | brād, brâdar  | brād, brādar  | brātar  | brātar-  | æfsymær
come | ameyene  | hatin, were, bew (Pehlewanî)  | hatin, were,  | rā tləl  | biyâmiyan  | ome  | āhag, āyag, hatin  | həmän, ämön, hömän  | biyamona, enen, biyâmuen  | amarən  | umae(n)  | yà  | āmadan  | āmadan, awar  | awar, čām  | āy-, āgam  | āgam-  | cæwyn
cry | bermayene  | giryan, girîn, gîristin (Pehlewanî)  | girîn  | žəṛəl  | bərma  | berame, bame  | greewag, grehten  | burmə  | berme  | girəstən  | gerevesen, gereva  | náu  | gerīstan/gerīye  | griy-, bram-  | barmâdan  |  | snuδ,  | kæwyn
dark | tari  | tarî/tarîk  | tarî  | skəṇ, skaṇ, tyara  | ul, gur, târica, târek  | toki  | tār  | zuləmât, tärik  | tār, siyo, zolamât  | tariki  | tārīk  | torice  | tārīk, tār  | tārīg/k  | tārīg, tārēn  | tārīk  | sāmahe, sāma  | tar
daughter | keyne, çêne/çêneke  | kîj, kiç, kenîşk, düêt (Pehlewanî), dwêt (Pehlewanî)  | dot, keç  | lūr  | titiye, dətar  | kinə, kila  | dohtir, duttag  | lâku, kör (girl)

dətər (daughter)

| kîjâ(girl), deter (daughter)  | duxtər  | doxter  | rezin  | doxtar  | duxtar  | duxt, duxtar  |  | duxδar  | čyzg (Iron), kizgæ (Digor)
day | roce, roje, roze  | řoj, rûj (Pehlewanî)  | roj  | wrəd͡z (rwəd͡z)  | revj, ruz  | ruj  | roç  | ruz, ruj  | ruz, ruj  | ruz  | ru  | ruz  | rūz  | rōz  |  | raucah-  | raocah-  | bon
do | kerdene  | kirdin  | kirin  | kawəl  | kardan, kordan  | karde  | kanag, kurtin  | gudən, kudən, kördən  | hâkerden, hâkorden  | saxtən  | kerde  | chideu  | kardan  | kardan  | kartan  | kạrta-  | kәrәta-  | kænyn
door | ber, keyber, çêber  | derge/derke, derga, qapî (Kelhorî)  | derî  | wər, dərwāza  | darvâca  | bə  | dar, gelo, darwāzag  | bər  | dar, loş  | dər  | dər, dar  | dêve  | dar  | dar  | dar, bar  | duvara-  | dvara-  | dwar
die | merdene  | mirdin  | mirin  | mrəl  | bamarden  | marde  | mireg, murten  | murdən, mərdən  | bamerden  | mürdən  | morde  | mideu  | mordan  | murdan  |  | mạriya-  | mar-  | mælyn
donkey | her  | ker, gwêdirêj, xer (Pehlewanî)  | ker  | xər  | astar, xar  | hə, hər  | har, her, kar  | xər  | xar  | xər  | xər  | marcabe  | xar  | xar  |  |  | kaθβa  | xæræg
eat | werdene  | xwardin  | xwarin  | xwāṛə, xurāk / xwaṛəl  | harden  | harde  | warag, warâk, wārten  | xördən, xöndən  | xerâk / baxârden  | xardən  | harde  | xideu  | xordan / xurāk  | parwarz / xwâr, xwardīg  | parwarz / xwâr  |  | hareθra / CE-, at-  | xærinag
egg | hak, akk  | hêk/hêlke, tum, xaye (Pehlewanî), xa (Kelhorî)  | hêk  | hagəi  | merqâna, karxâ  | morqana, uyə  | heyg, heyk, ā morg  | murqönə, murqänə  | merqâne, tîm, balî  | xaykərg  | xā'a  | tarmurx  | toxm, xāya ("testicle")  | toxmag, xâyag  | taoxmag, xâyag  |  | taoxma-  | ajk
earth | erd  | zemîn, zewî, ʿerz, erd  | erd, zevî  | d͡zməka (md͡zəka)  | zemin  | zamin  | zemin, degār  | zəmi, gəl, bunə  | zamîn, bene  | xari  | zemi  | zimath  | zamīn  | zamīg  | zamīg  | zam-  | zãm, zam, zem  | zæxx
evening | şan  | êware, îware (Pehlewanî)  | êvar, şev  | māx̌ām (māš̥ām)  | nomâzyar, nomâšon  | shav  | begáh  | şänsər  | nemâşun  | şangum  | evāra  | véga  | begáh  | ēvārag  | êbêrag  |  | arəzaŋh  | izær
eye | çım  | çaw/çaş  | çav  | stərga  | coš  | čaş,gelgan  | cham, chem  | çum  | çəş, bəj  | çüm  | tīya, çaş  | çem  | čashm  | čašm  | čašm  | čaša-  | čašman-  | cæst
father | pi, pêr  | bawk, bab, babe, bawg (Pehlewanî)  | bav, bab  | plār  | piyar, piya, dada  | piya, lala, po  | pet, pes  | pér  | pîyer, pîyar, per  | piyər  | bua  | tat  | pedar, bābā  | pidar  | pid  | pitar  | pitar  | fyd
fear | ters  | tirs  | tirs  | wēra (yara), bēra  | târs  | tars  | turs, terseg  | tərs  | taşe-vaşe, tars  | tərsi  | ters  | hoge  | tars, harās  | tars  | tars  | tạrsa-  | tares-  | tas
fiancé | waşti  | desgîran,xwşavest  | dergistî  | čənghol [masculine], čənghəla [feminine]  | numzâ  | nomja  | nāmzād  | nömzət  | numze  | nükürdə  |  | xîsmenz  | nāmzād  | –  | –  |  | para-dāta (affianced)  | usag
fine | weş, hewl  | xoş  | xweş  | x̌a (š̥a), səm  | xojir, xar  | xoş  | wash, hosh  | xujīr, xurum  | xâr, xeş, xojir  | xuş, xas, xub  | xu  | bashand  | xoš, xūb, beh  | dārmag  |  |  | srīra  | xorz, dzæbæx
finger | engışte/gışte, bêçıke  | engust, pence,angus, pênce  | tilî, pêçî  | gwəta  | anquš  | anqiştə  | changol, mordâneg, lenkutk  | ənguşt, əngüşt  | angus  | əngüşt  | kelek  | angiht  | angošt  | angust  |  |  | aṇgušta  | ængwyldz
fire | adır  | agir/awir, ahir,ayer  | agir  | wōr (ōr)  | taš  | otaş  | âch, atesh, âs  | təş  | taş  | ataş  | taş, gor  | yoç  | ātaš, āzar  | âdur, âtaxsh  | ādur  | âç-  | ātre-/aēsma-  | art
fish | mase  | masî  | masî  | māyai  | mâyi  | moy  | māhi, māhig  | mäyi  | mâhî  | mahi  | māhi  | moie  | māhi  | māhig  | māsyāg  |  | masya  | kæsag
go | şiayene  | çûn, řoştin, řoyiştin, çün (Pehlewanî)  | çûn  | tləl  | šiyen, bišiyan  | şe  | shoten  | şön  | burden, bašiyen  | raftən  | ro  | sà, tideu  | ro/şo  | şow/row  | ay-  | ai-  | ay-, fra-vaz  | cæwyn
God | Homa/Huma/Oma  | Yezdan, Xwedê, Xuda, Xodê, Xwa(y)  | Xwedê, Xweda, Xudê  | Xwədāi  | Xədâ  | Xıdo  | Xoda, Hwdâ  | Xuda  | Xedâ  | Xuda  | xodā  | Xuthoi  | Xodā, Izad, Yazdān, Baq  | Xudā/Yazdān  |  | baga-  | baya-  | xwycaw
good | hewl, rınd, weş  | baş, çak, xas  | baş, rind  | x̌ə (š̥ə)  | xâr, xojir  | çok  | zabr, sharr, jowain  | xujīr, xurum  | xâr, xeş, xojir  | xub, xas  | xu  | bashand  | xub, nīkū, beh  | xūb, nêkog, beh  |  | vahu-  | vohu, vaŋhu-  | xorz
grass | vaş  | giya/gya  | giya, çêre  | wāx̌ə (wāš̥ə)  | vâš  | alaf  | rem, sabzag  | vâş  | vâş  | güyo  | sozi, çame  | woh  | sabzeh, giyāh  | giyâ  | giya  | viş  | urvarā  | kærdæg
great | gırd/gırs, pil  | gewre,mezin  | mezin, gir  | lōy, stər  | pilla  | yol, yal, vaz, dıjd  | mastar, mazan,tuh  | pilâ, pillə, pille  | gat, pilla  | kələ  | gap  | wazmin  | bozorg  | wuzurg, pīl, yal  |  | vazraka-  | mazaṇt̰, masita, stūi  | styr
hand | dest  | dest, des  | dest  | lās  | bâl  | dast  | dast  | dəs, bâl  | das, bāl  | dəs  | das  | thust  | dast  | dast  | dast  | dasta-  | zasta-  | k'ux / arm
head | ser  | ser  | ser  | sər  | kalla  | sə, sər  | sar, sarag, saghar  | kəlle, sər  | kalle, sar  | sər  | sar  | cile, cale  | sar  | sar  |  | kalli  | sairi  | sær
heart | zerri/zerre  | dil/dił/dir(Erbil)/zil  | dil  | zṛə  | dəl  | dıl  | dil, hatyr  | dīl, dəl, qlf  | del, zel, zil  | dül  | del  | dile, zorth  | del  | dil  | dil  |  | zaraŋh, zarəδiia, aηhuš  | zærdæ
horse | estor/ostor/astor  | asp/hesp/esp, hês(t)ir  | hesp  | ās [male], aspa [female]  | asb, astar  | asp  | asp  | əsb, əsp  | asp, as  | əs  | asb  | vorge  | asb  | asp, stōr  | asp, stōr  | aspa  | aspa-  | bæx
house | key/çê  | mał, xanû, xanig, ghat  | xanî, mal  | kor  | kiya  | ka  | ges, dawâr, log  | sərə, xöne  | sere, kime, xene  | xunə  | huna  | chide  | xāne  | xânag  |  |  | demāna-, nmāna-  | xædzar
hungry | vêşan/veyşan  | birsî, wirsî (Pehlewanî)  | birçî, birsî (behdînî)  | lweǵai (lweẓ̌ai)  | vašnâ, vešir, gesnâ  | vahşian  | shudig, shud  | vəşnä, viştâ  | veşnâ, veşnâsâr  | gisnə  | gosna  | maghzönch  | gorosne, goşne  | gursag, shuy  | veşnâg  |  | ṣ̌uδ  |
language (also tongue)  | zıwan, zon, zuan, zuon, juan, jüan  | ziman, zuwan  | ziman  | žəba  | zobun, zəvân  | zivon  | zewān, zobān  | zəvön, zuvön, zuvän  | zivun, zebun, tok  | zuhun  | zevu  | zive  | zabān  | zuwān  | izβān  | hazâna-  | hizvā-, zafana (mouth)  | ævzag
laugh | huyayene  | kenîn/pêkenîn, kenîn,xende,xene  | kenîn  | xandəl/xənda  | xurəsen, xandastan  | sıre  | hendag, xandag  | purxə, xənde/ xəndəsən  | rîk, baxendesten, xanne  | xəndə  | xana  | shinteu  | xande  | xande, xand  |  | karta  | Syaoθnāvareza-  | xudyn
life | cuye, weşiye  | jiyan, jîn  | jiyan  | žwəndūn, žwənd  | zindәgi  | jimon  | zendegih, zind  | zīndəgī, zīvəş  | zindegî, jan  | həyat  | zeŋei  | zindage, umre  | zendegi, jan  | zīndagīh, zīwišnīh  | žīwahr, žīw-  |  | gaēm, gaya-  | card
man | mêrdek, camêrd/cüamêrd  | mêrd, pîyaw, cuwamêr  | mêr, camêr  | səṛay, mēṛə  | mardak, miarda  | merd  | merd  | mərd, mərdönə  | mardî  | mərd  | piyā  | chorice, mardina  | mard  | mard  | mard  | martiya-  | mašīm, mašya  | adæjmag
moon | aşme, menge (for month)  | mang, heyv  | meh, heyv  | spūǵməi (spōẓ̌məi)  | mâng  | mang, owşum  | máh  | mâng, məng  | ma, munek, mong, rojâ  | ma  | māh  | mêst  | mâh, mâng, mânk  | māh  | māh  | mâh-  | måŋha-  | mæj
mother | may, mar  | dayik, dayig  | dayik, dê  | mōr  | mâr, mâya, nana  | moa, ma, ina  | mât, mâs  | mâr, mär  | mâr, nenâ  | may  | dā(ya), dāle(ka)  | nan  | mâdar  | mâdar  | dayek  | mâtar  | mātar-  | mad
mouth | fek  | dem  | dev  | xūla (xʷəla)  | duxun, dâ:ân  | gəv  | dap  | dəhən  | dâhun, lâmîze, loşe  | duhun, luše  | dam  | gêve  | dahân  | dahân, rumb  |  |  | zafan, zafarə, åŋhānō, åñh  | dzyx
name | name  | naw, nêw  | nav  | nūm  | num  | nom  | nâm  | nöm  | num  | num  | num  | nöme  | nâm  | nâm  |  | nâman  | nãman  | nom
night | şew  | şew  | şev  | špa  | šö, šav  | şav  | šap, shaw  | şö, şöv, şəb  | şow, şu  | şöü  | şo  | hab  | shab  | shab  |  | xšap-  | xšap-, naxti  | æxsæv
open (v) | akerdene  | kirdinewe, wazkirdin (Kelhorî)  | vekirin  | prānistəl  | vâz-kardan  | okarde  | pāch, pabozag  | vlätən, väzän, vâ-gudən  | vâ-hekârden  | vakardən  | vākerde(n)  | ët chideu  | bâz-kardan, va-kardan  | abâz-kardan, višādag  |  | būxtaka-  | būxta-  | gom kænyn
peace | haşti/aşti  | aştî, aramî  | aştî, aramî  | rōɣa, t͡sōkāləi  | dinj  | aşiş  | ârâm  | əşt  | âştî, esket  | salaməti, dinci  | āş(t)i  | salöm  | âshti, ârâmeš, ârâmî, sâzish  | âštih, râmīšn  | râm, râmīšn  | šiyâti-  | rāma-  | fidyddzinad
pig | xoz/xonz, xınzır  | beraz,goraz  | beraz  | soḍər, xənd͡zir (Arabic), xug  | xu, xuyi, xug  | xug  | khug, huk  | xuk  | xî  | xug  | xuk  | xug  | xūk  | xūk  |  |  | hū, varāza (boar)  | xwy
place | ca  | cê(cêga), ga, şwên, şwîn (Pehlewanî)  | cih, geh  | d͡zāi  | yâga  | vira  | ja, jaygah, hend  | jâ, jigâ, jigə  | jâ, gâ, kolâ  | cigə, cə  | jā  | joi  | jâh/gâh  | gâh  | gâh  | gâθu-  | gātu-, gātav-  | ran
read | wendene  | xwendin/xwêndin, xwenistin  | xwendin  | lwastəl, kōtəl  | baxânden  | hande, xwande  | wánag, wānten  | xöndən, xönəsən  | baxenden, baxundesten  | xundən  | vane(n)  | heideu  | xândan  | xwândan  |  |  | paiti-pǝrǝs  | kæsyn
say | vatene  | gutin, witin  | gotin  | wayəl  | vâten, baguten  | vote  | gushag, guashten  | gutən, guftən  | baowten, boten, bagoten  | guftirən, gaf saxtən  | gute(n)  | lövdeu  | goftan, gap(-zadan)  | guftan, gōw-, wâxtan  | gōw-  | gaub-  | vac, mrū-  | dzuryn
sister | waye  | xweh, xweşk, xoşk, xuşk, xoyşk  | xwîşk  | xōr (xʷōr)  | xâke, xâv, xâxor, xuâr  | hova  | gwhâr  | xâxur, xâxər  | xâxer, xâxor, xoar  | xuvar  | xuar  | yàx, yàxbìç  | xâhar/xwâhar  | xwahar  |  |  | xvaŋhar-  | xo
small | qıc/qıyt, wırd/werdi  | giçke, qicik, hûr, biçûk, büçik (Kelhorî)  | biçûk, hûr, qicik  | kūčnay, waṛ(ū)kay  | qijel, ruk  | hırd  | gwand, hurd  | kuçhī, kujī, kuştə  | peçik, biçuk, xerd  | küçük, küşkin, kişgələ, kəm  | koçek  | zulice  | kuchak, kam, xurd, rîz  | kam, rangas  | kam  | kamna-  | kasu, kamna-  | chysyl
son | lac, laj  | law/kuř  | kur, law, pis  | d͡zoy (zoy)  | pur, zâ  | zoə, zurə  | possag, baç  | vəçə, rikə, pəsər, rəy  | peser/rîkâ  | kuk  | kor  | puç  | pesar, pur  | pur, pusar  | puhr  | puça  | pūθra-  | fyrt
soul | roh, gan  | can, giyan, rewan, revan  | reh, can  | sā  | rəvân  | con  | rawân  | ruh, jön  | ro, jân  | can  |  | jöne  | ravân, jân  | rūwân, jyân  | rūwân, jyân  |  | urvan-  | ud
spring | wesar/usar  | behar, wehar  | bihar, behar  | spərlay  | vâ:âr  | əvəsor, bahar  | bārgāh  | vəhâr, bâhâr  | vehâr, behâr  | vasal  | behār, vehār  | bahor  | bahâr  | wahâr  |  | vâhara-  | vaŋhar  |
tall | berz  | bilind/berz  | bilind/berz  | lwəṛ, ǰəg  | pilla  | barz, bılınd  | borz, bwrz  | burz, bələnd  | belen, belend  | bülünd  | beleŋ  | beland  | boland / bârz  | buland, borz  | bârež  |  | bərəzaṇt̰  | bærzond
ten | des  | deh/de  | deh  | ləs  | da  | da  | dah  | dä  | da, datâ  | də  | da  | thiste  | dah  | dah  |  | datha  | dasa  | dæs
three | hirê/hiri  | sê  | sê  | drē  | so, se  | se, he  | sey  | su, sə  | se, setâ  | sə  | se  | arai  | se  | sê  | hrē  | çi-  | θri-  | ærtæ
village | dewe  | gund, dêhat, dê, awayî  | gund  | kəlay  | döh, da  | di  | dehāt, helk, kallag, dê  | mällə, məhällə, kəläyə  | dih, male, kolâ, kande  | di  | de  | qishloq  | deh, wis  | wiž  | dahyu-  | vîs-, dahyu-  | vîs  | qæw
want | waştene  | xwastin, wîstin, twastin (Pehlewanî)  | xwestin  | ɣ(ʷ)ux̌təl  | begovastan, jovastan  | piye  | loath, loteten  | xäsən, xästən  | bexâsten, bexâsti  | xastən, vayistən  | hāse  | forteu  | xâstan  | xwâstan  |  |  | ūna, ainišti  | fændyn
water | awe/awk, owe, ou  | aw  | av  | obə/ūbə  | âv, ö  | ov, wat(orandian dialect)  | âp  | ow, âv  | ow, ou, u  | ou  | ow  | haç  | âb  | âb/aw  | aw  | âpi  | avō-  | don
when | key  | key, kengî(Hewlêrî)  | kengê, kîngê  | kəla  | key  | keyna  | kadi, ked  | kén, kəy  | ke, kemin, geder  | key, çüvəxti  | ke  | çavaxt  | key  | kay  | ka  |  | cim-  | kæd
wind | va  | ba, wa (Pehlewanî)  | ba  | siləi  | vâ  | vo  | gwáth  | vâ  | vâ  | var  | bād  | huz  | bâd  | wâd  | wa  |  | vāta-  | dymgæ / wad
wolf | verg  | gurg,  | gur  | lewə, šarmux̌ (šarmuš̥)  | varg  | varg  | gurk  | vərg  | verg, verk  | gürg  | gorg  | urge/urj  | gorg  | gurg  |  | varka-  | vehrka  | birægh
woman | cıni/ceni  | jin, afret, zindage,gyian  | jin  | x̌əd͡za (š̥əd͡za)  | zeyniye, zenak  | jen, jiyan  | jan, jinik  | zən, zənək, zunönə  | zenā  | zən  | zena  | ghenice/ghinice, caxoi  | zan  | zan  | žan  |  | gǝnā, γnā, ǰaini-,  | sylgojmag / us
year | serre  | sal/sał  | sal  | kāl  | sâl  | sor, sal  | sâl  | sâl  | sâl  | sal  | sāl  | sol  | sâl  | sâl  |  | θard  | ýāre, sarәd  | az
yes / no | ya, heya, ê / nê, ney, ni  | bełê, a, erê / ne, nexêr  | erê, belê, a / na  | Hao, ao, wō / na, ya  | ahan / na  | ha / ne, na  | ere, hān / na  | əhâ/nä, nâ  | are, ehe / nâ, no  | həri, hə / nə  | a, ā / na  | ön / nai, nå  | baleh, ârē, hā / na, née  | ōhāy / ne  | hâ / ney  | yâ / nay, mâ  | yā / noit, mā  | o / næ
yesterday | vızêr  | dwênê, dwêke  | duho  | parūn  | azira, zira, diru  | zir, zinə  | zí  | dîru  | dîruz, aruz  | deydi  | diru  | biyor  | diruz  | dêrûž  |  | diya(ka)  | zyō  | znon
English  | Zaza | Sorani | Kurmanji | Pashto | Tati | Talyshi | Balochi | Gilaki | Mazandarani | Tat | Luri | Shughni | Persian | Middle Persian | Parthian | Old Persian | Avestan | Ossetian

## Notes

[edit]

1. ^ In the Avesta, the airiia- are members of the ethnic group of the Avesta-reciters themselves, in contradistinction to the anairiia- (the "non-Arya"). The word also appears four times in Old Persian: One is in the Behistun Inscription, where ariya- is the name of a language (DB 4.89). The other three instances occur in Darius the Great's inscription at Naqsh-e Rostam (DNa 14–15), in Darius I's inscription at Susa (DSe 13–14), and in the inscription of Xerxes I at Persepolis (XPh 12–13). In these, the two Achaemenid dynasties describe themselves as pārsa pārsahyā puça ariya ariyaciça "a Persian, son of a Persian, an Ariya, of Ariya origin."—The phrase with ciça ("origin, descendance") assures that ariya is an ethnic name wider in meaning than pārsa and not a simple adjectival epithet.[9]
2. ^ In modern and colloquial context, the term "Indic" refers more generally to the languages of the Indian subcontinent, thus also including non-Aryan language families like Dravidian and Munda. See e.g. Reynolds, Mike; Verma, Mahendra (2007). "Indic languages". In Britain, David (ed.). Language in the British Isles. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 293–307\. ISBN 978-0-521-79488-6. Retrieved 2021-10-04.

## References

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1. ^ Johannes Bechert; Giuliano Bernini; Claude Buridant (1990). Toward a Typology of European Languages. Walter de Gruyter. ISBN 978-3-11-012108-7.
2. ^ Gernot Windfuhr (1979). Persian Grammar: History and State of Its Study. Walter de Gruyter. ISBN 978-90-279-7774-8.
3. ^ Gordon, Raymond G. Jr., ed. (2005). "Report for Iranian languages". Ethnologue: Languages of the World (Fifteenth ed.). Dallas: SIL International.
4. ^ Windfuhr 2012, p. 587.
5. ^ Windfuhr 2012, p. 634.
6. ^ Windfuhr 2012, p. 1.
7. ^ a b MacKenzie, David Niel (1998). "Ērān, Ērānšahr". Encyclopedia Iranica. Vol. 8\. Costa Mesa: Mazda. Archived from the original on 13 March 2017.
8. ^ a b Schmitt, Rüdiger (1987), "Aryans", Encyclopedia Iranica, vol. 2, New York: Routledge & Kegan Paul, pp. 684–687
9. ^ a b Bailey, Harold Walter (1987). "Arya". Encyclopedia Iranica. Vol. 2\. New York: Routledge & Kegan Paul. pp. 681–683\. Archived from the original on 3 March 2016.
10. ^ (Skjærvø 2006)
11. ^ John R. Perry (Summer–Autumn 1998). "A Review of the 'Encyclopaedia Iranica'". Iranian Studies. 31 (3/4): 517–525.
12. ^ Lassen, Christian. 1936. Die altpersischen Keil-Inschriften von Persepolis. Entzifferung des Alphabets und Erklärung des Inhalts. Bonn: Weber. S. 182.
This was followed by Wilhelm Geiger in his Grundriss der Iranischen Philologie (1895). Friedrich von Spiegel (1859), Avesta, Engelmann (p. vii) used the spelling Eranian.
13. ^ Cust, Robert Needham. 1878. A sketch of the modern languages of the East Indies. London: Trübner.
14. ^ Dani, Ahmad Hasan. 1989. History of northern areas of Pakistan. Historical studies (Pakistan) series. National Institute of Historical and Cultural Research.
"We distinguish between the Aryan languages of Iran, or Irano-Aryan, and the Aryan languages of India, or Indo-Aryan. For the sake of brevity, Iranian is commonly used instead of Irano-Aryan".
15. ^ Lazard, Gilbert. 1977. Preface in: Oranskij, Iosif M. Les langues iraniennes. Traduit par Joyce Blau.
16. ^ Schmitt, Rüdiger. 1994. Sprachzeugnisse alt- und mitteliranischer Sprachen in Afghanistan in: Indogermanica et Caucasica. Festschrift für Karl Horst Schmidt zum 65. Geburtstag. Bielmeier, Robert und Reinhard Stempel (Hrg.). De Gruyter. S. 168–196.
17. ^ Lazard, Gilbert. 1998. Actancy. Empirical approaches to language typology. Mouton de Gruyter. ISBN 3-11-015670-9, ISBN 978-3-11-015670-6
18. ^ Encyclopaedia Iranica: EASTERN IRANIAN LANGUAGES. By Nicholas Sims-Williams
19. ^ Michael Witzel (2001): Autochthonous Aryans? The evidence from Old Indian and Iranian texts. Electronic Journal of Vedic Studies 7(3): 1–115.
20. ^ Roland G. Kent: "Old Persion: Grammar Texts Lexicon". Part I, Chapter I: The Linguistic Setting of Old Persian. American Oriental Society, 1953.
21. ^ (Skjærvø 2006) vi(2). Documentation.
22. ^ Nicholas Sims-Williams, Iranica, under entry: Eastern Iranian languages
23. ^ Windfuhr, Gernot (2009). "Dialectology and Topics". The Iranian Languages. Routledge. pp. 18–21.
24. ^ Mary Boyce. 1975. A Reader in Manichaean Middle Persian and Parthian, p. 14.
25. ^ Talei, Maryam; Rovshan, Belghis (2024-10-24). "Semantic Network in Lari Language". Persian Language and Iranian Dialects. doi:10.22124/plid.2024.27553.1673. ISSN 2476-6585. Archived from the original on 2024-11-28. "This descriptive-analytical research examines sense relations between the lexemes of the Lari language, the continuation of the Middle Persian and one of the endangered Iranian languages spoken in Lar, Fars province"
26. ^ "Western Iranian languages History". Destination Iran. 2024-06-16. Archived from the original on 2024-11-28. Retrieved 2024-11-28. "Achomi or Khodmooni (Larestani) is a southwestern Iranian language spoken in southern Fars province and the Ajam (non-arab) population in Persian Gulf countries such as UAE, Bahrain, and Kuwait. It is a descendant of Middle Persian and has several dialects including Lari, Evazi, Khoni, Bastaki, and more."
27. ^ Taherkhani, Neda; Ourang, Muhammed (2013). "A Study of Derivational Morphemes in Lari & Tati as Two Endangered Iranian Languages: An Analytical Contrastive Examination with Persian" (PDF). Journal of American Science. ISSN 1545-1003. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2024-11-30. Retrieved 2024-11-28. "Lari is of the SW branch of Middle Iranian languages, Pahlavi, in the Middle period of Persian Language Evolution and consists of nine dialects, which are prominently different in pronunciation (Geravand, 2010). Being a branch of Pahlavi language, Lari has several common features with it as its mother language. The ergative structure (the difference between the conjugation of transitive and intransitive verbs) existing in Lari can be mentioned as such an example. The speech community of this language includes Fars province, Hormozgan province and some of the Arabic-speaking countries like the United Arab Emirates, Qatar, Bahrain, Kuwait, and Oman (Khonji, 2010, p. 15)."
28. ^ "ICEHM: International Centre of Economics, Humanities and Management" (PDF). icehm.org. doi:10.15242/icehm.ed0115115. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2021-04-29. Retrieved 2020-12-10.
29. ^ گويش مردم اوز. نسرين انصاف پور و محمد رفيع ضيايى 1396
30. ^ Wikipedia, Source (2013). Southwestern Iranian Languages: Persian Dialects and Varieties, Persian Language, Tajik Language, Dari, Persianate Society, Tajik Alphabet, Old Persia. General Books. ISBN 9781230641287.
31. ^ Moridi, Behzad (2009). "The Dialects of Lar (The State of Research)". Iran & the Caucasus. 13 (2): 335–340\. doi:10.1163/157338410X12625876281389. ISSN 1609-8498. JSTOR 25703812. Archived from the original on 2022-01-03. Retrieved 2020-12-10.
32. ^ Brzezinski, Richard; Mielczarek, Mariusz (2002). The Sarmatians, 600 BC-AD 450. Osprey Publishing. p. 39\. "(..) Indeed, it is now accepted that the Sarmatians merged in with pre-Slavic populations."
33. ^ Adams, Douglas Q. (1997). Encyclopedia of Indo-European Culture. Taylor & Francis. p. 523\. "(..) In their Ukrainian and Polish homeland the Slavs were intermixed and at times overlain by Germanic speakers (the Goths) and by Iranian speakers (Scythians, Sarmatians, Alans) in a shifting array of tribal and national configurations."
34. ^ Atkinson, Dorothy; et al. (1977). Women in Russia. Stanford University Press. p. 3. ISBN 9780804709101. "(..) Ancient accounts link the Amazons with the Scythians and the Sarmatians, who successively dominated the south of Russia for a millennium extending back to the seventh century B.C. The descendants of these peoples were absorbed by the Slavs who came to be known as Russians."
35. ^ Slovene Studies. Vol. 9–11\. Society for Slovene Studies. 1987. p. 36\. "(..) For example, the ancient Scythians, Sarmatians (amongst others), and many other attested but now extinct peoples were assimilated in the course of history by Proto-Slavs."

## Bibliography

[edit]

* Bailey, H. W. (1979). Dictionary of Khotan Saka. Cambridge University Press. 1979. 1st Paperback edition 2010. ISBN 978-0-521-14250-2.
* Schmitt, Rüdiger, ed. (1989). Compendium Linguarum Iranicarum (in German). Wiesbaden: Reichert. ISBN 978-3-88226-413-5.
* Sims-Williams, Nicholas (1996). "Iranian languages". Encyclopedia Iranica. Vol. 7\. Costa Mesa: Mazda. pp. 238–245.
* Yarshater, Ehsan, ed. (1996). "Iran". Encyclopedia Iranica. Vol. 7\. Costa Mesa: Mazda.
* Frye, Richard N. (1996). "Peoples of Iran". Encyclopedia Iranica. Vol. 7\. Costa Mesa: Mazda.
* Windfuhr, Gernot L. (1995). "Cases in Iranian languages and dialects". Encyclopedia Iranica. Vol. 5\. Costa Mesa: Mazda. pp. 25–37.
* Windfuhr, Gernot (2012). The Iranian languages. Routledge Taylor and Francis Group.
* Lazard, Gilbert (1996). "Dari". Encyclopedia Iranica. Vol. 7\. Costa Mesa: Mazda.
* Henning, Walter B. (1954). "The Ancient language of Azarbaijan". Transactions of the Philological Society. 53 (1): 157–177\. doi:10.1111/j.1467-968X.1954.tb00282.x.
* Rezakhani, Khodadad (2001). "The Iranian Language Family". Archived from the original on 2004-10-09.
* Skjærvø, Prods Oktor (2006). "Iran, vi. Iranian languages and scripts". Encyclopædia Iranica. Vol. 13.
* Delshad, Farshid (2010). Georgica et Irano-Semitica (PDF). Ars Poetica. Deutscher Wissenschaftsverlag DWV. ISBN 978-3-86888-004-5.
* Mallory, J. P.; Adams, Douglas Q. (2006). The Oxford introduction to Proto-Indo-European and the Proto-Indo-European world. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-929668-2.
* Toroghdar, Zia (2018). "From Astara to Fuman: Comparison words from dialects of different languages Talysh and Tatic". Farhang-e Ilia. pp. 38–172.

## Further reading

[edit]

* Sokolova, V. S. "New information on the phonetics of Iranic languages." Trudy Instituta jazykoznanija NN SSR (Moskva) 1 (1952): 178–192.
* Jügel, Thomas. "Word-order variation in Middle Iranic: Persian, Parthian, Bactrian, and Sogdian." Word order variation: Semitic, Turkic, and Indo-European languages in contact, Studia Typologica [STTYP] 31 (2022): 39–62.

## External links

[edit]

* Areal developments in the history of Iranic: West vs. East Martin Kummel, Department of Indo-European linguistics, University of Jena
* Society for Iranian Linguistics
* Kurdish and other Iranic Languages
* Iranian EFL Journal (Archived 2019-01-22 at the Wayback Machine)
* Iranian language tree in Russian, identical with above classification.
* Old Iranian Online by Scott L. Harvey and Jonathan Slocum, free online lessons at the Linguistics Research Center at the University of Texas at Austin

* v
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Indo-European languages (list)

Albanoid|

* Albanian
* Messapic
* Illyrian?

Anatolian|

* Hittite
* Lydian
* Palaic

Luwic|

* Carian
* Luwian
* Lycian
* Milyan
* Pisidian
* Sidetic
* Kalasmaic?

Balto-Slavic|

| Baltic|

* Dnieper-Oka
* Golyad
* East Baltic
* West Baltic

|

Slavic|

* East Slavic
* South Slavic
* West Slavic

Celtic|

| Hispano-Celtic|

* Celtiberian
* Gallaecian

|

Nuclear Celtic|

* Continental Celtic
* Insular Celtic

Germanic|

* East Germanic
* North Germanic
* West Germanic

Hellenic|

* Ancient Macedonian
* Greek

Indo-Iranian|

* Indo-Aryan
* Iranian
* Nuristani
* Badeshi (unclassified)

Italic|

* Latino-Faliscan
* Romance
* Osco-Umbrian
* Siculian
* Belgic?

Tocharian|

* Tocharian A
* Tocharian B
* Tocharian C

Others|

* Armenian

| Unclassified|

* Dacian
* Dardanian
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* Philistine?

|

Proto-languages|

* Proto-Indo-European
* Proto-Albanian
* Proto-Anatolian
* Proto-Armenian
* Proto-Balto-Slavic
* Proto-Baltic
* Proto-Slavic
* Proto-Celtic
* Proto-Germanic
* Proto-Norse
* Proto-Hellenic
* Proto-Indo-Iranian
* Proto-Indo-Aryan
* Proto-Iranian
* Proto-Nuristani
* Proto-Italic
* Proto-Romance
* Proto-Tocharian

Italics indicate extinct languages

* v
* t
* e

Iranian languages

History|

* Proto-Iranian
* Old Iranian
* Middle Iranian
* New Iranian

Eastern|

| Pamir|

* Ishkashimi
* Khufi
* Munji
* Rushani
* Sanglechi
* Sarghulami
* Shughni
* Bartangi
* Khufi
* Oroshori
* Sarikoli
* Vanji
* Wakhi
* Yazghulami
* Yidgha

|

Scythian/Northern|

* Eastern
* Khwarezmian
* Saka
* Wakhi
* Sogdian
* Yaghnobi
* Western
* Alanic
* Ossetian
* Digor
* Iron
* Jassic
* Cimmerian
* Pontic Scythian

Others|

* Bactrian
* Parachi
* Pashto
* Central
* Northern
* Southern
* Wanetsi
* Ormuri

Western|

| North|

* Ashtiani
* Balochi
* Koroshi
* Makrani
* Daylami
* Fars
* Gazi
* Judeo-Esfahani
* Gilaki
* Eastern Gilaki
* Galeshi
* Western Gilaki
* Gorgani
* Gozarkhani
* Judeo-Hamedani–Borujerdi
* Kajali
* Karan
* Karingani
* Kavir
* Khunsari
* Kurdish
* Abduyi
* Kurmanji
* Laki
* Sorani
* Hewlêrî
* Xwarin
* Kalhor
* Kordali
* Korouni
* Mazanderani
* Tabaroid
* Median
* Razi
* Natanzi
* Nayini
* Old Azeri
* Parthian
* Razajerdi
* Semnani
* Lasgerdi
* Sangsari
* Semnani proper
* Sorkhei
* Shahrudi
* Sivandi
* Soi
* Abuzaydabadi
* Judeo-Kashani
* Talysh
* Tati
* Alviri-Vidari
* Harzandi
* Kilit
* Kho'ini
* Maraghei
* Tatoid
* Vafsi
* Zaza–Gorani
* Gorani
* Shabaki
* Zaza
* Zoroastrian Dari

|

South|

* Achomi
* Judeo-Shirazi
* Bashkardi
* Garmsiri
* Khargi
* Khuzestani Persian
* Dezfuli
* Shushtari
* Kuhmareyi
* Kumzari
* Luri
* Bakhtiari
* Northern Luri
* Southern Luri
* Mamasani
* Old Kazeruni
* Old Persian
* Middle Persian
* Persian
* Aimaq
* Dari
* Hazaragi
* Sistani
* Dehwari
* Iranian
* Basseri
* Esfahani
* Kermanshahi
* Khorasani
* Kuwaiti
* Tehrani
* Judeo-Persian
* Pahlavani
* Tajik
* Bukharian
* Caucasian Tat
* Armeno-Tat
* Judeo-Tat
* Northwestern Fars

Others|

* Avestan
* Badeshi (unclassified)

* Italics indicate extinct or historical languages.
* Languages between parentheses are varieties of the language on their left.

* v
* t
* e

Iranian peoples

Ethnic groups|

* Achomis
* Aimaqs
* Balochs
* Baloch tribes
* Bashkardis
* Dehwaris
* Farsiwan
* Gilaks
* Kumzaris
* Kurds
* Kurdish tribes
* Yazidis
* Lurs
* Bakhtiaris
* Shehnis
* Feyli Lurs
* Hadavand
* Hasanvand
* Southern Lurs
* Mamasanis
* Mazanderanis
* Ossetians
* Digors
* Irons
* Kudars
* Jaszs
* Pamiris
* Chinese Tajiks
* Shughnis
* Badzhuis
* Oroshoris
* Wakhis
* Yidgha–Munji
* Pashtuns
* Pashtun tribes
* Persians
* Arab-Persians
* Banderis
* Basseries
* Sistanis
* Semnanis
* Shabaks
* Tajiks
* Talyshs
* Tats of the Caucasus
* Tats of Iran
* Yaghnobis
* Zazas

Related ethnic groups|

* Ajam of Bahrain
* 'Ajam of Kuwait
* Iranians in the United Arab Emirates
* Iranians in Qatar
* Armeno-Tats
* Bukharan Jews
* Hazaras
* Persian Jews
* Shihuh

Ancient peoples|

* Ancient Iranian peoples
* Arya

Origin|

* Indo-Iranians
* Proto-Indo-Europeans

Languages|

* Iranian languages

Iranian religions|

* Proto-Indo-Iranian paganism
* Ancient Iranian religion
* Assianism
* Bábism
* Baháʼí Faith
* Khurramites
* Manichaeism
* Mazdakism
* Mazdaznan
* Scythian
* Yarsanism
* Yazidism
* Zoroastrianism

* v
* t
* e

Persian language

History|

* Proto-Indo-European (c. 3000 BCE)
* Proto-Indo-Iranian (c. 2000 BCE)
* Proto-Iranian (c. 1500 BCE)
* Old Persian (c. 525 – 300 BCE)
* Middle Persian (c. 300 BCE – 800 CE)
* New Persian (from 800)

Language families|

* Indo-Iranian languages
* Iranian languages
* Western Iranian languages

Dialects and varieties|

* Standard Persian
* Iranian
* Afghan
* Tajik
* Hazaragi
* Aimaq
* Kuwaiti Persian
* Tat
* Judeo-Persian
* Judeo-Tat (Juhuri)
* Bukhori
* Sistani
* Dehwari

Language features|

* Vocabulary
* Nouns
* Verbs
* Phonology

Grammar|

* Persian grammar
* Ezāfe
* Tajik grammar

Writing system|

* Old Persian cuneiform
* Pahlavi scripts
* Persian alphabet
* Persian calligraphy
* Tajik alphabet
* Romanized Persian alphabet
* Persian Braille

Literature|

* Persian literature
* Middle Persian literature
* Tajik literature

Organizations|

* Academy of Persian Language and Literature
* Academy of Sciences of Afghanistan
* Rudaki Institute of Language and Literature

Other topics|

* List of English words of Persian origin
* List of French loanwords in Persian
* List of countries and territories where Persian is an official language
* Persian language in South Asia

Authority control databases

National|

* Germany
* United States
* France
* BnF data
* Czech Republic
* Latvia
* Israel

Other|

* Yale LUX

*[est.]: estimation
*[v]: View this template
*[t]: Discuss this template
*[e]: Edit this template
*[c.]: circa