Islam in Pakistan

Role and impact of Islam in Pakistan

Pakistani Muslims
پاکستانی مسلمان

Eid Prayers at the Badshahi Mosque in Lahore

Total population
c. 231.69 million (2023 census)[1][2]
(96.35% of the population)
Regions with significant populations
Throughout Pakistan
Religions
Majority: 85-90% Sunni Muslims, Minority: 10-15% Shia Muslims[3]
Languages
Urdu, Punjabi, Saraiki, Sindhi, Pashto, Balochi

Islam in Pakistan[4]

1. Sunni Muslims (90.0%)
2. Shia Muslims (10.0%)

Islam in Pakistan

History

* Islamic conquest
* Arab settlement
* Islamic rule
* Mughal Empire
* Sectarianism

Major figures

* Muhammad ibn Qasim

* Hujwiri
* Baba Fareed
* Bulleh Shah
* Sultan Bahu
* Muhammad Iqbal
* Muhammad Ali Jinnah
* Shabbir Ahmad Usmani

Schools of thought

* Sunni
* Barelvi
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* Ahl-i Hadith
* Shi'a
* Sufism

Schools of law

* Hanafi
* Shia
* Shafi`i
* Maliki
* Hanbali

Mosques

* Faisal Mosque
* Mosques in Lahore (Badshahi)
* List of mosques in Pakistan

Political organisations / movements

* Tehreek-e-Labbaik Pakistan
* Pakistan Muslim League
* Jamiat Ulema-e-Islam
* Jamiat Ulema-e-Pakistan

* Jamaat-e-Islami
* Tehrik-e-Jafaria
* Jamiat Ahle Hadith
* Dawat e Islami
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* Sunni Tehreek

Culture
|  Architecture

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Literature

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Music

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* Ghazal

Other topics

* Ahle Sunnat Movement in South Asia
* Muslim nationalism in South Asia (Pakistani)
* Muslim chronicles for Indian history

* Islam portal
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* v
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Islam by country

World percentage of Muslims by country

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Islam portal

* v
* t
* e

Islam is the largest and the state religion of the Islamic Republic of Pakistan. Pakistan has over 231.69 million adherents of Islam (excluding the administrative territory of Azad Kashmir[5] and Gilgit Baltistan[6]) making it the second-largest Muslim population.[7][8][9] As much as 85-90% of the population follows Sunni Islam.[10] Most Pakistani Sunni Muslims belong to the Hanafi school of jurisprudence, which is represented by the Barelvi and Deobandi traditions.

About 97% of Pakistanis are Muslims.[10] The majority are Sunni (85-90%)[11][12][13][14][15] while Shias make up around 10-15%.[16][12][17][18][19][20] Smaller minority Muslim populations in Pakistan include Quranists, nondenominational Muslims.[21] There are also two Mahdi'ist based creeds practised in Pakistan, namely Mahdavia and Ahmadiyya,[22] the latter of whom are considered by the constitution of Pakistan to be non-Muslims; they jointly constitute less than 1% of the population.[23] Pakistan has the world's largest Muslim majority city (Karachi).[24]

## History

[edit]

### Before independence

[edit]

See also: Pakistan Movement

Islam had reached the Indian subcontinent during the lifetime of Muhammad. According to a tradition, Baba Ratan Hindi was a trader from Punjab who was one of the non-Arab companions of Muhammad.[25][26] In 644 AD, the Rashidun caliphate conquered Makran after defeating the kingdom of Sindh in the battle of Rasil. According to Derryl N. Maclean, a link between Sindh and early partisans of Ali or proto-Shi'ites can be traced to Hakim ibn Jabalah al-Abdi who traveled across Sind to Makran in the year 649 AD and presented a report on the area to the Caliph.[27] During the Caliphate of Ali, many Hindus of Sindh had come under influence of Islam and some even participated in the Battle of Camel. In 712 CE, a young Arab general Muhammad bin Qasim conquered most of the Indus region for the Caliphal empire, to be made the "As-Sindh" province with its capital at Al-Mansurah.[28][29][30][31][32] The Pakistan government's official chronology claims this as the time when the foundation of Pakistan was laid.[28][33][34] By the end of the 10th century CE, the region was ruled by several Hindu Shahi kings who would be subdued by the Ghaznavids.

Shah Jahan Mosque, Thatta was patronized by the Mughal Emperor Shah Jahan.

The early medieval period (642–1219 CE) witnessed the spread of Islam in the region. During this period, Sufi missionaries played a pivotal role in converting a majority of the regional Buddhist and Hindu population to Islam.[35] These developments set the stage for the rule of several successive Muslim empires in the region, including the Ghaznavid Empire (975–1187 CE), the Ghorid Kingdom, and the Delhi Sultanate (1206–1526 CE). The Lodi dynasty, the last of the Delhi Sultanate, was replaced by the Mughal Empire (1526–1857 CE).

A painting by Edwin Lord Weeks c. 1889 of the marketplace near Wazir Khan Mosque

### In independent Pakistan

[edit]

#### Nature of state

[edit]

The Muslim League leadership, ulama (Islamic clergy) and Jinnah had articulated their vision of Pakistan in terms of an Islamic state.[36] Muhammad Ali Jinnah had developed a close association with the ulama.[37] When Jinnah died, Islamic scholar Maulana Shabbir Ahmad Usmani described Jinnah as the greatest Muslim after the Mughal Emperor Aurangzeb and also compared Jinnah's death to the Muhammad's passing.[37] Usmani asked Pakistanis to remember Jinnah's message of Unity, Faith and Discipline and work to fulfil his dream:

> to create a solid bloc of all Muslim states from Karachi to Ankara, from Pakistan to Morocco. He [Jinnah] wanted to see the Muslims of the world united under the banner of Islam as an effective check against the aggressive designs of their enemies.[37]

The first formal step taken to transform Pakistan into an ideological Islamic state was in March 1949 when the country's first Prime Minister, Liaquat Ali Khan, introduced the Objectives Resolution in the Constituent Assembly.[38] The Objectives Resolution declared that sovereignty over the entire universe belongs to God.[39] The president of the Muslim League, Chaudhry Khaliquzzaman, announced that Pakistan would bring together all Muslim countries into Islamistan-a pan-Islamic entity.[40] Khaliq believed that Pakistan was only a Muslim state and was not yet an Islamic state, but that it could certainly become an Islamic state after bringing all believers of Islam into a single political unit.[41] Keith Callard, one of the earliest scholars on Pakistani politics, observed that Pakistanis believed in the essential unity of purpose and outlook in the Muslim world:

> Pakistan was founded to advance the cause of Muslims. Other Muslims might have been expected to be sympathetic, even enthusiastic. But this assumed that other Muslim states would take the same view of the relation between religion and nationality.[40]

However, Pakistan's pan-Islamist sentiments were not shared by other Muslim governments at the time. Nationalism in other parts of the Muslim world was based on ethnicity, language and culture.[40] Although Muslim governments were unsympathetic with Pakistan's pan-Islamic aspirations, Islamists from all over the world were drawn to Pakistan. Figures such as the Grand Mufti of Palestine, Al-Haj Amin al-Husseini, and leaders of Islamist political movements, such as the Muslim Brotherhood, became frequent visitors to the country.[42] After General Zia-ul-Haq took power in a military coup, Hizb ut-Tahrir (an Islamist group calling for the establishment of a Caliphate) expanded its organisational network and activities in Pakistan. Its founder, Taqi al-Din al-Nabhani, would maintain regular correspondence with Abul A’la Maududi, the founder of Jamaat-e-Islami (JI), and he also urged Dr. Israr Ahmed to continue his work in Pakistan for the establishment of a global caliphate.[43]

Social scientist Nasim Ahmad Jawed conducted a survey in 1969 in pre-divided Pakistan on the type of national identity that was used by educated professional people. He found that over 60% of people in East Pakistan (modern day Bangladesh) professed to have a secular national identity. However, in West Pakistan (current day Pakistan) the same figure professed to have an Islamic and not a secular identity. Furthermore, the same figure in East Pakistan defined their identity in terms of their ethnicity and not Islam. It was the opposite in West Pakistan, where Islam was stated to be more important than ethnicity.[44]

After Pakistan's first ever general elections the 1973 Constitution was created by an elected Parliament.[45] The Constitution declared Pakistan an Islamic Republic and Islam as the state religion. It also stated that all laws would have to be brought into accordance with the injunctions of Islam as laid down in the Quran and Sunnah and that no law repugnant to such injunctions could be enacted.[46] The 1973 Constitution also created certain institutions such as the Shariat Court and the Council of Islamic Ideology to channel the interpretation and application of Islam.[47]

#### Zia ul Haq's Islamization

[edit]

Main article: Muhammad Zia-ul-Haq's Islamization

On 5 July 1977, General Zia-ul-Haq led a coup d'état.[48] In the year or two before Zia-ul-Haq's coup, his predecessor, leftist Prime Minister Zulfikar Ali Bhutto, had faced vigorous opposition which was united under the revivalist banner of Nizam-e-Mustafa[49] ("Rule of the prophet"). According to supporters of the movement, establishing an Islamic state based on sharia law would mean a return to the justice and success of the early days of Islam when Muhammad ruled the Muslims.[50] In an effort to stem the tide of street Islamisation, Bhutto had also called for it and banned the drinking and selling of wine by Muslims, nightclubs and horse racing.[50][51]

Many diverse Islamic denominations are practised within Pakistan.

"Islamisation" was the "primary" policy,[52] or "centerpiece"[53] of his government. Zia-ul-Haq committed himself to establishing an Islamic state and enforcing sharia law.[50] Zia established separate Shariat judicial courts[47] and court benches[54][55] to judge legal cases using Islamic doctrine.[56] New criminal offences (of adultery, fornication, and types of blasphemy), and new punishments (of whipping, amputation, and stoning to death), were added to Pakistani law. Interest payments for bank accounts were replaced by "profit and loss" payments. Zakat charitable donations became a 2.5% annual tax. School textbooks and libraries were overhauled to remove un-Islamic material.[57] Offices, schools, and factories were required to offer praying space.[58] Zia bolstered the influence of the ulama (Islamic clergy) and the Islamic parties,[56] whilst conservative scholars became fixtures on television.[58] 10,000s of activists from the Jamaat-e-Islami party were appointed to government posts to ensure the continuation of his agenda after his passing.[50][56][59][60] Conservative ulama (Islamic scholars) were added to the Council of Islamic Ideology.[54] Separate electorates for Hindus and Christians were established in 1985 even though Christian and Hindu leaders complained that they felt excluded from the county's political process.[61]

Zia's state sponsored Islamization increased sectarian divisions in Pakistan between Sunnis and Shias and between Deobandis and Barelvis.[62] A solid majority of Barelvis had supported the creation of Pakistan,[63] and Barelvi ulama had also issued fatwas in support of the Pakistan Movement during the 1946 elections,[64][65] but ironically Islamic state politics in Pakistan was mostly in favour of Deobandi (and later Ahl-e-Hadith/Salafi) institutions.[66] This was despite the fact that only a few (although influential) Deobandi clerics had supported the Pakistan Movement.[66] Zia-ul-Haq forged a strong alliance between the military and Deobandi institutions.[66] In Pakistan, actors who have been identified by the state as moderate Sufis—such as the Barelwis, a movement founded in the 19th century in response to conservative reformers such as the Deobandis—mobilized after the government's call from 2009 onwards to save the soul of Pakistan from creeping “Talibanization.”[67]

Possible motivations for the Islamization programme included Zia's personal piety (most accounts agree that he came from a religious family),[68] desire to gain political allies, to "fulfill Pakistan's raison d'être" as a Muslim state, and/or the political need to legitimise what was seen by some Pakistanis as his "repressive, un-representative martial law regime".[69]

Until the government of General Muhammad Zia-ul-Haq, "Islamic activists" were frustrated by the lack of "teeth" to enforce Islamic law in Pakistan's constitution. For example, in the 1956 constitution, the state did not enforce "Islamic moral standards" but "endeavor[ed]" to make them compulsory and to "prevent" prostitution, gambling, consumption of alcoholic liquor, etc. Interest was to be eliminated "as soon as possible".[70][71]

According to Shajeel Zaidi a million people attended Zia ul Haq's funeral because he had given them what they wanted: more religion.[72] A PEW opinion poll found that 84% of Pakistanis favoured making Sharia the official law of the land.[73] According to the 2013 Pew Research Center report, the majority of Pakistani Muslims also support the death penalty for those who leave Islam (62%). In contrast, support for the death penalty for those who leave Islam was only 36% in fellow South Asian Muslim country Bangladesh (which shared heritage with Pakistan).[74] A 2010 opinion poll by PEW Research Centre also found that 87% of Pakistanis considered themselves 'Muslims first' rather than a member of their nationality. This was the highest figure amongst all Muslim populations surveyed. In contrast only 67% in Jordan, 59% in Egypt, 51% in Turkey, 36% in Indonesia and 71% in Nigeria considered themselves as 'Muslim first' rather than a member of their own nationality.[75]

"Islamic activists" such as much or the ulama (Islamic clerics) and Jamaat-e-Islami (Islamist party), support the expansion of "Islamic law and Islamic practices". "Islamic Modernists" are lukewarm to this expansion and "some may even advocate development along the secularist lines of the West."[76]

### Islamic way of life

[edit]

The mosque is an important religious as well as social institution in Pakistan.[77][78] Many rituals and ceremonies are celebrated according to Islamic calendar.

## Denominations

[edit]

Growth in the number of religious madrassahs in Pakistan from 1988 to 2002[79]

According to the CIA World Factbook and Oxford Centre for Islamic Studies, 96–97% of the total population of Pakistan is Muslim.[12][10]

### Sunni

[edit]

The majority of the Pakistani Muslims belong to Sunni Islam. Muslims belong to different schools which are called Madhahib (singular: Madhhab) i.e., schools of jurisprudence (also 'Maktab-e-Fikr' (School of Thought) in Urdu).) Estimates on the Sunni population in Pakistan range from 85% to 90%.[11][12][13][14][15]

The courtyard of Raiwind Markaz Mosque is near Lahore, a major Sunni Deobandi-affiliated Tablighi Jamaat center. The mosque hosts millions during the annual Ijtema. The famed Data Durbar shrine of Sufi saint Ali Hujweiri in Lahore is known for devotees from over the world.

#### Barelvi and Deobandi Sunni Muslims

[edit]

The two major Sunni sects in Pakistan are the Barelvi movement and Deobandi movement. Statistics regarding Pakistan's sects and sub-sects have been called "tenuous", but the Deobandi movement holds significant influence, particularly through its extensive network of madrasas.[80][81][82] Approximately 65% of Pakistan's Islamic seminaries are affiliated with the Deobandi school, compared to 25% associated with the Barelvi tradition.[83] This widespread educational infrastructure has enabled the Deobandi movement to play a pivotal role in shaping religious education and discourse across the country.[84][85]

The Deobandi movement is especially prominent in regions such as Khyber Pakhtunkhwa and Balochistan, where it forms the majority among Sunni Muslims. Its influence extends beyond education into political spheres, with parties like Jamiat Ulema-e-Islam (JUI) playing active roles in national politics.[86][87]

In contrast, the Barelvi movement, while representing a significant portion of Pakistan's Sunni population, has historically had less institutional influence. However, it has seen a resurgence in recent years, with increased political activism and the formation of parties like Tehreek-e-Labbaik Pakistan.[88]

### Shia

[edit]

Main article: Shia Islam in Pakistan

Shias are estimated to constitute about 10-15 percent of the country's population.[89] Major traditions of Shia Islam found in Pakistan include the Twelver Shias (or Ithna Ashariyyah) and the Ismaili Shias (or Seveners); most notably the Dawoodi Bohras and the Khoja Ismailis—known for their prominence in commerce and industry.[90]

Many prominent Shia Muslim politicians were known to play a decisive role in the creation of Pakistan for decades during the Pakistan Movement. The role as the first president of the Muslim League and its main financial backer during its earlier years was undertaken by Sir Aga Khan III, an Ismaili by faith. Other politicians that held prominent roles in the initial decades of the Muslim League include Raja Sahib, Syed Ameer Ali and Syed Wazir Hasan, among others.[91]

A 2012 study found 50% of surveyed Pakistanis considered Shia as Muslims while 41% rejected Shia as Muslims.[92][93] Shias allege discrimination by the Pakistani government since 1948, claiming that Sunnis are given preference in business, official positions and administration of justice.[94] Attacks on Shias increased under the presidency of Zia-ul-Haq,[94] with the first major sectarian riots in Pakistan breaking out in 1983 in Karachi and later spreading to other parts of the country.[95] Shias have long been a target of Sunni radical groups such as Lashkar-e-Jhangvi in the country. Sectarian violence became a recurring feature of the Muharram month every year, with sectarian violence between Sunnis and Shias taking place on multiple occasions.[95][96][97] Since 2008 thousands of Shia have been killed by Sunni extremists according to Human Rights Watch (HRW) and violent clashes between the two sects are common.[98]

A subset of Shia in Pakistan are the Hazara ethnic group—which are distinct from other Shi’a due to their language and facial features. Most Hazaras live in Afghanistan, but Pakistan also hosts between 650,000 and 900,000 – and around 500,000 live in the city of Quetta.[99]

### Sufism

[edit]

Main article: Sufism in Pakistan

The shrine of Rukn-e-Alam is one of southern Punjab's most important Sufi shrines

Sufism is a vast term and many Sufi orders exist within Pakistan where the philosophy has a strong tradition. Historically, the Sufi missionaries had played a pivotal role in converting the native peoples of Punjab and Sindh to Islam.[100] The most notable Muslim Sufi orders in Pakistan are the Qadiriyya, Naqshbandiya, Chishtiya and Suhrawardiyya silsas (Muslim Orders) and they have a large amount of devotees in Pakistan. The tradition of visiting dargahs is still practiced today. Sufis whose shrines receive much national attention are Data Ganj Baksh (Ali Hajweri) in Lahore (ca. 11th century),[101] Sultan Bahoo in Shorkot Jhang, Baha-ud-din Zakariya in Multan,[102] and Shahbaz Qalander in Sehwan (ca. 12th century)[101] and Shah Abdul Latif Bhitai in Bhit, Sindh[103] and Rehman Baba in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa Province. The Urs (death anniversary) of Sufi saints accounts for the largest gathering upon their shrines held annually by the devotees.

Although, popular Sufi culture is centered on Thursday night gatherings at shrines and annual festivals which feature Sufi music and dance, certain tariqas such as Sarwari Qadri Order, refrain from such traditions and believe in paying visit to the shrines, making prayers or reciting manqabat. Moreover, contemporary Islamic fundamentalists also criticize the popular tradition of singing, dance and music, which in their view, does not accurately reflect the teachings and practice of Mohammad and his companions. There have been terrorist attacks directed at Sufi shrines and festivals, five in 2010 that killed 64 people. Presently, the known tariqas in Pakistan have maintained their organisations usually known as tehreeks and have their khanqahs for the dhikr of Allah, as per the old age Sufi tradition.[104][105]

### Quranists

[edit]

Muslims who reject the authority of hadith, known as Quranist, Quraniyoon, or Ahle Quran, are also present in Pakistan.[106] The largest Quranist organization in Pakistan is Ahle Quran, followed by Bazm-e-Tolu-e-Islam. Another Quranist movement in Pakistan is Ahlu Zikr.[21]

### Non-denominational

[edit]

Roughly twelve per cent of Pakistani Muslims self-describe or have beliefs overlapping with non-denominational Muslims. These Muslims have beliefs that by and large overlap with those of the majority of Muslims and the difference in their prayers are usually non-existent or negligible. Nonetheless, in censuses asking for a clarification on which strand or rite of Muslim faith they most closely align, they usually answer "just a Muslim".[107]

## Contemporary issues

[edit]

### Blasphemy

[edit]

Main article: Blasphemy in Pakistan

The Pakistan Penal Code, the main criminal code of Pakistan, punishes blasphemy (Urdu: قانون توہین رسالت) against any recognized religion, providing penalties ranging from a fine to death.[108] Pakistan inherited blasphemy laws enacted by British colonial authorities and made them more severe between 1980 and 1986, when a number of clauses were added by the military government of General Zia-ul Haq, in order to "Islamicise" the laws and deny the Muslim character of the Ahmadi minority.[108] Parliament through the Second Amendment to the Constitution on 7 September 1974, under Prime Minister Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto, declared Ahmadi Muslims as non-Muslims.[109] In 1986 it was supplemented by a new blasphemy provision also applied to Ahmadi Muslims (See Persecution of Ahmadis).[110][111] In 2020, the European Foundation for South Asian Studies (EFSAS) in a report entitled, Guilty until proven innocent: The sacrilegious nature of blasphemy laws Pakistan, recommended wide-ranging changes to Pakistan's laws and legal systems.[112]

### Conversions

[edit]

See also: Coerced religious conversion in Pakistan

There have been conversions to Islam from the religious minorities of Pakistan.[113] The Human Rights Council of Pakistan has reported that cases of forced conversion to Islam are increasing.[114][115] According to victims' families and activists, Mian Abdul Haq, who is a local political and religious leader in Sindh, has been accused of being responsible for forced conversions of girls within the province.[116]

## See also

[edit]

* Pakistan portal
* Islam portal

* Freedom of religion in Pakistan
* History of the Islamic Republic of Pakistan
* Islam in South Asia
* Islamization in Pakistan
* Religion in Pakistan
* Religious discrimination in Pakistan
* Shia Islam in Pakistan
* Sufism in Pakistan
* Islam by country

## References

[edit]

1. ^ "TABLE 9 : POPULATION BY SEX, RELIGION AND RURAL/URBAN, CENSUS - 2023" (PDF).
2. ^ "Announcement of Results of 7th Population and Housing Census-2023 'The Digital Census' | Pakistan Bureau of Statistics". www.pbs.gov.pk. Retrieved 2024-06-19.
3. ^ "The Future of Global Muslim Population: Projections from 2010 to 2013" Archived 2013-07-23 at the Wayback Machine Accessed July 2013.
4. ^ WORLD’S MUSLIMS: UNITY AND DIVERSITY; Chapter 1: Religious Affiliation
5. ^ "AJ&K at a Glance". Azad Government of the State of Jammu & Kashmir.
6. ^ "Importance of Gilgit-Baltistan". Government of Gilgit-Baltistan Tourism, Sports, Culture, Archaeology & Museums Department.
7. ^ "Religious Demographics of Pakistan" (PDF). The World Factbook. Central Intelligence Agency. Retrieved 2021-07-14. "238,181,034 (July 2021 est.)"
8. ^ "Announcement of Results of 7th Population and Housing Census-2023 'The Digital Census'" (PDF). Pakistan Bureau of Statistics (www.pbs.gov.pk). 5 August 2023. Retrieved 15 August 2023.
9. ^ Singh, Y P (2016). Islam in India and Pakistan – A Religious History. Vij Books India Pvt Ltd. ISBN 9789385505638.
10. ^ a b c "Pakistan, Islam in". Oxford Centre for Islamic Studies. Oxford University Press. Archived from the original on June 18, 2013. Retrieved 2010-08-29. "Approximately 97 percent of Pakistanis are Muslim. The majority (85–90)% percent are Sunnis following the Hanafi school of Islamic law. Between (10–15)% are Shias, mostly Twelvers."
11. ^ a b "Country Profile: Pakistan" (PDF). Library of Congress Country Studies on Pakistan. Library of Congress. February 2005. Retrieved 2010-09-01. "Religion: The overwhelming majority of the population (96.3 percent) is Muslim, of whom approximately 85–90 percent are Sunni and 10–15 percent Shia."
12. ^ a b c d "Religions". The World Factbook. Central Intelligence Agency. 2021. Retrieved 2021-07-14. "Muslim (official) 96.5% (Sunni 85–90%, Shia 10–15%), other (includes Christian and Hindu) 3.5% (2020 est.)"
13. ^ a b "Mapping the Global Muslim Population: A Report on the Size and Distribution of the World's Muslim Population". Pew Research Center. October 7, 2009. Archived from the original on 2010-03-27. Retrieved 2010-08-28.
14. ^ a b Miller, Tracy, ed. (October 2009). Mapping the Global Muslim Population: A Report on the Size and Distribution of the World's Muslim Population (PDF). Pew Research Center. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2009-10-10. Retrieved 2010-08-28.
15. ^ a b "Pakistan – International Religious Freedom Report 2008". United States Department of State. 19 September 2008. Retrieved 2010-08-28.
16. ^ "Country Profile: Pakistan" (PDF). Library of Congress Country Studies on Pakistan. Library of Congress. February 2005. Retrieved 2010-09-01. "Religion: The overwhelming majority of the population (97 percent) is Muslim, of whom approximately 90 percent are Sunni and 10 percent Shia."
17. ^ "Country Profile: Pakistan" (PDF). Library of Congress Country Studies on Pakistan. Library of Congress. February 2005. Retrieved 2010-09-01. "Religion: The overwhelming majority of the population (96.3 percent) is Muslim, of whom approximately 10 percent are Sunni and 10 percent Shia."
18. ^ "The World's Muslims: Unity and Diversity". Pew Research Center. 9 August 2012. Retrieved 26 December 2016. "On the other hand, in Pakistan, where 6% of the survey respondents identify as Shia, Sunni attitudes are more mixed: 50% say Shias are Muslims, while 41% say Shias are not Muslim."
19. ^ "Non-Fiction: Pakistan's Shia Dynamics". 10 November 2019.
20. ^ "Pakistan, Islam in". Oxford Centre for Islamic Studies. Oxford University Press. Archived from the original on June 18, 2013. Retrieved 2010-08-29. "Approximately 97 percent of Pakistanis are Muslims. The majority are Sunnis following the Hanafi school of Islamic law. Between 10–15 percent are Shiis, mostly Twelvers."
21. ^ a b Dolatabad, Seyed Ali Hosseini, Hossein Naseri Moghadam, and Ali Reza Abedi Sar Asiya. "Pillars, proofs and requirements of the Quran-Sufficiency Theory, along with its criticism." International Journal of Humanities and Cultural Studies (IJHCS) ISSN 2356-5926 (2016): 2303–2319.
22. ^ Sheikh, Samira. "Aurangzeb as seen from Gujarat: Shi ‘i and Millenarian Challenges to Mughal Sovereignty." Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society 28.3 (2018): 557–581.
23. ^ The 1998 Pakistani census states that there are 291,000 (0.22%) Ahmadis in Pakistan. However, the Ahmadiyya Muslim Community has boycotted the census since 1974 which renders official Pakistani figures to be inaccurate. Independent groups have estimated the Pakistani Ahmadiyya population to be somewhere between 2 million and 3 million Ahmadis. However, the 2 million figure is the most quoted figure and is approximately 1% of the country. See:
* over 2 million: Immigration and Refugee Board of Canada (2008-12-04). "Pakistan: The situation of Ahmadis, including legal status and political, education and employment rights; societal attitudes toward Ahmadis (2006 – Nov. 2008)". Retrieved 2012-06-28.
* 3 million: International Federation for Human Rights: International Fact-Finding Mission. Freedoms of Expression, of Association and of Assembly in Pakistan. Ausgabe 408/2, Januar 2005, S. 61 (PDF)
* 3–4 million: Commission on International Religious Freedom: Annual Report of the United States Commission on International Religious Freedom. 2005, S. 130
* 4.910.000: James Minahan: Encyclopedia of the stateless nations. Ethnic and national groups around the world. Greenwood Press. Westport 2002, page 52
* "Pakistan: Situation of members of the Lahori Ahmadiyya Movement in Pakistan". Retrieved April 30, 2014.
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65. ^ John, Wilson (2009). Pakistan: The Struggle Within. Pearson Education India. p. 87\. ISBN 9788131725047. "During the 1946 election, Barelvi Ulama issued fatwas in favour of the Muslim League."
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## Further reading

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* This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain. Country Studies. Federal Research Division.
* Raja, Masood Ashraf. Constructing Pakistan: Foundational Texts and the Rise of Muslim National Identity, 1857–1947, Oxford 2010, ISBN 978-0-19-547811-2
* Zaman, Muhammad Qasim. Islam in Pakistan: A History (Princeton UP, 2018) online review

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