Irish Catholics

Ethnoreligious group native to Ireland

This article is about the cultural group. For the newspaper, see The Irish Catholic. For the church, see Catholic Church in Ireland.

Ethnic group

Irish Catholics

Caitlicigh na hÉireann

Celtic cross, a symbol associated with Irish Catholicism

Total population
~4.6 million (Ireland)
~55–60 million worldwide (notably in United States, Canada, Australia)
Regions with significant populations
Republic of Ireland| 3,900,000[1]
Northern Ireland| 820,000[2]
United States| ~20,000,000[3][4]
Canada| 4,800,000[5]
United Kingdom (excl. Northern Ireland)| 400,000[6]
Australia| 7,200,000[7]
Argentina| ~500,000[8]
New Zealand| 600,000[9]
France| 15,000[10]
Languages
English (Irish, American, Canadian, British, Australian, New Zealander), Irish, Spanish (Argentine), French (Canadian French)
Religion
Catholic Christianity
Related ethnic groups
Irish people, Irish diaspora, Irish Travellers, Irish Americans, Irish Canadians, Irish Australians, Irish New Zealanders, Irish Britons, Irish Argentines, Irish French

Irish Catholics (Irish: Caitlicigh na hÉireann) are an ethnoreligious group native to Ireland, defined by their adherence to Catholic Christianity and their shared Irish ethnic, linguistic, and cultural heritage.[11][12] The term distinguishes Catholics of Irish descent, particularly in contexts of national identity, political history, and diaspora, from other Catholic populations globally.

They constitute the majority population in the Republic of Ireland, where approximately 3.9 million people identified as Catholic in the 2022 census,[13] and a significant minority in Northern Ireland, with around 820,000 adherents.[14] The Irish diaspora has established Irish Catholic communities worldwide, particularly in the United States, Canada, Australia, and the United Kingdom, where they have played a major role in shaping cultural, religious, and political landscapes.[15][16]

Historically, Irish Catholics experienced systemic discrimination, especially under British rule, through the imposition of Penal Laws in the 17th and 18th centuries that restricted their political, social, and economic rights.[17] The Great Famine (1845–1852) accelerated mass emigration, leading to the growth of Irish Catholic communities abroad.[18] In countries such as the United States and Australia, Irish Catholics often faced anti-Catholic prejudice but gradually gained political influence, producing prominent leaders such as U.S. Presidents John F. Kennedy and Joe Biden. Irish Catholicism has also contributed to global Catholic culture, notably through traditions like Saint Patrick's Day.[19]

## Definition and identity

[edit]

Irish Catholics are characterised by their dual identity as both adherents of the Catholic Church and members of the Irish ethnic group. This ethnoreligious identity combines religious devotion with cultural elements such as the Irish language, Gaelic traditions, and a shared history of resilience against oppression.[20] Unlike Irish Protestants, who often aligned with British identity, Irish Catholics historically identified with Irish nationalism, particularly in opposition to British rule.[21]The Catholic Church has been a cornerstone of this identity, providing spiritual guidance, education through Catholic schools, and community cohesion, especially during periods of persecution.[22]

In Ireland, the Church historically shaped social norms, influencing marriage, education, and morality. In the diaspora, Irish Catholics maintained their faith through parish networks and cultural practices, such as devotion to saints like Saint Patrick.[23] While the influence of Catholicism in Ireland has waned due to secularisation and church scandals, the ethnoreligious identity remains strong among diaspora communities, where it is expressed through festivals, literature, and political activism.[24]

## History

[edit]

### Early history and the Reformation

[edit]

Catholicism in Ireland traces its roots to the 5th century, with the arrival of Christianity attributed to Saint Patrick. By the Middle Ages, Ireland was a center of Celtic Christianity, characterised by monastic traditions and distinct practices, though aligned with the Roman Catholic Church.[25] The English Reformation in the 16th century disrupted this, as English rule imposed Protestantism, confiscating Catholic lands and suppressing monasteries.[26]: 67–89 Irish Catholics resisted, maintaining their faith through clandestine practices, setting the stage for centuries of religious and political conflict.[27]

### Penal Laws and Catholic Emancipation

[edit]

From 1695, the Penal Laws restricted Catholic rights, barring them from owning land, holding public office, or practicing their religion openly.[26]: 67–89 Catholics adapted through hedge schools and secret Masses at Mass rocks, preserving their faith and culture.[28] The campaign for Catholic Emancipation, led by Daniel O'Connell, culminated in the Catholic Relief Act of 1829, restoring many rights and enabling greater political participation.[29]

### Great Famine and emigration

[edit]

The Great Famine (1845–1852) killed over a million and drove millions to emigrate, primarily to the United States, Canada, and Australia.[30] Irish Catholics formed tight-knit communities abroad, building churches, schools, and mutual aid societies. Despite facing anti-Catholic prejudice, such as the Know Nothing movement in the U.S., they preserved their ethnoreligious identity.[31]

### Home Rule, independence, and the Troubles

[edit]

Irish Catholics were central to the push for Home Rule and Irish independence, with figures like Charles Stewart Parnell and Éamon de Valera advocating for self-governance.[32] The Easter Rising of 1916 and the subsequent Irish War of Independence were heavily Catholic-driven, leading to the establishment of the Irish Free State in 1922.[33] In Northern Ireland, the Troubles (1960s–1998) saw Irish Catholics face discrimination and violence, though the Good Friday Agreement of 1998 reduced tensions.[34]

### Modern era

[edit]

Since the 1990s, the influence of the Catholic Church in Ireland has significantly declined due to increasing secularisation and a series of high-profile scandals, including revelations about the Magdalene Laundries and widespread clerical abuse. These events have led to a substantial erosion of public trust in the Church.[35][36][37] For instance, the 2022 census reported that 69.1% of the population identified as Catholic, a notable decrease from previous decades.[38]

Despite this decline within Ireland, Irish Catholic identity remains robust among diaspora communities. This identity is preserved and expressed through various cultural festivals, community organisations, and religious practices.[39][40][41][42]

Events such as Saint Patrick's Day parades, Irish music and dance festivals, and Gaelic language classes serve as focal points for cultural expression and community cohesion among Irish emigrants and their descendants.[43]

Organisations like the Ancient Order of Hibernians and cultural centres such as the Irish Cultural Society of San Antonio play pivotal roles in maintaining Irish Catholic traditions abroad. These institutions organise events, provide educational resources, and foster a sense of community among the Irish diaspora.[44]

Furthermore, initiatives like Ireland Reaching Out have been instrumental in connecting the global Irish diaspora with their ancestral roots. By facilitating genealogical research and organising cultural exchange programmes, such initiatives help sustain Irish Catholic identity across generations and geographies.[45]

## Global diaspora

[edit]

### United States

[edit]

The U.S. hosts the largest Irish Catholic diaspora, with approximately 20 million Americans claiming Irish ancestry and Catholic faith.[15] Mass immigration during the Famine established communities in cities like New York City, Boston, and Chicago, where Irish Catholics faced anti-Catholic prejudice but built influential institutions, such as St. Patrick's Cathedral, New York.[46] Irish Catholics shaped American politics, supporting the Democratic Party and labor movements, and produced leaders like Presidents John F. Kennedy and Joe Biden.[47]

### Canada

[edit]

Canada’s 4.8 million Irish Catholics, concentrated in Ontario, Quebec, and Newfoundland and Labrador, descend from Famine-era migrants.[48] They influenced Quebec’s Catholic institutions and Newfoundland’s distinct Irish culture, contributing figures like Thomas D’Arcy McGee.[49]

### Australia

[edit]

Australia’s 7.2 million Irish Catholics, many descended from convicts and Famine migrants, have shaped the nation’s education and labor systems.[16] Figures like Daniel Mannix, Archbishop of Melbourne, were pivotal in advocating for Catholic rights.[50] Saint Patrick’s Day celebrations remain a major cultural event.[16]

### Other regions

[edit]

In Argentina, around 500,000 Irish Catholics, primarily in Buenos Aires, maintain cultural ties through Gaelic sports and Catholic parishes.[51] New Zealand’s 600,000 Irish Catholics, concentrated on the West Coast, contributed to mining and labor movements.[52] Smaller communities exist in the United Kingdom (400,000) and France (15,000), often integrated but retaining cultural markers.[53][54]

## Culture and traditions

[edit]

Irish Catholic culture blends religious devotion with Irish heritage, expressed through festivals, literature, and community life. Saint Patrick’s Day, celebrated globally, is a hallmark of Irish Catholic identity, featuring parades, religious services, and cultural displays.[55] Devotions to saints, such as Saint Patrick and Our Lady of Knock, and practices like the Rosary are central to religious life.[56] The Irish language and Gaelic traditions, including music and dance, remain vibrant, especially in Ireland and diaspora communities.[57]

Irish Catholics have contributed significantly to global literature, with writers like James Joyce, Seamus Heaney, and Edna O’Brien exploring themes of faith and identity.[58] In the diaspora, cultural organisations, such as the Ancient Order of Hibernians, preserve Irish Catholic heritage through social and charitable activities.[23]

## Socio-political impact

[edit]

Irish Catholics have been pivotal in Irish nationalism, with leaders like Daniel O'Connell and Éamon de Valera advocating for self-determination.[59] In the diaspora, they influenced politics, notably supporting the Democratic Party in the U.S. and labor movements in Australia.[60] In Northern Ireland, Irish Catholics played a key role in the civil rights movement and the peace process.[61]

## Discrimination and controversies faced by Irish Catholics

[edit]

Irish Catholics have faced significant discrimination and controversies, shaped by religious, political, and social tensions in Ireland and the diaspora. This section examines key instances of discrimination, including the Penal Laws, sectarian biases, and anti-Catholic prejudice, alongside controversies such as Catholic Church scandals and sectarian conflicts.[26]: 123–129 [30]

### Discrimination

[edit]

#### Penal Laws (1695–1829)

[edit]

The Penal Laws, enacted under British rule, restricted Irish Catholics' rights, prohibiting land ownership, public office, voting, and open religious practice.[26]: 123–129 Catholics relied on clandestine "hedge schools" and secret Masses at "Mass rocks" to preserve their faith.[62] The laws marginalised Catholics economically and politically until the Catholic Relief Act of 1829, driven by Daniel O'Connell's campaign, restored many rights.[63]

#### Sectarian discrimination in Northern Ireland

[edit]

In Northern Ireland, Irish Catholics faced systemic discrimination, particularly in employment and housing, under Protestant-majority governance.[64] A 1987 survey found 80% of workforces were predominantly one denomination, with 20% overwhelmingly uni-denominational.[65] Housing was highly segregated, with 92.5% of public housing religiously divided by 2004, rising to 98% in Belfast.[66] The 1960s civil rights movement sought to address these inequities, but tensions persisted until the Good Friday Agreement (1998).[61]

#### Anti-Catholic prejudice in the diaspora

[edit]

In the United States, Irish Catholic immigrants faced intense anti-Catholic sentiment, particularly during the Great Famine (1845–1852).[30] The Know Nothing movement targeted Catholics, leading to violence, such as the St. Mary’s Church in New York and 1844 Philadelphia riots, which killed thirteen.[67] "No Irish Need Apply" signs reflected job discrimination.[68]

In Australia, Irish Catholics, often convicts or famine migrants, faced prejudice from the Anglo-Protestant majority, though they later gained influence.[69]

In Great Britain, particularly in cities such as Liverpool, Irish Catholics faced widespread discrimination, including physical violence and exclusion from employment based on their names or accents.[70][71] In Glasgow, sectarian tensions were further inflamed by football rivalries, notably between Celtic and Rangers, which deepened hostility and reinforced anti-Irish Catholic sentiment.[72]

Discrimination faced by Irish Catholics by region  Region | Key examples | Period

|
|

Ireland | Penal Laws: barred land ownership, public office | 1695–1829
Northern Ireland | Employment and housing segregation, Protestant preference | 20th century
United States | Church burnings, riots, "No Irish Need Apply" signs | 19th century
Australia/Great Britain | Prejudice, job barring, physical attacks | 19th–20th century

### Controversies

[edit]

#### Catholic Church scandals

[edit]

The Catholic Church in Ireland has faced major controversies, particularly since the 1990s. The Magdalene Laundries, operating from the 18th to 20th centuries, subjected unmarried mothers to harsh labour and abuse, drawing widespread condemnation when exposed.[73] Clerical abuse scandals revealed widespread child sexual abuse by clergy, with institutional cover-ups further eroding trust.[74] Mass attendance fell from 91% in 1975 to 36% in 2016, reflecting secularisation.[75] The 2022 census reported 69.1% of Ireland’s population as Catholic, a decline from previous decades.[76]

#### Social and political stances

[edit]

The Church’s opposition to divorce, abortion, and same-sex marriage sparked controversy, clashing with Ireland’s growing secular values.[77] Voters approved same-sex marriage in 2015 and repealed the abortion ban in 2018, rejecting Church positions.[78][79][80] The Church’s historical control over 90% of state-funded primary schools and institutions like mother-and-baby homes, where children faced neglect, further fuelled debate.[77]

#### Sectarian conflicts

[edit]

In Northern Ireland, sectarian tensions during the Troubles (1960s–1998) were a major controversy. Irish Catholic involvement in republican groups like the IRA was divisive, viewed as resistance by some and terrorism by others.[61] Protestant Orange Order marches through Catholic areas often provoked conflict.[81] The Good Friday Agreement reduced violence, but tensions persist.[61]

Controversies involving Irish Catholics  Type | Key examples | Impact

|
|

Church scandals | Magdalene Laundries, clerical abuse, cover-ups | Secularisation, trust erosion
Social/political | Opposition to divorce, abortion, same-sex marriage | Voter rejection, legal reforms
Sectarian | Troubles, IRA involvement, Orange Order conflicts | Community tensions, peace process

### Broader implications

[edit]

Discrimination and controversies have shaped Irish Catholic identity, fostering resilience but also secularisation. In Ireland, the Church’s influence has waned, while diaspora communities maintain cultural ties through festivals and organisations.[82] Historical struggles, such as those of U.S. Presidents John F. Kennedy and Joe Biden, highlight eventual acceptance in some regions.[83]

## Demographics

[edit]

The following table summarizes the estimated Irish Catholic population worldwide, based on recent census data and scholarly estimates:

Irish Catholic Population by Region  Region | Population | Source

|
|

Republic of Ireland | 3,900,000 | [13]
Northern Ireland | 820,000 | [14]
United States | ~20,000,000 | [15][84]
Canada | 4,800,000 | [48]
Australia | 7,200,000 | [16]
United Kingdom (excl. Northern Ireland) | 400,000 | [53]
Argentina | ~500,000 | [51]
New Zealand | 600,000 | [85]
France | 15,000 | [54]

## Notable figures

[edit]

Prominent Irish Catholics include:

* Daniel O'Connell (1775–1847), leader of Catholic Emancipation.[59]
* Éamon de Valera (1882–1975), President and Taoiseach of Ireland.[86]
* James Joyce (1882–1941), novelist exploring Irish Catholic identity.[87]
* John F. Kennedy (1917–1963), first Irish Catholic U.S. President.[88]
* Daniel Mannix (1864–1963), influential Australian archbishop.[89]

## See also

[edit]

* Catholic Church in Ireland
* Celtic Christianity
* Irish Americans
* Irish Canadians
* Irish Australians
* Penal Laws
* Saint Patrick's Day
* The Troubles

## References

[edit]

1. ^ "Census 2022: Religion". Central Statistics Office (Ireland). 2023-05-30. Retrieved 2025-06-05.
2. ^ "Census 2021: Religion". Northern Ireland Statistics and Research Agency. 2022-09-22. Retrieved 2025-06-05.
3. ^ "2020 American Community Survey: Ancestry". U.S. Census Bureau. 2021. Retrieved 2025-06-05.
4. ^ Carroll, Michael P. (2006). "How the Irish Became Protestant in America". Religion and American Culture. 16 (1). University of California Press: 25–54\. doi:10.1525/rac.2006.16.1.25. JSTOR 10.1525/rac.2006.16.1.25.
5. ^ "Census Profile, 2021 Census: Ethnic Origin". Statistics Canada. 2022-10-26. Retrieved 2025-06-05.
6. ^ "Ethnic Group and National Identity, 2021 Census". Office for National Statistics. 2022-11-29. Retrieved 2025-06-05.
7. ^ "Cultural Diversity: Census, 2021". Australian Bureau of Statistics. 2022-06-28. Retrieved 2025-06-05.
8. ^ Murray, Edmundo (2006). Becoming Irlandés: Private Narratives of the Irish Emigration to Argentina, 1844–1912. L.O.L.A. ISBN 978-9509725430.
9. ^ "Ethnic Group Summaries, 2023 Census". Stats NZ. 2024-06-10. Retrieved 2025-06-05.
10. ^ "France–Ireland Relations". France Diplomatie. Retrieved 2025-06-05.
11. ^ Evans, Jocelyn; Tonge, Jonathan (2013). "Catholic, Irish and Nationalist: Evaluating the Importance of Ethno-national and Ethno-religious Variables in Determining Nationalist Political Allegiance in Northern Ireland". Nations and Nationalism. 19 (2): 357–375\. doi:10.1111/nana.12005.
12. ^ Maher, Eamon (2014). "Deciphering Irish Catholic Identities: Past and Present". Studies: An Irish Quarterly Review. 103 (411): 275–285.
13. ^ a b "Census 2022: Religion". Central Statistics Office (Ireland). 2023-05-30. Retrieved 2025-06-05.
14. ^ a b "Census 2021: Religion". Northern Ireland Statistics and Research Agency. 2022-09-22. Retrieved 2025-06-05.
15. ^ a b c "2020 American Community Survey: Ancestry". U.S. Census Bureau. 2021. Retrieved 2025-06-05.
16. ^ a b c d "Cultural Diversity: Census, 2021". Australian Bureau of Statistics. 2022-06-28. Retrieved 2025-06-05.
17. ^ Bartlett, Thomas (2010). Ireland: A History. Cambridge University Press. pp. 123–129\. ISBN 978-0521197205.
18. ^ Kenny, Kevin (2000). The American Irish: A History. Longman. pp. 69–84\. ISBN 978-0582278172.
19. ^ McCaffrey, Lawrence J. (1997). The Irish Catholic Diaspora in America. Catholic University of America Press. pp. 145–167\. ISBN 978-0813208961.
20. ^ Evans, Jocelyn; Tonge, Jonathan (2013). "Catholic, Irish and Nationalist". Nations and Nationalism. 19 (2): 357–375\. doi:10.1111/nana.12005.
21. ^ Nicolson, Murray W. (1983). "Irish Tridentine Catholicism in Victorian Toronto: Vessel for Ethno-religious Persistence" (PDF). CCHA Study Sessions. 50 (2): 415–436\. doi:10.7202/1007214ar. Retrieved 5 June 2025.
22. ^ Barr, Colin (2020). Ireland's Empire: The Roman Catholic Church in the English-Speaking World, 1829–1914. Cambridge University Press. pp. 22–45\. ISBN 978-1139644327.
23. ^ a b McCaffrey, Lawrence J. (1997). The Irish Catholic Diaspora in America. Catholic University of America Press. pp. 56–78\. ISBN 978-0813208961.
24. ^ "Global Views on the Catholic Church". Pew Research Center. 2020-03-30. Retrieved 2025-06-05.
25. ^ O’Loughlin, Thomas (2000). Celtic Theology: Humanity, World, and God in Early Irish Writings. Continuum. pp. 15–30\. ISBN 978-0826448712.
26. ^ a b c d Bartlett, Thomas (2010). Ireland: A History. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0521197205.
27. ^ Connolly, S.J. (1992). Religion, Law, and Power: The Making of Protestant Ireland, 1660–1760. Oxford University Press. pp. 34–56\. ISBN 978-0198205876.
28. ^ McGrath, Charles Ivar (2012). Ireland and Empire, 1690–1800. Routledge. pp. 102–118\. ISBN 978-0415277570.
29. ^ O’Ferrall, Fergus (1985). Catholic Emancipation: Daniel O'Connell and the Birth of Irish Democracy. Gill & Macmillan. pp. 200–225\. ISBN 978-0717114610.
30. ^ a b c Kenny, Kevin (2000). The American Irish: A History. Longman. pp. 69–84\. ISBN 978-0582278172.
31. ^ Anbinder, Tyler (1992). Nativism and Slavery: The Northern Know Nothings and the Politics of the 1850s. Oxford University Press. pp. 45–67\. ISBN 978-0195072334.
32. ^ Lyons, F.S.L. (1973). Ireland Since the Famine. Fontana. pp. 180–210\. ISBN 978-0006332008.
33. ^ Townshend, Charles (2006). Easter 1916: The Irish Rebellion. Penguin. pp. 120–145\. ISBN 978-0141000664.
34. ^ Coogan, Tim Pat (2002). The Troubles: Ireland's Ordeal and the Search for Peace. Palgrave. pp. 90–115\. ISBN 978-0312294182.
35. ^ Nelson, Emily (20 March 2025). "The Catholic crisis in Ireland: Reasons to remain hopeful". The Irish Catholic. Retrieved 5 June 2025.
36. ^ "Infographic: Catholic identity in Ireland in a rapid fall". America Magazine. 15 February 2024. Retrieved 5 June 2025.
37. ^ O'Toole, Fintan (23 August 2018). "It's too late. Not even Pope Francis can resurrect Catholic Ireland". The Guardian. Retrieved 5 June 2025.
38. ^ "Census 2022: Number who identify as Catholic falls by 10 percentage points to 69%". The Irish Times. 30 May 2023. Retrieved 5 June 2025.
39. ^ McCaffrey, Lawrence J. (1997). The Irish Catholic Diaspora in America. Catholic University of America Press. ISBN 9780813208961. Retrieved 5 June 2025.
40. ^ "Irish Pubs and Restaurants - Irish In Los Angeles". Irish In Los Angeles. Retrieved 5 June 2025.
41. ^ "Liverpool Irish Festival". Liverpool Irish Festival. Retrieved 5 June 2025.
42. ^ "Saint Patrick's Day". Encyclopaedia Britannica. Retrieved 5 June 2025.
43. ^ "Irish Diaspora Directory". Diaspora Support Ireland. Retrieved 5 June 2025.
44. ^ "USA and Canada Diaspora Directory 2023" (PDF). Ireland.ie. Retrieved 5 June 2025.
45. ^ "Ireland Reaching Out". Ireland Reaching Out. Retrieved 5 June 2025.
46. ^ Anbinder, Tyler (2002). Five Points: The Nineteenth-Century New York City Neighborhood. Plume. pp. 88–110\. ISBN 978-0452283619.
47. ^ Kenny, Kevin (2013). "Abraham Lincoln and the American Irish". American Journal of Irish Studies: 39–64.
48. ^ a b "Census Profile, 2021 Census: Ethnic Origin". Statistics Canada. 2022-10-26. Retrieved 2025-06-05.
49. ^ Wilson, David A. (2011). Thomas D'Arcy McGee: The Extreme Moderate. McGill-Queen’s University Press. pp. 45–70\. ISBN 978-0773539037.
50. ^ Griffin, James (2012). Daniel Mannix: Beyond the Myths. Garratt Publishing. pp. 55–80\. ISBN 978-1921946233.
51. ^ a b Murray, Edmundo (2006). Becoming Irlandés: Private Narratives of the Irish Emigration to Argentina, 1844–1912. L.O.L.A. ISBN 978-9509725430.
52. ^ "Story: Irish". Te Ara - The Encyclopedia of New Zealand. Retrieved 2025-06-05.
53. ^ a b "Ethnic Group and National Identity, 2021 Census". Office for National Statistics. 2022-11-29. Retrieved 2025-06-05.
54. ^ a b "France–Ireland Relations". France Diplomatie. Retrieved 2025-06-05.
55. ^ "History of St. Patrick's Day". History.com. 2023-03-10. Retrieved 2025-06-05.
56. ^ Corish, Patrick (1985). The Irish Catholic Experience: A Historical Survey. Gill & Macmillan. pp. 150–175\. ISBN 978-0717113965.
57. ^ O’Connor, Nuala (2001). Bringing It All Back Home: The Influence of Irish Music. Merlin Publishing. pp. 22–40\. ISBN 978-1903582039.
58. ^ Kiberd, Declan (1997). Inventing Ireland: The Literature of the Modern Nation. Harvard University Press. pp. 200–230\. ISBN 978-0674463646.
59. ^ a b O’Ferrall, Fergus (1985). Catholic Emancipation: Daniel O'Connell and the Birth of Irish Democracy. Gill & Macmillan. pp. 200–225\. ISBN 978-0717114610.
60. ^ Erie, Steven P. (1988). Rainbow's End: Irish-Americans and the Dilemmas of Urban Machine Politics, 1840–1985. University of California Press. pp. 67–90\. ISBN 978-0520071834.
61. ^ a b c d Coogan, Tim Pat (2002). The Troubles: Ireland's Ordeal and the Search for Peace. Palgrave. pp. 90–115\. ISBN 978-0312294182.
62. ^ McGrath, Charles Ivar (2012). Ireland and Empire, 1690–1800. Routledge. pp. 102–118\. ISBN 978-0415277570.
63. ^ O’Ferrall, Fergus (1985). Catholic Emancipation: Daniel O'Connell and the Birth of Irish Democracy. Gill & Macmillan. pp. 200–225\. ISBN 978-0717114610.
64. ^ Coogan, Tim Pat (2002). The Troubles: Ireland's Ordeal and the Search for Peace. Palgrave. pp. 90–115\. ISBN 978-0312294182.
65. ^ Osborne, R.D. (1987). "Equality and Inequality in Northern Ireland". Journal of Social Policy. 16 (3): 287–309\. doi:10.1017/S004727940002043X (inactive 1 July 2025).`{{cite journal}}`: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of July 2025 (link)
66. ^ Segregation in Northern Ireland: A Spatial Analysis (Report). Northern Ireland Housing Executive. 2004. Retrieved 2025-06-12.
67. ^ "Religious Conflict and Discrimination". Library of Congress. Retrieved 2025-06-12.
68. ^ "When America Despised the Irish". History.com. 2023-03-16. Retrieved 2025-06-12.
69. ^ Griffin, James (2012). Daniel Mannix: Beyond the Myths. Garratt Publishing. pp. 55–80\. ISBN 978-1921946233.
70. ^ Kelly, Laura (18 June 2014). "The Irish, Politics and Sectarianism in Nineteenth‑Century Liverpool". University of Warwick – Centre for the History of Medicine. University of Warwick. Retrieved 12 June 2025.
71. ^ Day, Alexandra (18 January 2023). "No Blacks, No Dogs, No Irish: a short history of discrimination against Irish migrants". Rebel News. Retrieved 12 June 2025.
72. ^ Kelly, Kenny (15 March 2024). "The anti-Irish racism rooted in Scotland's elite". Counterfire. Retrieved 12 June 2025.
73. ^ Cosslett, Rhiannon Lucy (2025-04-13). "Ireland's mother-and-baby homes scandal". The Guardian. Retrieved 2025-06-12.
74. ^ "After Scandals, Ireland Is No Longer 'Most Catholic Country'". NPR. 2015-08-26. Retrieved 2025-06-12.
75. ^ "Irish Catholic Church in terminal decline". Euronews. 2023-02-02. Retrieved 2025-06-12.
76. ^ "Census 2022: Number who identify as Catholic falls". The Irish Times. 2023-05-30. Retrieved 2025-06-12.
77. ^ a b "The church brutalised Ireland". The Guardian. 2018-07-09. Retrieved 2025-06-12.
78. ^ Freytas‑Tamura, Kimiko de (26 May 2018). "Ireland Votes to End Abortion Ban, in Rebuke to Catholic Conservatism". The New York Times. Retrieved 13 June 2025.
79. ^ "Irish abortion referendum: Ireland overturns abortion ban". BBC News. 27 May 2018. Retrieved 13 June 2025.
80. ^ "Ireland quietly comes to terms with dramatic change after abortion vote". The Straits Times. June 2018. Retrieved 13 June 2025.
81. ^ "Orange Order marches stir Northern Ireland tensions". Reuters. 2017-07-13. Retrieved 2025-06-12.
82. ^ McCaffrey, Lawrence J. (1997). The Irish Catholic Diaspora in America. Catholic University of America Press. pp. 56–78\. ISBN 978-0813208961.
83. ^ Kenny, Kevin (2013). "Abraham Lincoln and the American Irish". American Journal of Irish Studies: 39–64.
84. ^ Carroll, Michael P. (2006). "How the Irish Became Protestant in America". Religion and American Culture. 16 (1). University of California Press: 25–54\. doi:10.1525/rac.2006.16.1.25. JSTOR 10.1525/rac.2006.16.1.25.
85. ^ "Story: Irish". Te Ara - The Encyclopedia of New Zealand. Retrieved 2025-06-05.
86. ^ Coogan, Tim Pat (1993). Éamon de Valera: The Man Who Was Ireland. HarperCollins. pp. 50–75\. ISBN 978-0060171216.
87. ^ Kiberd, Declan (1997). Inventing Ireland: The Literature of the Modern Nation. Harvard University Press. pp. 200–230\. ISBN 978-0674463646.
88. ^ Kenny, Kevin (2013). "Abraham Lincoln and the American Irish". American Journal of Irish Studies: 39–64.
89. ^ Griffin, James (2012). Daniel Mannix: Beyond the Myths. Garratt Publishing. pp. 55–80\. ISBN 978-1921946233.

## Further reading

[edit]

* Anbinder, Tyler (2002). Five Points: The Nineteenth-Century New York City Neighborhood. New York: Plume. ISBN 978-0452283619
* Barr, Colin (2020). Ireland's Empire: The Roman Catholic Church in the English-Speaking World, 1829–1914. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1139644327
* Kenny, Kevin (2000). The American Irish: A History. New York: Longman. ISBN 978-0582278172
* McCaffrey, Lawrence J. (1997). The Irish Catholic Diaspora in America. Washington, D.C.: Catholic University of America Press. ISBN 978-0813208961
* O’Connor, Thomas H. (1995). The Boston Irish: A Political History. Old Saybrook, CT: Konecky & Konecky. ISBN 978-1568526201

## External links

[edit]

* Library of Congress: Irish Immigration Collections
* Australian Bureau of Statistics: Cultural Diversity
* Te Ara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand – Irish