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Islamic schools and branches have different understandings of Islam. There are many different sects or denominations, schools of Islamic jurisprudence, and schools of Islamic theology, or ʿaqīdah (creed). Within Sunnī Islam, there may be differences, such as different orders (tariqa) within Sufism, different schools of theology (Atharī, Ashʿarī, Māturīdī) and jurisprudence (Ḥanafī, Mālikī, Shāfiʿī, Ḥanbalī).[1] Groups in Islam may be numerous (Sunnīs make up 87-90% of all Muslims), or relatively small in size (Ibadis, Ismāʿīlīs, Zaydīs).[2]

Differences between the groups may not be well known to Muslims outside of scholarly circles, or may have induced enough passion to have resulted in political and religious violence (Barelvism, Deobandism, Salafism, Wahhabism).[3][4][5][6] There are informal movements driven by ideas (such as Islamic modernism and Islamism), as well as organized groups with governing bodies (such as Nation of Islam). Some of the Islamic sects and groups regard certain others as deviant or not being truly Muslim (for example, Sunnīs frequently discriminate against Ahmadiyya, Alawites, Quranists, and sometimes Shīʿas).[3][4][5][6] Some Islamic sects and groups date back to the early history of Islam between the 7th and 9th centuries CE (Kharijites, Mu'tazila, Sunnīs, Shīʿas), whereas others have arisen much more recently (Islamic neo-traditionalism, liberalism and progressivism, Islamic modernism, Salafism and Wahhabism), or even in the 20th century (Nation of Islam). Still others were influential historically, but are no longer in existence (non-Ibadi Kharijites and Murji'ah).

Muslims who do not belong to, do not self-identify with, or cannot be readily classified under one of the identifiable Islamic schools and branches are known as non-denominational Muslims.

## Overview

[edit]

Main article: History of Islam

Further information: Political aspects of Islam, Shia–Sunni relations, and Succession to Muhammad

Diagram showing the various branches of Islam: Sunnīsm, Shīʿīsm, Ibadism, Quranism, Non-denominational Muslims, Mahdavia, Ahmadiyya, Nation of Islam, and Sufism.

The original schism between Kharijites, Sunnīs, and Shīʿas among Muslims was disputed over the political and religious succession to the guidance of the Muslim community (Ummah) after the death of the Islamic prophet Muhammad.[7] From their essentially political position, the Kharijites developed extreme doctrines that set them apart from both mainstream Sunnī and Shīʿa Muslims.[7] Shīʿas believe ʿAlī ibn Abī Ṭālib is the true successor to Muhammad, while Sunnīs consider Abu Bakr to hold that position. The Kharijites broke away from both the Shīʿas and the Sunnīs during the First Fitna (the first Islamic Civil War);[7] they were particularly noted for adopting a radical approach to takfīr (excommunication), whereby they declared both Sunnī and Shīʿa Muslims to be either infidels (kuffār) or false Muslims (munafiqun), and therefore deemed them worthy of death for their perceived apostasy (ridda).[7]

In addition, there are several differences within Sunnī and Shīʿa Islam: Sunnī Islam is separated into four main schools of jurisprudence, namely Mālikī, Ḥanafī, Shāfiʿī, and Ḥanbalī; these schools are named after their founders Mālik ibn Anas, Abū Ḥanīfa al-Nuʿmān, Muḥammad ibn Idrīs al-Shāfiʿī, and Aḥmad ibn Ḥanbal, respectively.[1] Shīʿa Islam, on the other hand, is separated into three major sects: Twelvers, Ismāʿīlīs, and Zaydīs. The vast majority of Shīʿa Muslims are Twelvers (a 2012 estimate puts the figure as 85%),[8] to the extent that the term "Shīʿa" frequently refers to Twelvers by default. All mainstream Twelver and Ismāʿīlī Shīʿa Muslims follow the same school of thought, the Jaʽfari jurisprudence, named after Jaʿfar al-Ṣādiq, the sixth Shīʿīte Imam.

Zaydīs, also known as Fivers, follow the Zaydī school of thought (named after Zayd ibn ʿAlī). Ismāʿīlīsm is another offshoot of Shīʿa Islam that later split into Nizārī and Musta'lī, and the Musta'lī further divided into Ḥāfiẓi and Ṭayyibi.[9] Ṭayyibi Ismāʿīlīs, also known as "Bohras", are split between Dawudi Bohras, Sulaymani Bohras, and Alavi Bohras.[10]

Similarly, Kharijites were initially divided into five major branches: Sufris, Azariqa, Najdat, Adjarites, and Ibadis. Of these, Ibadi Muslims are the only surviving branch of Kharijites. In addition to the aforementioned groups, new schools of thought and movements like Ahmadi Muslims, Quranist Muslims, and African-American Muslims later emerged independently.

Muslims who do not belong to, do not self-identify with, or cannot be readily classified under one of the identifiable Islamic schools and branches are known as non-denominational Muslims.

## Main branches or denominations

[edit]

Geographical distribution of the main Islamic branches and their schools of jurisprudence

Demographic distribution of the main three Islamic branches:

1. Sunnīsm (85%)
2. Shīʿīsm[11] (15%)
3. Ibadism and others (0.5%)

### Sunnī Islam

[edit]

Part of a series on
Sunni Islam

Beliefs

* God
* Prophets and Messengers
* Holy books
* Succession to Muhammad
* Angels
* Judgement Day
* Predestination
* Sahaba

Five Pillars

* Declaration of Faith
* Prayer
* Charity
* Fasting
* Pilgrimage

Rashidun Caliphs

* Abu Bakr
* Umar
* Uthman
* Ali

Others

* Hasan ibn Ali
* Mu'awiya I
* Umar ibn Abd al-Aziz

Schools of law

* Hanafi
* Maliki
* Shafi'i
* Hanbali

Others

* Farahi
* Zahiri
* Awza'i
* Thawri
* Laythi
* Jariri

Schools of theology

* Ash'arism and Maturidism (Ahl al-Ra'y)
* Atharism (Ahl al-Hadith)

In terms of Ihsan:

* Sufis (Ahl al-Wijdan wa al-Kashf)

Contemporary movements

* Barelvi movement
* Deobandi movement
* Salafism
* Wahhabism
* Ahl-i Hadith
* Modernism
* Neo-traditionalism

Holy sites

* Mecca
* Medina
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Lists

* Literature
* Kutub al-Sittah

* History
* Persecution

Islam portal

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Main article: Sunni Islam

Sunnī Islam, also known as Ahl as-Sunnah waʾl Jamāʾah or simply Ahl as-Sunnah, is by far the largest denomination of Islam, comprising around 87-90% of the Muslim population in the world. The term Sunnī comes from the word sunnah, which means the teachings, actions, and examples of the Islamic prophet Muhammad and his companions (ṣaḥāba).

Sunnīs believe that Muhammad did not specifically appoint a successor to lead the Muslim community (Ummah) before his death in 632 CE, however they approve of the private election of the first companion, Abū Bakr.[12][13] Sunnī Muslims regard the first four caliphs—Abū Bakr (632–634), ʿUmar ibn al-Khaṭṭāb (Umar І, 634–644), ʿUthmān ibn ʿAffān (644–656), and ʿAlī ibn Abī Ṭālib (656–661)—as al-Khulafāʾ ur-Rāshidūn ("the Rightly-Guided Caliphs"). Sunnīs also believe that the position of caliph may be attained democratically, on gaining a majority of the votes, but after the Rashidun, the position turned into a hereditary dynastic rule because of the divisions started by the Umayyads and others. After the fall of the Ottoman Empire in 1923, there has never been another caliph as widely recognized in the Muslim world.

Followers of the classical Sunnī schools of jurisprudence and kalām (rationalistic theology) on one hand, and Islamists and Salafists such as Wahhabis and Ahle Hadith, who follow a literalist reading of early Islamic sources, on the other, have laid competing claims to represent the "orthodox" Sunnī Islam.[14] Anglophone Islamic currents of the former type are sometimes referred to as "traditional Islam".[15] Islamic modernism is an offshoot of the Salafi movement that tried to integrate modernism into Islam by being partially influenced by modern-day attempts to revive the ideas of the Muʿtazila school by Islamic scholars such as Muhammad Abduh.

### Shīʿa Islam

[edit]

Part of a series on
Shia Islam

Beliefs and practices

* Monotheism
* Holy Books
* Prophethood
* Succession to Muhammad
* Imamate
* Ismaili
* Twelver
* Zaydi
* Angels
* Judgment Day
* Mourning of Muharram
* Intercession
* Clergy
* The Four Companions
* Arbaʽeen Pilgrimage

Days of remembrance

* Ashura
* Arba'een
* Mawlid
* Eid al-Fitr
* Eid al-Adha
* Eid al-Ghadir
* Mourning of Muharram
* Omar Koshan

History

* Verse of purification
* Two weighty things
* Mubahala
* Khumm
* Fatimah's house
* First Fitna
* Second Fitna
* Battle of Karbala
* Origin
* Persecution

Branches and sects

* Ja'fari
* Akhbari
* Usuli
* Shaykhi
* Zaydi
* Isma'ili
* Musta'li
* Tayyibi
* Dawoodi Bohra
* Progressive
* Hebtiahs Bohra
* Atba-i-Malak Bohra
* Sulaymani Bohra
* Alavi Bohra
* Qutbi Bohra
* Hafizi
* Nizari
* Khoja
* Satpanth
* Ghulat
* Alawi
* Alevi
* Bektashi
* Bektashism and folk religion
* Qizilbash
* Ishiki
* Extinct Shi'a sects

Ahl al-Kisa

* Muhammad
* Ali
* Fatima
* Hasan
* Husayn

Holy women

* Fatima
* Khadija bint Khuwaylid
* Umm Salama
* Zaynab bint Ali
* Umm Kulthum bint Ali
* Umm al-Banin
* Fatima bint Hasan
* Ruqayya bint Husayn
* Rubab
* Shahrbanu
* Fatima bint Musa
* Hakimah Khātūn
* Narjis
* Fatimah bint Asad
* Umm Farwah bint al-Qasim
* Ruqayya bint Ali
* Sayyida Nafisa

Shia Islam portal

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Main articles: Shia Islam and Imamate in Shia doctrine

Shīʿa Islam is the second-largest denomination of Islam, comprising around 10–13%[16] of the total Muslim population.[17] Although a minority in the Muslim world, Shīʿa Muslims constitute the majority of the Muslim populations in Iran, Iraq and Azerbaijan, as well as significant minorities in Syria, Turkey, South Asia, Yemen, Bahrain, Saudi Arabia, Lebanon, as well as in other parts of the Persian Gulf.[18]

In addition to believing in the supreme authority of the Quran and teachings of Muhammad, Shīʿa Muslims believe that Muhammad's family, the Ahl al-Bayt ("People of the Household"), including his descendants known as Imams, have distinguished spiritual and political authority over the community,[19] and believe that ʿAlī ibn Abī Ṭālib, Muhammad's cousin and son-in-law, was the first of these Imams and the rightful successor to Muhammad, and thus reject the legitimacy of the first three Rāshidūn caliphs.[20][full citation needed]

#### Major sub-denominations

[edit]

Further information: List of extinct Shia sects

* The Twelvers believe in the Twelve Shīʿīte Imams and are the only school to comply with the Hadith of the Twelve Successors, where Muhammad stated that he would have twelve successors. This sometimes includes the Alevi and Bektashi schools.
* The Isma'ili are an esoteric Shīʿīte branch that accept Isma'il ibn Jafar as the sixth Imam. Their thought is heavily influenced by philosophy of Neoplatonism.[21] Isma'ilism includes the Nizārī, Sevener, Musta‘lī, Dawudi Bohra, Hebtiahs Bohra, Sulaymani Bohra, and Alavi Bohra sub-denominations.
* The Zaydīs historically derive from the followers of Zayd ibn ʿAlī. In the modern era, they "survive only in northern Yemen".[22] Although they are a Shīʿa sect, "in modern times" they have "shown a strong tendency to move towards the Sunni mainstream".[22]

#### Ghulat movements

[edit]

Main article: Ghulat

Shīʿīte groups and movements who either ascribe divine characteristics to some important figures in the history of Islam (usually members of Muhammad's family, the Ahl al-Bayt) or hold beliefs deemed deviant by mainstream Shīʿa Muslims were designated as Ghulat.[23]

* The Alawites—a distinct Arab ethno-religious group—is the only ghulat sect still in existence today.[24] Their movement was developed between the 9th and 10th centuries CE. Historically, Twelver Shīʿīte scholars such as Shaykh Tusi didn't consider Alawites as Shīʿa Muslims while condemning their beliefs, perceived as heretical.[25] The medieval Sunnī Muslim scholar Ibn Taymiyyah also pointed out that the Alawites were not Shīʿītes.[26] However, the Sunni Grand Mufti of Jerusalem, Haj Amin al-Husseini, issued a fatwa recognizing them as part of the Muslim community in the interest of Arab nationalism.[27][28] And during the Syrian regime Hafez al-Assad and his son and successor Bashar al-Assad, Alawites have shown a tendency to move towards the regular Twelver Shīʿa Islam.[29]

#### Offshoots of Shīʿa Islam

[edit]

* The Ali-Illahis are a distinct syncretic religious movement which has been practiced in parts of the Luristan region in Iran which combines elements of Shīʿa Islam with older religions. It centers on the belief that there have been successive incarnations of the Deity throughout history, and Ali-Illahis reserve particular reverence for ʿAlī who is considered one such incarnation.[30]
* The Druze are a distinct monotheistic Abrahamic religion and ethno-religious group that developed in the 11th century CE, originally as an offshoot of Ismāʿīlīsm.[31] The Druze faith further split from Ismāʿīlīsm as it developed its own unique doctrines, and finally separated from both Ismāʿīlīsm and Islam altogether;[31] these include the belief that the Imam Al-Ḥākim bi-Amr Allāh was God incarnate.[32] Thus, the Druze don't identify themselves as Muslims,[31][33][34][35][36] and aren't considered as such by Muslims either (See: Islam and Druze).[31][37][38][39] According to the medieval Sunnī Muslim scholar Ibn Taymiyyah, the Druze were not Muslims, neither ′Ahl al-Kitāb (People of the Book), nor mushrikin (polytheists); rather, he labeled them as kuffār (infidels).[40][41][42][43]
* The Baháʼí Faith is a distinct monotheistic universal Abrahamic religion that developed in 19th-century Persia, originally derived as a splinter group from Bábism, another distinct monotheistic Abrahamic religion, itself derived from Twelver Shīʿīsm.[44][45] Baháʼís believe in an utterly transcendent and inaccessible Supreme Creator of the universe,[44] nevertheless seen as conscious of the creation,[44] with a will and purpose that is expressed through messengers recognized in the Baháʼí Faith as the Manifestations of God (all the Jewish prophets, Zoroaster, Krishna, Gautama Buddha, Jesus, Muhammad, the Báb, and ultimately Baháʼu'lláh).[44] Baháʼís believe that God communicates his will and purpose to humanity through his intermediaries, the prophets and messengers who have founded various world religions from the beginning of humankind up to the present day, and will continue to do so in the future.[44] Baháʼís and Bábis don't consider themselves as Muslims, since both of their religions have superseded Islam, and aren't considered as such by Muslims either; rather, they are seen as apostates from Islam.[44][45] Since both Baháʼís and Bábis reject the Islamic dogma that Muhammad is the last prophet, they have suffered religious discrimination and persecution both in Iran and elsewhere in the Muslim world due to their beliefs.[45] (See: Persecution of Baháʼís).

### Kharijites

[edit]

Part of a series on
Muhakkima

Beliefs and practices

* Monotheism
* Kitman
* Takfir
* Theology

History

* Early
* First Fitna
* Battle of Siffin
* Battle of Nahrawan
* Dynasties
* Rustamids
* Nabhanids
* Ya'rubids
* Zanzibar
* Oman
* Ibadi Hadith Canon
* Jami Sahih
* Tartib al-Musnad

Notable individuals

* Abd al-Rahman ibn Muljam
* Nafi ibn al-Azraq
* Najda ibn Amir al-Hanafi
* Abu Bilal Mirdas
* Abu Qurra
* Abdullah ibn Ibadh
* Jabir ibn Zayd
* Abu Yazid
* Abd Allah ibn Yazid al-Fazari

Branches and sects

* Kharijites
* Ajardi
* Azariqah
* Bayhasiyyah
* Najdat
* Sūfrīyyah
* Ibadiyyah
* Wahbiyyah
* Nukkari
* Azzabas

Islam portal

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Main article: Kharijites

The Kharijites (literally, "those who seceded") are a branch who originated during the First Fitna, the struggle for political leadership over the Muslim community, following the assassination in 656 of the third caliph Uthman.[7][46] It is an extinct sect, except the Ibadis, whose roots go back to them.[47] Kharijites originally supported the caliphate of Ali, but then later on fought against him and eventually succeeded in his martyrdom while he was praying in the mosque of Kufa. While there are few remaining Kharijite or Kharijite-related groups, the term is sometimes used to denote Muslims who refuse to compromise with those with whom they disagree.

Sufris were a major sub-sect of Kharijite in the 7th and 8th centuries, and a part of the Kharijites. Nukkari was a sub-sect of Sufris. Harūrīs were an early Muslim sect from the period of the Four Rightly-Guided Caliphs (632–661 CE), named for their first leader, Habīb ibn-Yazīd al-Harūrī. Azariqa, Najdat, and Adjarites were minor sub-sects.

#### Ibadism

[edit]

Main article: Ibadism

The only Khariji Islam sub-sect extant today is Ibadism, which developed out of the 7th century CE. There are currently two geographically separated Ibadi groups—in Oman, where they constitute the majority of the Muslim population in the country, and in North Africa where they constitute significant minorities in Algeria, Tunisia, and Libya.[47] Similarly to another Muslim minority, the Zaydīs, "in modern times" they have "shown a strong tendency" to move towards the Sunnī branch of Islam.[22]

## Schools of Islamic jurisprudence

[edit]

Main articles: Fiqh and Madhhab

Part of a series on

Islamic jurisprudence
(fiqh)

Ritual

|  Shahada

Salah

* Raka'ah
* Qibla
* Turbah

* Sunnah prayer

* (Tarawih
* Tahajjud)

* Witr
* Nafl prayer

Sawm
Zakat
Hajj

* Ihram (clothing
* Mut'ah)
* Tawaf
* Umrah (and Hajj)

Political

* Islamic leadership

* Caliphate
* Majlis-ash-Shura
* Imamate
* Wilayat al-faqih
* Bay'ah
* Dhimmi
* Aman

Family

|  Marriage

* Contract
* Mahr

* Misyar
* Halala
* Urfi
* Mut‘ah

* Polygyny
* Divorce
* Khula
* Zihar
* Iddah
* Kafa'ah

* Adoption
* Breastfeeding

Sexual

* Awrah
* Abortion
* Baligh
* Haya
* Hygiene
* Rape
* Zina
* Masturbation

Criminal

* Hudud
* Blasphemy
* Maisir  (gambling)
* Zina  (illicit sex)
* Hirabah  (unlawful warfare and banditry)
* Fasad  ("mischief")
* Mofsed-e-filarz  ("spreading corruption")
* Fitna  ("sedition")
* Rajm  (stoning)

* Tazir  (discretionary)
* Qisas  (retaliation)
* Diya  (compensation)

Etiquette

* Adab
* Gender segregation (Purdah)
* Mahram
* Honorifics
* Toilet

Economic

|  History

Zakat

* Jizya
* Nisab
* Khums
* Sadaqah (Waqf)

* Bayt al-mal

Banking

* Riba
* Murabaha
* Takaful
* Sukuk

Inheritance

Hygiene

* Sexual
* Toilet
* Taharah
* Ihram
* Wudu
* Masah
* Ghusl
* Tayammum
* Miswak
* Najis
* Istinja

Dietary

* Dhabihah
* Alcohol
* Pork

* Comparison with kashrut

Military

* Jihad
* Ghanimah
* Hudna
* Istijarah (asylum)
* Prisoners of war

Social

* Haqq al-Nas (The right(s) of the people)

Islamic studies

* v
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* e

Islamic schools of jurisprudence, known as madhhab, differ in the methodology they use to derive their rulings from the Quran, ḥadīth literature, the sunnah (accounts of the sayings and living habits attributed to the Islamic prophet Muhammad during his lifetime), and the tafsīr literature (exegetical commentaries on the Quran).

### Sunnī

[edit]

Main schools of thought within Sunni Islam, and other prominent streams.

Sunnī Islam contains numerous schools of Islamic jurisprudence (fiqh) and schools of Islamic theology (ʿaqīdah).[1] In terms of religious jurisprudence (fiqh), Sunnism contains several schools of thought (madhhab):[1]

* the Ḥanafī school, named after Abū Ḥanīfa al-Nuʿmān (8th century CE);
* the Mālikī school, named after Mālik ibn Anas (8th century CE);
* the Shāfiʿī school, named after Muḥammad ibn Idrīs al-Shāfiʿī (8th century CE);
* the Ḥanbalī school, named after Aḥmad ibn Ḥanbal (8th century CE);
* the Ẓāhirī school, founded by Dāwūd al-Ẓāhirī (9th century CE).[48]

In terms of religious creed (ʿaqīdah), Sunnism contains several schools of theology:[1]

* the Atharī school, a scholarly movement that emerged in the late 8th century CE;
* the Ashʿarī school, founded by Abū al-Ḥasan al-Ashʿarī (10th century CE);
* the Māturīdī school, founded by Abū Manṣūr al-Māturīdī (10th century CE).

The Salafi movement is a conservative reform branch and/or revivalist movement within Sunnī Islam whose followers do not believe in strictly following one particular madhhab. They include the Wahhabi movement, an Islamic doctrine and religious movement founded by Muhammad ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab, and the modern Ahle Hadith movement, whose followers call themselves Ahl al-Ḥadīth.

### Shīʿa

[edit]

Further information: Imamate in Shia doctrine and Schools of Islamic theology § Shīʿa schools of theology

In Shīʿa Islam, the major Shīʿīte school of jurisprudence is the Jaʿfari or Imāmī school,[49] named after Jaʿfar al-Ṣādiq, the sixth Shīʿīte Imam. The Jaʿfari jurisprudence is further divided into two branches: the Usuli school, which favors the exercise of ijtihad,[50] and the Akhbari school, which holds the traditions (aḵbār) of the Shīʿīte Imams to be the main source of religious knowledge.[51] Minor Shīʿa schools of jurisprudence include the Ismāʿīlī school (Mustaʿlī-Fāṭimid Ṭayyibi Ismāʿīlīs) and the Zaydī school, both of which have closer affinity to Sunnī jurisprudence.[49][52][53] Shīʿīte clergymen and jurists usually carry the title of mujtahid (i.e., someone authorized to issue legal opinions in Shīʿa Islam).

### Ibadism

[edit]

The fiqh or jurisprudence of Ibadis is relatively simple. Absolute authority is given to the Quran and ḥadīth literature; new innovations accepted on the basis of qiyas (analogical reasoning) were rejected as bid'ah (heresy) by the Ibadis. That differs from the majority of Sunnīs,[54] but agrees with most Shīʿa schools[55] and with the Ẓāhirī and early Ḥanbalī schools of Sunnism.[56][57][58]

## Schools of Islamic theology

[edit]

Main articles: Aqidah and Schools of Islamic theology

Aqidah is an Islamic term meaning "creed", doctrine, or article of faith.[59][60] There have existed many schools of Islamic theology, not all of which survive to the present day. Major themes of theological controversies in Islam have included predestination and free will, the nature of the Quran, the nature of the divine attributes, apparent and esoteric meaning of scripture, and the role of dialectical reasoning in the Islamic doctrine.

Part of a series on
Aqidah

Sunni

Six Articles of Iman

* God
* Prophets
* Holy books
* Angels
* The Last Judgement
* Predestination

Five Pillars of Islam

* Shahada
* Salah
* Sawm
* Zakat
* Hajj

Schools of theology

* Ahl al-Hadith
* Athari1
* Ahl al-Ra'y
* Ash'ari2
* Maturidi3

Shi'a

Basic Tenets of Faith

* Salah
* Sawm
* Zakat
* Hajj
* Khums
* Jihad
* Commanding what is just
* Forbidding what is evil
* Tawalla
* Tabarra

Theology of the Twelvers4, 5

* Tawhid
* Adalah
* Prophecy
* Imamah
* Qiyamah

Theology of the Ismailis6

* Walayah
* Tawhid
* Salah
* Zakat
* Sawm
* Hajj
* Jihad

Theology of the Zaydis

Muhakkima

Theology of the Ibadis

Other variants

* Jabriyya
* Jahmiyya
* Mujassimah
* Murji
* Mu'tazila
* Qadariyya
* Quraniyya
* Ahmadiyya
* Nation of Islam
* Unaffiliated

Including:

*     * 1 Hanbali school
* Zahiri school

*     * 2 Maliki school
* Shafi'i school

* 3 Hanafi school
*     * 4 Ja'fari school (Usuli
* Akhbari
* Shaykhi)

*     * 5 Ghulat (Alawi
* Alevi
* Bektashi
* Qizilbash
* Ishiki)

*     * 6 Nizari (Khoja
* Satpanth)
* Mustali (Dawoodi Bohra
* Sulaymani Bohra
* Alavi Bohra
* Hebtiahs Bohra
* Atba-i-Malak Bohra
* Qutbi Bohra)

Islam portal

* v
* t
* e

### Sunnism

[edit]

Main article: Sunni Islam

#### Classical

[edit]

Kalām is the Islamic philosophy of seeking theological principles through dialectic. In Arabic, the word literally means "speech/words". A scholar of kalām is referred to as a mutakallim (Muslim theologian; plural mutakallimūn). There are many schools of Kalam, the main ones being the Ashʿarī and Māturīdī schools in Sunni Islam.[61]

##### Ashʿarī

[edit]

Main article: Ash'arism

Ashʿarīsm is a school of theology founded by Abū al-Ḥasan al-Ashʿarī in the 10th century. The Ashʿarīte view was that comprehension of the unique nature and characteristics of God were beyond human capability. Ashʿarī theology is considered one of the orthodox creeds of Sunni Islam alongside the Māturīdī theology.[61] Historically, the Ashʿarī theology prevails in Sufism.[61]

##### Māturīdīsm

[edit]

Main article: Maturidism

Māturīdism is a school of theology founded by Abū Manṣūr al-Māturīdī in the 10th century, which is a close variant of the Ashʿarī school. Māturīdī theology is considered one of the orthodox creeds of Sunni Islam alongside the Ashʿarī theology,[61] and prevails in the Ḥanafī school of Islamic jurisprudence.[61] Points which differ are the nature of belief and the place of human reason. The Māturīdites state that imān (faith) does not increase nor decrease but remains static; rather it's taqwā (piety) which increases and decreases. The Ashʿarītes affirm that belief does in fact increase and decrease. The Māturīdites affirm that the unaided human mind is able to find out that some of the more major sins such as alcohol or murder are evil without the help of revelation. The Ashʿarītes affirm that the unaided human mind is unable to know if something is good or evil, lawful or unlawful, without divine revelation.

#### Atharism

[edit]

Main article: Atharism

The Atharī school derives its name from the word "tradition" as a translation of the Arabic word hadith or from the Arabic word athar, meaning "narrations". The traditionalist creed is to avoid delving into extensive theological speculation. They rely on the Qur'an, the Sunnah, and sayings of the Sahaba, seeing this as the middle path where the attributes of Allah are accepted without questioning their nature (bi-la kayf). Ahmad ibn Hanbal is regarded as the leader of the traditionalist school of creed. Western scholars of Islamic studies remark that it would be incorrect to consider Atharism and Hanbalism as synonymous, since there have been Hanbali scholars who have explicitly rejected and opposed the Athari theology.[62][63] The modern Salafi movement associates itself with the Atharī creed.[64][65][66][67]

### Muʿtazilism

[edit]

Main article: Mu'tazilism

Muʿtazilite theology originated in the 8th century in Basra when Wasil ibn Ata left the teaching lessons of Hasan al-Basri after a theological dispute. He and his followers expanded on the logic and rationalism of Greek philosophy, seeking to combine them with Islamic doctrines and show that the two were inherently compatible. The Mu'tazilite resolved many theological and philosophical discourse issues such as whether the Qur'an was created or eternal with God, whether evil was created by God or existed by itself, the problem of destiny versus free will, whether the Qur'an should be interpreted allegorically or literally. In this regard, Mu'tazila places more emphasis on rationality in answering Islamic theological and philosophical questions.[68][69]

### Murji'ah

[edit]

Main article: Murji'ah

Murji'ah was a name for an early politico-religious movement which came to refer to all those who identified faith (iman) with belief to the exclusion of acts.[70] Originating during the caliphates of Uthman and Ali, Murijites opposed the Kharijites, holding that only God has the authority to judge who is a true Muslim and who is not, and that Muslims should consider all other Muslims as part of the community.[71] Two major Murijite sub-sects were the Karamiya and Sawbaniyya.[72]

### Qadariyyah

[edit]

Main article: Qadiriyya

Qadariyya is an originally derogatory term designating early Islamic theologians who asserted that humans possess free will, whose exercise makes them responsible for their actions, justifying divine punishment and absolving God of responsibility for evil in the world.[73][74] Some of their doctrines were later adopted by the Mu'tazilis and rejected by the Ash'aris.[73]

### Jabriyah

[edit]

Main article: Jabriyya

In direct contrast to the Qadariyyah, Jabriyah was an early Islamic philosophical school based on the belief that humans are controlled by predestination, without having choice or free will. The Jabriya school originated during the Umayyad dynasty in Basra. The first representative of this school was Al-Ja'd ibn Dirham who was executed in 724.[75] The term is derived from the Arabic root j-b-r, in the sense which gives the meaning of someone who is forced or coerced by destiny.[75] The term Jabriyah was also a derogatory term used by different Islamic groups that they considered wrong,[76] The Ash'ariyah used the term Jabriyah in the first place to describe the followers of, Jahm ibn Safwan who died in 746, in that they regarded their faith as a middle position between Qadariyah and Jabriya. On the other hand, the Mu'tazilah considered the Ash'ariyah as Jabriyah because, in their opinion, they rejected the orthodox doctrine of free will.[77] The Shiites used the term Jabriyah to describe the Ash'ariyah and Hanbalis.[78]

### Jahmiyya

[edit]

Main article: Jahmiyya

Jahmis were the alleged followers of the early Islamic theologian Jahm bin Safwan who associated himself with Al-Harith ibn Surayj. He was an exponent of extreme determinism according to which a man acts only metaphorically in the same way in which the sun acts or does something when it sets.[79]

### Batiniyyah

[edit]

Main article: Batiniyya

Bāṭiniyyah is a name given to an allegoristic type of scriptural interpretation developed among some Shia groups, stressing the bāṭin (inward, esoteric) meaning of texts. It has been retained by all branches of Isma'ilism and its Druze offshoot. Alevism, Bektashism and folk religion, Hurufis and Alawites practice a similar system of interpretation.[80]

## Sufism

[edit]

Part of a series on Islam
Sufism

Ideas

* Abdal
* Al-Insān al-Kāmil
* Baqaa
* Dervish
* Dhawq
* Fakir
* Fana
* Hal
* Haqiqa
* Ihsan
* Irfan
* Ishq
* Karamat
* Kashf
* Lataif
* Manzil
* Ma'rifa
* Maqam
* Murid
* Murshid
* Nafs
* Nūr
* Qalandar
* Qayyum
* Qutb
* Silsila
* Sufi cosmology
* Sufi metaphysics
* Sufi philosophy
* Sufi poetry
* Sufi psychology
* Salik
* Tazkiah
* Wali
* Yaqeen

Practices

* Anasheed
* Dhikr
* Haḍra
* Muraqabah
* Qawwali
* Sama
* Whirling
* Ziyarat

Sufi orders

* Alians
* Ba 'Alawi
* Bektashi
* Qadiri
* Chishti
* Naqshbandi
* Shadhili
* Suhrawardi
* Rifaʽi
* Khalwati
* Rahmani
* Badawi
* Burhani
* Tijani
* Darqawi
* Idrisi
* Senusi
* Bayrami
* Jelveti
* Maizbhandari
* Malamati
* Mouridi
* Sülaymaniyya
* Salihiyya
* Azeemia
* Kubrawi
* Mevlevi
* Shattari
* Uwaisi
* Hurufi
* Ni'matullāhī
* Nuqtavi
* Qalandari
* Safavi
* Zahabiya
* Akbari
* Galibi
* Haqqani Anjuman
* Inayati
* Issawiyya
* Jerrahi
* Madari
* Mahdavi
* Noorbakshi
* Zahedi
* Zikri

List of sufis

* Notable early
* Notable modern
* Singers

Topics in Sufism

* Tawhid
* Sharia
* Tariqa
* Haqiqa
* Ma'rifa
* Art
* History
* Sufi music
* Persecution
* Ziyarat

Islam portal

* v
* t
* e

Main article: Sufism

Further information: List of Sufi orders and List of Sufi saints

Sufism is Islam's mystical-ascetic dimension and is represented by schools or orders known as Tasawwufī-Ṭarīqah. It is seen as that aspect of Islamic teaching that deals with the purification of inner self. By focusing on the more spiritual aspects of religion, Sufis strive to obtain direct experience of God by making use of "intuitive and emotional faculties" that one must be trained to use.[81][full citation needed]

The following list contains some notable Sufi orders:

* The Azeemiyya order was founded in 1960 by Qalandar Baba Auliya, also known as Syed Muhammad Azeem Barkhia.
* The Bektashi order was founded in the 13th century by the Islamic saint Haji Bektash Veli, and greatly influenced during its formulative period by the Hurufi Ali al-'Ala in the 15th century and reorganized by Balım Sultan in the 16th century. Because of its adherence to the Twelve Imams it is classified under Twelver Shia Islam.[citation needed]
* The Chishti order (Persian: چشتیہ) was founded by (Khawaja) Abu Ishaq Shami ("the Syrian"; died 941) who brought Sufism to the town of Chisht, some 95 miles east of Herat in present-day Afghanistan. Before returning to the Levant, Shami initiated, trained and deputized the son of the local Emir (Khwaja) Abu Ahmad Abdal (died 966). Under the leadership of Abu Ahmad's descendants, the Chishtiyya as they are also known, flourished as a regional mystical order. The founder of the Chishti Order in South Asia was Moinuddin Chishti.
* The Kubrawiya order was founded in the 13th century by Najmuddin Kubra in Bukhara in modern-day Uzbekistan.[82]
* The Mevlevi order is better known in the West as the "whirling dervishes".
* Mouride is most prominent in Senegal and The Gambia, with headquarters in the holy city of Touba, Senegal.[83]
* The Naqshbandi order was founded in 1380 by Baha-ud-Din Naqshband Bukhari. It is considered by some to be a "sober" order known for its silent dhikr (remembrance of God) rather than the vocalized forms of dhikr common in other orders. The Süleymani and Khalidiyya orders are offshoots of the Naqshbandi order.
* The Ni'matullahi order is the most widespread Sufi order of Persia today. It was founded by Shah Ni'matullah Wali (d. 1367), established and transformed from his inheritance of the Ma'rufiyyah circle.[84] There are several suborders in existence today, the most known and influential in the West following the lineage of Javad Nurbakhsh, who brought the order to the West following the 1979 Iranian Revolution.
* The Noorbakshia order,[85] also called Nurbakshia,[86][87] claims to trace its direct spiritual lineage and chain (silsilah) to the Islamic prophet Muhammad, through Ali, by way of Ali Al-Ridha. This order became known as Nurbakshi after Shah Syed Muhammad Nurbakhsh Qahistani, who was aligned to the Kubrawiya order.
* The Oveysi (or Uwaiysi) order claims to have been founded 1,400 years ago by Uwais al-Qarni from Yemen.
* The Qadiri order is one of the oldest Sufi Orders. It derives its name from Abdul-Qadir Gilani (1077–1166), a native of the Iranian province of Gīlān. The order is one of the most widespread of the Sufi orders in the Islamic world, and can be found in Central Asia, Turkey, Balkans and much of East and West Africa. The Qadiriyyah have not developed any distinctive doctrines or teachings outside of mainstream Islam. They believe in the fundamental principles of Islam, but interpreted through mystical experience. The Ba'Alawi order is an offshoot of Qadiriyyah.
* Senussi is a religious-political Sufi order established by Muhammad ibn Ali as-Senussi. As-Senussi founded this movement due to his criticism of the Egyptian ulema.[88]
* The Shadhili order was founded by Abu-l-Hassan ash-Shadhili. Followers (murids Arabic: seekers) of the Shadhiliyya are often known as Shadhilis.[89][90]
* The Suhrawardiyya order (Arabic: سهروردية) is a Sufi order founded by Abu al-Najib al-Suhrawardi (1097–1168).
* The Tijaniyyah order attach a large importance to culture and education, and emphasize the individual adhesion of the disciple (murid).

## Later movements

[edit]

### African-American movements

[edit]

Many slaves brought from Africa to the Western Hemisphere were Muslims,[91] and the early 20th century saw the rise of distinct Islamic religious and political movements within the African-American community in the United States,[92] such as Darul Islam,[91] the Islamic Party of North America,[91] the Mosque of Islamic Brotherhood (MIB),[91] the Muslim Alliance in North America,[91] the Moorish Science Temple of America,[92] the Nation of Islam (NOI),[92][93][94][95] and the Ansaaru Allah Community.[96] They sought to ascribe Islamic heritage to African-Americans, thereby giving much emphasis on racial and ethnic aspects[93][92][94][95][97] (see black nationalism and black separatism).[91][96][98] These black Muslim movements often differ greatly in matters of doctrine from mainstream Islam.[92][94][96][98] They include:

* Moorish Science Temple of America, founded in 1913 by Noble Drew Ali (born Timothy Drew).[95] The Moorish Science Temple of America is characterized by a strong African-American ethnic and religious identity.[92][95][99]
* Moorish Orthodox Church of America
* Nation of Islam, founded by Wallace Fard Muhammad in Detroit in 1930,[100] with a declared aim of "resurrecting" the spiritual, mental, social, and economic condition of the black man and woman of America and the world.[92][93][94] The Nation of Islam believes that Wallace Fard Muhammad was God on earth.[98][100][101] The Nation of Islam doesn't consider the Arabian Muhammad as the final prophet and instead regards Elijah Muhammad, successor of Wallace Fard Muhammad, as the true Messenger of Allah.[92][93][94]
* American Society of Muslims: Warith Deen Mohammed established the American Society of Muslims in 1975.[91] This offshoot of the Nation of Islam wanted to bring its teachings more in line with mainstream Sunni Islam, establishing mosques instead of temples, and promoting the Five pillars of Islam.[102][103]
* Five-Percent Nation[91]
* United Nation of Islam

### Ahmadiyya Movement in Islam

[edit]

Main article: Ahmadiyya

Part of a series on
Ahmadiyya

Beliefs and practices

* Tawhid
* Five Pillars of Islam
* Six articles of faith
* Bay'ah

Distinct views

* Mirza Ghulam Ahmad
* Prophets
* Jesus
* Jihad
* Evolution

Days of remembrance

* Caliphate Day
* Eid al-Adha
* Eid al-Fitr
* Promised Messiah Day
* Promised Reformer Day

Foundational texts and sciences

* Quran
* Sunnah (Hadith, Sirah)
* Aqidah (creed)
* Tafsir (exegesis)

* Fiqh (jurisprudence)
* Sharia (law)

Key literature

* Rūhānī Khazā᾽in
* Malfūzāt
* Tafsīr-e-Kabīr
* Haqā'iq al-Furqān
* Review of Religions
* Al Fazl (newspaper)
* The Muslim Sunrise

Organizational structure

* Caliphs:
* I
* II
* III
* IV
* V

* Majlis al-Shura

* Lajna
* Khuddām
* Ansār

* Jalsa Salana
* Mosques
* Jamia
* MTA

Key sites

Hijaz

* Kaaba
* Masjid al-Haram
* Al-Masjid an-Nabawi

United Kingdom

* Fazl Mosque
* Baitul Futuh Mosque
* Mubarak Mosque

Qadian

* Aqsa Mosque
* Minaret-ul-Masih
* Mubarak Mosque

Rabwah

* Aqsa Mosque
* Jamia

Miscellaneous

* Persecution
* Mirzai
* Qadiani
* Ahmadiyya by country
* Ahmadiyya and other faiths
* List of Ahmadis
* Humanity First (NGO Charity)
* Lahore Ahmadiyya Movement
* Ahmadiyya translations of the Quran
* Roza Bal (Tomb of Jesus)
* Mai Mari da Ashtan (Tomb of Mary)

* v
* t
* e

The Ahmadiyya Movement in Islam was founded in British India in 1889 by Mirza Ghulam Ahmad of Qadian, who claimed to be the promised Messiah ("Second Coming of Christ"), the Mahdi awaited by the Muslims as well as a "subordinate" prophet to the Islamic prophet Muhammad.[104][105][106][107] Ahmadis claim to practice the pristine form of Islam as followed by Muhammad and his earliest followers.[108][109] They believe that it was Mirza Ghulam Ahmad's task to restore the original sharia given to Muhammad by guiding the Ummah back to the "true" Islam and defeat the attacks on Islam by other religions.[104][105][106][107][110]

There are a wide variety of distinct beliefs and teachings of Ahmadis compared to those of most other Muslims,[104][105][106][107] which include the interpretation of the Quranic title Khatam an-Nabiyyin,[111] interpretation of the Messiah's Second Coming,[105][112] complete rejection of the abrogation/cancellation of Quranic verses,[113] belief that Jesus survived the crucifixion and died of old age in India,[105][106][114] conditions of the "Jihad of the Sword" are no longer met,[105][115] belief that divine revelation (as long as no new sharia is given) will never end,[116] belief in cyclical nature of history until Muhammad,[116] and belief in the implausibility of a contradiction between Islam and science.[110] These perceived deviations from normative Islamic thought have resulted in severe persecution of Ahmadis in various Muslim-majority countries,[105] particularly Pakistan,[105][117] where they have been branded as Non-Muslims and their Islamic religious practices are punishable by the Ahmadi-Specific laws in the penal code.[118]

The followers of the Ahmadiyya Movement in Islam are divided into two groups: the first being the Ahmadiyya Muslim Community, currently the dominant group, and the Lahore Ahmadiyya Movement for the Propagation of Islam.[105] The larger group takes a literalist view believing that Mirza Ghulam Ahmad was the promised Mahdi and a Ummati Nabi subservient to Muhammad, while the latter believing that he was only a religious reformer and a prophet only in an allegorical sense.[105] Both Ahmadi groups are active in dawah or Islamic missionary work, and have produced vasts amounts of Islamic literature, including numerous translations of the Quran, translations of the Hadith, Quranic tafsirs, a multitude of sirahs of Muhammad, and works on the subject of comparative religion among others.[105][107] As such, their international influence far exceeds their number of adherents.[105][107][119] Muslims from more Orthodox sects of Islam have adopted many Ahmadi polemics and understandings of other religions,[120] along with the Ahmadi approach to reconcile Islamic and Western education as well as to establish Islamic school systems, particularly in Africa.[121]

### Barelvi / Deobandi split

[edit]

Sunni Muslims of the Indian subcontinent comprising present day India, Pakistan and Bangladesh who are overwhelmingly Hanafi by fiqh have split into two schools or movements, the Barelvi and the Deobandi. While the Deobandi is revivalist in nature, the Barelvi are more traditional and inclined towards Sufism.

### Gülen / Hizmet movement

[edit]

The Gülen movement, usually referred to as the Hizmet movement,[122] established in the 1970s as an offshoot of the Nur Movement[123] and led by the Turkish Islamic scholar and preacher Fethullah Gülen in Turkey, Central Asia, and in other parts of the world, is active in education, with private schools and universities in over 180 countries as well as with many American charter schools operated by followers. It has initiated forums for interfaith dialogue.[124][125] The Cemaat movement's structure has been described as a flexible organizational network.[126] Movement schools and businesses organize locally and link themselves into informal networks.[127] Estimates of the number of schools and educational institutions vary widely; it appears there are about 300 Gülen movement schools in Turkey and over 1,000 schools worldwide.[128][129]

### Islamic modernism

[edit]

Islamic modernism, also sometimes referred to as "modernist Salafism",[130][131][132][133][134] is a movement that has been described as "the first Muslim ideological response"[135] attempting to reconcile Islamic faith with modern Western values such as nationalism, democracy, and science.[136]

### Islamism

[edit]

Part of a series on

Islamism

Fundamentals

* Islam
* History
* Culture
* Economics
* Politics
* Secularism

Ideologies

* Salafi movement
* Salafi jihadism
* International propagation
* By region
* Deobandi movement
* Deobandi jihadism
* Qutbism
* Khomeinism
* Shia Islamism
* Islamic fundamentalism
* Islamic nationalism

Concepts

* Apostasy in Islam
* Takfir
* Islamic governance
* Caliphate
* Islamic democracy
* Islamic feminism
* Islamic liberalism
* Islamic socialism
* Islamic extremism
* Islamic state
* Islamic republic
* Spread of Islam (of knowledge)
* Jihad
* Islamic terrorism
* Jihadism
* Pan-Islamism
* Political Islam
* aspects
* Post-Islamism
* Sharia
* Shura
* Two-nation theory
* Ummah

Influences

* Anti-communism
* Anti-imperialism
* Anti-Zionism
* Decolonization
* Islamic Golden Age
* Islamic revival

Movements

Scholastic

* Barelvi
* Dawat-e-Islami
* Deobandi
* Nurcu
* Salafism
* Madkhalism
* Ahl-i Hadith
* Sahwa movement
* Wahhabism
* International propagation
* by country/region

Political

* Salafist Front
* Salafist Call
* Movement of Society for Peace
* Hamas
* Party of Democratic Action
* Jamaat-e-Islami
* Millî Görüş
* Muslim Brotherhood
* List of Islamic political parties

Militant

* Militant Islamism based in
* MENA region
* South Asia
* Southeast Asia
* Sub-Saharan Africa

Key texts

* The Caliphate or the Grand Imamate (Rashīd Rīďha 1922)
* Reconstruction of Religious Thought in Islam (Iqbal 1930s)
* Principles of State and Government (Asad 1961)
* Ma'alim fi al-Tariq ("Milestones") (Qutb 1965)
* Islamic Government:
Governance of the Jurist ("Velayat-e faqih") (Khomeini 1970)

Heads of state

* Ahmed al-Sharaa
* Recep Tayyip Erdoğan
* Ruhollah Khomeini
* Mohamed Morsi
* Muammar Gaddafi
* Alija Izetbegović
* Ismail Haniyeh
* Zia ul-Haq
* Ali Khamenei
* Omar al-Bashir
* Mohammed Omar
* House of Saud
* House of Thani
* Hibatullah Akhundzada
* Sadiq al-Mahdi

Key ideologues

* Abu Hamza al-Masri
* Rabee al-Madkhali
* Muhammad Abduh
* Jamāl al-Dīn al-Afghānī
* Qazi Hussain Ahmad
* Muhammad Nasiruddin al-Albani
* Muhammad Asad
* Hassan al-Banna
* Rached Ghannouchi
* Safwat Hegazi
* Muhammad Iqbal
* Ali Khamenei
* Ruhollah Khomeini
* Necip Fazıl Kısakürek
* Abul A'la Maududi
* Abul Hasan Nadwi
* Taqi al-Din al-Nabhani
* Yusuf al-Qaradawi
* Sayyid Qutb
* Tariq Ramadan
* Ata Abu Rashta
* Rashid Rida
* Navvab Safavi
* Ali Shariati
* Haji Shariatullah
* Hassan Al-Turabi
* Ahmed Yassin
* Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab

Criticism

* Liberal and reform movements within Islam
* in Europe
* in North America
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Islamism is a set of political ideologies, derived from various fundamentalist views, which hold that Islam is not only a religion but a political system that should govern the legal, economic and social imperatives of the state. Many Islamists do not refer to themselves as such and it is not a single particular movement. Religious views and ideologies of its adherents vary, and they may be Sunni Islamists or Shia Islamists depending upon their beliefs. Islamist groups include groups such as Al-Qaeda, the organizer of the September 11, 2001 attacks and perhaps the most prominent; and the Muslim Brotherhood, the largest and perhaps the oldest. Although violence is often employed by some organizations, most Islamist movements are nonviolent.

#### Muslim Brotherhood

[edit]

The Al-Ikhwan Al-Muslimun (with Ikhwan الإخوان brethren) or Muslim Brotherhood, is an organisation that was founded by Egyptian scholar Hassan al-Banna, a graduate of Dar al-Ulum. With its various branches, it is the largest Sunni movement in the Arab world, and an affiliate is often the largest opposition party in many Arab nations. The Muslim Brotherhood is not concerned with theological differences, accepting both, Muslims of any of the four Sunni schools of thought, and Shi'a Muslims. It is the world's oldest and largest Islamist group. Its aims are to re-establish the Caliphate and in the meantime, push for more Islamisation of society. The Brotherhood's stated goal is to instill the Qur'an and sunnah as the "sole reference point for... ordering the life of the Muslim family, individual, community... and state".[citation needed]

#### Jamaat-e-Islami

[edit]

The Jamaat-e-Islami (or JI) is an Islamist political party in the Indian subcontinent. It was founded in Lahore, British India, by Sayyid Abul Ala Maududi (with alternative spellings of last name Maudoodi) in 1941 and is the oldest religious party in Pakistan. Today, sister organizations with similar objectives and ideological approaches exist in India (Jamaat-e-Islami Hind), Bangladesh (Jamaat-e-Islami Bangladesh), Kashmir (Jamaat-e-Islami Kashmir), and Sri Lanka, and there are "close brotherly relations" with the Islamist movements and missions "working in different continents and countries", particularly those affiliated with the Muslim Brotherhood (Akhwan-al-Muslimeen). The JI envisions an Islamic government in Pakistan and Bangladesh governing by Islamic law. It opposes Westernization—including secularization, capitalism, socialism, or such practices as interest based banking, and favours an Islamic economic order and Caliphate. [citation needed]

#### Hizb ut-Tahrir

[edit]

Hizb ut-Tahrir (Arabic: حزب التحرير) (Translation: Party of Liberation) is an international, pan-Islamist political organization which describes its ideology as Islam, and its aim the re-establishment of the Islamic Khilafah (Caliphate) to resume Islamic ways of life in the Muslim world. The caliphate would unite the Muslim community (Ummah)[137] upon their Islamic creed and implement the Shariah, so as to then carry the proselytizing of Islam to the rest of the world.[138]

### Quranism

[edit]

Main article: Quranism

Quranism[139] or Quraniyya (Arabic: القرآنية; al-Qur'āniyya) is a quran only[140][clarification needed] branch of Islam. It holds the belief that Islamic guidance and law should only be based on the Quran, thus opposing the religious authority and authenticity of the hadith literature.[141][142] Quranists believe that God's message is already clear and complete in the Quran and it can therefore be fully understood without referencing outside texts.[143] Quranists claim that the vast majority of hadith literature are forged lies and believe that the Quran itself criticizes the hadith both in the technical sense and the general sense.[144][141][145][146][147][148][excessive citations]

### Liberal and progressive Islam

[edit]

Main article: Liberalism and progressivism within Islam

Further information: Liberal and progressive Islam in Europe and Liberal and progressive Islam in North America

Liberal Islam originally emerged from the Islamic revivalist movement of the 18th–19th centuries.[149] Liberal and progressive Islamic organizations and movements are primarily based in the Western world, and have in common a religious outlook which depends mainly on ijtihad or re-interpretation of the sacred scriptures of Islam.[149] Liberal and progressive Muslims are characterized by a rationalistic, critical examination and re-interpretation of the sacred scriptures of Islam;[149] affirmation and promotion of democracy, gender equality, human rights, LGBT rights, women's rights, religious pluralism, interfaith marriage,[150][151] freedom of expression, freedom of thought, and freedom of religion;[149] opposition to theocracy and total rejection of Islamism and Islamic fundamentalism;[149] and a modern view of Islamic theology, ethics, sharia, culture, tradition, and other ritualistic practices in Islam.[149]

### Mahdavia

[edit]

Mahdavia, or Mahdavism, is a Mahdiist sect founded in late 15th century India by Syed Muhammad Jaunpuri, who declared himself to be the Hidden Twelfth Imam of the Twelver Shia tradition.[152] They follow many aspects of the Sunni doctrine. Zikri Mahdavis, or Zikris, are an offshoot of the Mahdavi movement.[153]

### Non-denominational Muslims

[edit]

Main article: Non-denominational Muslims

"Non-denominational Muslims" (Arabic: مسلمون بلا طائفة, romanized: Muslimūn bi-la ṭā’ifa) is an umbrella term that has been used for and by Muslims who do not belong to a specific Islamic denomination, do not self-identify with any specific Islamic denomination, or cannot be readily classified under one of the identifiable Islamic schools and branches.[154][155][156] A quarter of the world's Muslim population see themselves as "just a Muslim".[157]

Non-denominational Muslims constitute the majority of the Muslim population in seven countries, and a plurality in three others: Albania (65%), Kyrgyzstan (64%), Kosovo (58%), Indonesia (56%), Mali (55%), Bosnia and Herzegovina (54%), Uzbekistan (54%), Azerbaijan (45%), Russia (45%), and Nigeria (42%).[157] They are found primarily in Central Asia.[157] Kazakhstan has the largest number of non-denominational Muslims, who constitute about 74% of the population.[157] While the majority of the population in the Middle East identify as either Sunni or Shi'a, a significant number of Muslims identify as non-denominational.[158] Southeastern Europe also has a large number of non-denominational Muslims.[159]

In 1947, the non-sectarian movement Jama'ah al-Taqrib bayna al-Madhahib al-Islamiyyah was founded in Cairo, Egypt.[160] Several of its supporters were high-ranking scholars of Al-Ahzar University.[161] The movement sought to bridge the gap between Sunnis and Shi'is.[161] At the end of the 1950s, the movement reached a wider public, as the Egyptian president Gamal Abdel Nasser discovered the usefulness of pan-Islamism for his foreign policy.[161]

### Salafism and Wahhabism

[edit]

#### Ahle Hadith

[edit]

Main article: Ahl-i Hadith

Ahl-i Hadith (Persian: اهل حدیث, Urdu: اہل حدیث: transl. People of the traditions of the Prophet) is a movement which emerged in the Indian subcontinent in the mid-19th century. Its followers call themselves Ahl al-Hadith and are considered to be a branch of the Salafiyya school. Ahl-i Hadith is antithetical to various beliefs and mystical practices associated with folk Sufism. Ahl-i Hadith shares many doctrinal similarities with the Wahhabi movement and hence often classified as being synonymous with the "Wahhabis" by its adversaries. However, its followers reject this designation, preferring to identify themselves as "Salafis".[162][163][164][165]

#### Salafiyya movement

[edit]

Part of a series on:
Salafi movement

Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab Mosque, Qatar

Theology and Influences

* Ahl al-Hadith
* Ibn Taymiyya
* Ibn Qayyim al-Jawziyya
* Ibn Kathir
* Al-Dhahabi
* Ibn Abd al-Hadi
* Ibn Muflih
* Muhammad Hayaat Al-Sindhi
* Ismail Dehlavi

Founders and key figures

* Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab
* Rabee al-Madkhali
* Syed Nazeer Husain
* Siddiq Hasan Khan
* Jamal al-Din Qasimi
* Rashid Rida
* Muhammad ibn Ibrahim Al ash-Sheikh
* Ibn Baz
* Al-Uthaymin
* Al-Shawkani
* Al-Albani
* Al-Fawzan
* Ibn Jibrin
* Zubayr Ali Za'i
* List of Salafi scholars

Notable universities

* Umm al-Qura University
* Islamic University of Madinah
* Imam Mohammad Ibn Saud Islamic University
* Jamia Salafia, Faisalabad
* Jamia Salafia, Varanasi
* International Islamic University
* List of Salafi Islamic universities

Related ideologies

* Ahl-i Hadith movement
* Islamism
* Islamic fundamentalism
* Madkhalism
* Manhaj
* Qutbism
* Sahwa movement
* Sailaifengye
* Salafi jihadism
* Sufi-Salafi relations
* Hazimism
* Wahhabism
* International propagation
* by country/region
* Chechnya anti-Salafi Conference

Associated organizations

* Al-Nour Party
* Authenticity Party
* People Party
* Salafist Call
* Salafist Front

Salafi jihadist groups

* Salafia Jihadia
* Takfir wal-Hijra
* Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant
* al-Qaeda
* Salafist Group for Preaching and Combat
* Salafi Army of Abu Bakr Al-Siddiq

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Main article: Salafi movement

Further information: International propagation of Salafism and Wahhabism, International propagation of Salafism and Wahhabism by region, Petro-Islam, and Salafi jihadism

The Salafiyya movement is a conservative,[166] Islahi (reform)[167] movement within Sunni Islam that emerged in the second half of the 19th century and advocate a return to the traditions of the "devout ancestors" (Salaf al-Salih). It has been described as the "fastest-growing Islamic movement"; with each scholar expressing diverse views across social, theological, and political spectrum. Salafis follow a doctrine that can be summed up as taking "a fundamentalist approach to Islam, emulating the Prophet Muhammad and his earliest followers—al-salaf al-salih, the 'pious forefathers'....They reject religious innovation, or bidʻah, and support the implementation of Sharia (Islamic law)."[168] The Salafi movement is often divided into three categories: the largest group are the purists (or quietists), who avoid politics; the second largest group are the militant activists, who get involved in politics; the third and last group are the jihadists, who constitute a minority.[168] Most of the violent Islamist groups come from the Salafi-Jihadist movement and their subgroups.[169] In recent years, Jihadi-Salafist doctrines have often been associated with the armed insurgencies of Islamic extremist movements and terrorist organizations targeting innocent civilians, both Muslims and Non-Muslims, such as al-Qaeda, ISIL/ISIS/IS/Daesh, Boko Haram, etc.[170][171][168][169] The second largest group are the Salafi activists who have a long tradition of political activism, such as those that operate in organizations like the Muslim Brotherhood, the Arab world's major Islamist movement. In the aftermath of widescale repressions after the Arab Spring, accompanied by their political failures, the activist-Salafi movements have undergone a decline. The most numerous are the quietists, who believe in disengagement from politics and accept allegiance to Muslim governments, no matter how tyrannical, to avoid fitna (chaos).[168]

#### Wahhabism

[edit]

Main article: Wahhabism

Further information: International propagation of Salafism and Wahhabism, International propagation of Salafism and Wahhabism by region, and Petro-Islam

The Wahhabi movement was founded and spearheaded by the Ḥanbalī scholar and theologian Muhammad ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab,[172][173][174] a religious preacher from the Najd region in central Arabia,[175][176][177][178][179] and was instrumental in the rise of the House of Saud to power in the Arabian peninsula.[172] Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab sought to revive and purify Islam from what he perceived as non-Islamic popular religious beliefs and practices by returning to what, he believed, were the fundamental principles of the Islamic religion.[176][177][178][179] His works were generally short, full of quotations from the Quran and Hadith literature, such as his main and foremost theological treatise, Kitāb at-Tawḥīd (Arabic: كتاب التوحيد; "The Book of Oneness").[176][177][178][179] He taught that the primary doctrine of Islam was the uniqueness and oneness of God (tawḥīd), and denounced what he held to be popular religious beliefs and practices among Muslims that he considered to be akin to heretical innovation (bidʿah) and polytheism (shirk).[176][177][178][179]

Wahhabism has been described as a conservative, strict, and fundamentalist branch of Sunnī Islam,[180] with puritan views,[180] believing in a literal interpretation of the Quran.[172] The terms "Wahhabism" and "Salafism" are sometimes evoked interchangeably, although the designation "Wahhabi" is specifically applied to the followers of Muhammad ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab and his reformist doctrines.[172] The label "Wahhabi" was not claimed by his followers, who usually refer themselves as al-Muwaḥḥidūn ("affirmers of the singularity of God"), but is rather employed by Western scholars as well as his critics.[172][173][177] Starting in the mid-1970s and 1980s, the international propagation of Salafism and Wahhabism within Sunnī Islam[180] favored by the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia[175][181][182] and other Arab states of the Persian Gulf has achieved what the French political scientist Gilles Kepel defined as a "preeminent position of strength in the global expression of Islam."[183]

22 months after the September 11 attacks, when the FBI considered al-Qaeda as "the number one terrorist threat to the United States", journalist Stephen Schwartz and U.S. Senator Jon Kyl have explicitly stated during a hearing that occurred in June 2003 before the Subcommittee on Terrorism, Technology, and Homeland Security of the U.S. Senate that "Wahhabism is the source of the overwhelming majority of terrorist atrocities in today's world".[184] As part of the global "War on terror", Wahhabism has been accused by the European Parliament, various Western security analysts, and think tanks like the RAND Corporation, as being "a source of global terrorism".[184][185] Furthermore, Wahhabism has been accused of causing disunity in the Muslim community (Ummah) and criticized for its followers' destruction of many Islamic, cultural, and historical sites associated with the early history of Islam and the first generation of Muslims (Muhammad's family and his companions) in Saudi Arabia.[186][187][188][189]

## Population of the branches

[edit]

Denomination  | Population

|

Sunni | Varies: 87% – 90%[190][191]
Non-denominational Muslim | 25%[192]
Shia | Varies: 10% – 13%[193]

Ibadi | 2.7 million[194]
Quranism | n/a

## See also

[edit]

* Amman Message
* Aqidah
* Glossary of Islam
* Index of Islam-related articles
* International Islamic Unity Conference (Iran)
* Islamic eschatology
* Islamic studies
* Madhhab
* Outline of Islam
* Schools of Islamic theology
* Shia crescent
* Shia–Sunni relations
* Succession to Muhammad

## References

[edit]

1. ^ a b c d e Geaves, Ronald (2021). "Part 1: Sunnī Traditions – Sectarianism in Sunnī Islam". In Cusack, Carole M.; Upal, M. Afzal (eds.). Handbook of Islamic Sects and Movements. Brill Handbooks on Contemporary Religion. Vol. 21\. Leiden and Boston: Brill Publishers. pp. 25–48\. doi:10.1163/9789004435544_004. ISBN 978-90-04-43554-4. ISSN 1874-6691.
2. ^ Sebastian Kusserow, Patryk Pawlak (2015). Understanding the branches of Islam (PDF). European parliamentary research service.
3. ^ a b Poljarevic, Emin (2021). "Theology of Violence-oriented Takfirism as a Political Theory: The Case of the Islamic State in Iraq and Syria (ISIS)". In Cusack, Carole M.; Upal, M. Afzal (eds.). Handbook of Islamic Sects and Movements. Brill Handbooks on Contemporary Religion. Vol. 21\. Leiden and Boston: Brill Publishers. pp. 485–512\. doi:10.1163/9789004435544_026. ISBN 978-90-04-43554-4. ISSN 1874-6691.
4. ^ a b Baele, Stephane J. (October 2019). Giles, Howard (ed.). "Conspiratorial Narratives in Violent Political Actors' Language" (PDF). Journal of Language and Social Psychology. 38 (5–6). Sage Publications: 706–734\. doi:10.1177/0261927X19868494. hdl:10871/37355. ISSN 1552-6526. S2CID 195448888. Retrieved January 3, 2022.5–6&rft.pages=706-734&rft.date=2019-10&rft_id=info:hdl/10871/37355&rft_id=https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:195448888#id-name=S2CID&rft.issn=1552-6526&rft_id=info:doi/10.1177/0261927X19868494&rft.aulast=Baele&rft.aufirst=Stephane+J.&rft_id=https://ore.exeter.ac.uk/repository/bitstream/10871/37355/2/ConspiratorialNarratives_MainArticle_Resubmit_FINAL_CLEAN%20.pdf&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:Islamic+schools+and+branches" class="Z3988">
5. ^ a b Rickenbacher, Daniel (August 2019). Jikeli, Gunther (ed.). "The Centrality of Anti-Semitism in the Islamic State's Ideology and Its Connection to Anti-Shiism". Religions. 10 (8: The Return of Religious Antisemitism?). Basel: MDPI: 483. doi:10.3390/rel10080483. ISSN 2077-1444.
6. ^ a b Badara, Mohamed; Nagata, Masaki; Tueni, Tiphanie (June 2017). "The Radical Application of the Islamist Concept of Takfir" (PDF). Arab Law Quarterly. 31 (2). Leiden: Brill Publishers: 134–162\. doi:10.1163/15730255-31020044. ISSN 1573-0255. Archived (PDF) from the original on July 11, 2019. Retrieved October 25, 2021.
7. ^ a b c d e Izutsu, Toshihiko (2006) [1965]. "The Infidel (Kāfir): The Khārijites and the origin of the problem". The Concept of Belief in Islamic Theology: A Semantic Analysis of Imān and Islām. Tokyo: Keio Institute of Cultural and Linguistic Studies at Keio University. pp. 1–20\. ISBN 983-9154-70-2 – via Google Books.
8. ^ Guidère, Mathieu (2012). Historical Dictionary of Islamic Fundamentalism. Scarecrow Press. p. 319\. ISBN 978-0-8108-7965-2 – via Google Books.
9. ^ Öz, Mustafa (2011). Mezhepler Tarihi ve Terimleri Sözlüğü [The History of madh'habs and its terminology dictionary] (in Turkish). Istanbul: Ensar Publications.
10. ^ "Branches of Shia Islam: Ismailis, Twelvers, and Bohras". Ismailimail. August 23, 2017. Retrieved November 28, 2018.
11. ^ "Mapping the Global Muslim Population". October 7, 2009. Archived from the original on December 14, 2015. Retrieved December 10, 2014. "The Pew Forum's estimate of the Shia population (10–13%) is in keeping with previous estimates, which generally have been in the range of 10–15%."
12. ^ Razwy, Sayed Ali Asgher. A Restatement of the History of Islam & Muslims. pp. 331–335.
13. ^ History of the Islamic Caliphate (in Urdu). Lahore. "In pre-Islamic times, the custom of the Arabs was to elect their chiefs by a majority vote...the same principle was adopted in the election of Abu Bakr."
14. ^ Brown, Jonathan A.C. (2009). Hadith: Muhammad's Legacy in the Medieval and Modern World. Oneworld Publications (Kindle edition). p. 180.
15. ^ Mathiesen, Kasper (2013). "Anglo-American 'Traditional Islam' and Its Discourse of Orthodoxy" (PDF). Journal of Arabic and Islamic Studies. 13: 191–219\. doi:10.5617/jais.4633.
16. ^ See:
* "Mapping the Global Muslim Population: A Report on the Size and Distribution of the World's Muslim Population". Pew Research Center. October 7, 2009. Retrieved September 24, 2013. "The Pew Forum's estimate of the Shia population (10–13%) is in keeping with previous estimates, which generally have been in the range of 10–15%. Some previous estimates, however, have placed the number of Shias at nearly 20% of the world's Muslim population."
* "Shia". Berkley Center for Religion, Peace, and World Affairs. Archived from the original on December 15, 2012. Retrieved December 5, 2011. "Shi'a Islam is the second largest branch of the tradition, with up to 200 million followers who comprise around 15% of all Muslims worldwide..."
* "Religions". The World Factbook. Central Intelligence Agency. Archived from the original on December 20, 2018. Retrieved August 25, 2010. "Shia Islam represents 10–20% of Muslims worldwide..."
17. ^ Miller, Tracy, ed. (October 2009). Mapping the Global Muslim Population: A Report on the Size and Distribution of the World's Muslim Population (PDF). Pew Research Center. Archived from the original (PDF) on October 10, 2009. Retrieved October 8, 2009.
18. ^ "Shi'i | History & Beliefs | Britannica". www.britannica.com. January 11, 2024.
19. ^ Corbin (1993), pp. 45–51
20. ^ Tabatabaei (1979), pp. 41–44
21. ^ "Early Philosophical Shiism". Cambridge University Press. Retrieved April 1, 2016.
22. ^ a b c Cook, Michael (2003). Forbidding Wrong in Islam, an Introduction. Cambridge University Press.
23. ^ Hodgson, M. G. S. (1965). "GHULĀT". Encyclopaedia of Islam. Vol. 2 (2nd ed.). Brill Academic Pub. pp. 1093–1095.
24. ^ Cosman, Madeleine Pelner; Jones, Linda Gale (2009). "The Nusayriyya Alawis". Handbook to Life in the Medieval World, 3-Volume Set. Infobase Pub. pp. 406–407\. ISBN 978-1-4381-0907-7. "The Alawis are a sect of extremist (ghuluw) Shiism, so called because of their doctrine of the deification of Ali ibn Abi Talib, the nephew of the prophet Muhammad. The movement was founded in the mid-ninth century by Muhammad ibn Nusayr al-Namiri, who also proclaimed that the 10th of the 12 Shiite imams, Ali ibn Hadi, possessed a divine nature. Alawi doctrine is secret, esoteric, and Gnostic in nature."
25. ^ Barfi, Barak (January 24, 2016). "The Real Reason Why Iran Backs Syria".
26. ^ Pipes, Daniel (1992). Greater Syria. Oxford University Press. p. 163\. ISBN 9780195363043. ""The Nusayris are more infidel than Jews or Christians, even more infidel than many polytheists. They have done greater harm to the community of Muhammad than have the warring infidels such as the Franks, the Turks, and others. To ignorant Muslims they pretend to be Shi'is, though in reality they do not believe in God or His prophet or His book ... Whenever possible, they spill the blood of Muslims ... They are always the worst enemies of the Muslims ... war and punishment in accordance with Islamic law against them are among the greatest of pious deeds and the most important obligations." – Ibn Taymiyyah"
27. ^ Me'ir Mikha'el Bar-Asher; Gauke de Kootstra; Arieh Kofsky (2002). The Nuṣayr−i-ʻalaw−i Religion: An Enquiry into Its Theology and Liturgy. Brill Pub. p. 1\. ISBN 978-90-04-12552-0.
28. ^ Talhamy, Y. (2010). "The Fatwas and the Nusayri/Alawis of Syria". Middle Eastern Studies. 46 (2): 175–194\. doi:10.1080/00263200902940251. S2CID 144709130.
29. ^ Rubin, Barry (2007). The Truth about Syria. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. p. 49. ISBN 978-1-4039-8273-5.
30. ^ Layard, Austen Henry (2010). Discoveries in the Ruins of Nineveh and Babylon: With Travels in Armenia, Kurdistan and the Desert: Being the Result of a Second Expedition Undertaken for the Trustees of the British Museum. Cambridge University Press. p. 216\. ISBN 9781108016773.
31. ^ a b c d Timani, Hussam S. (2021). "Part 5: In Between and on the Fringes of Islam – The Druze". In Cusack, Carole M.; Upal, M. Afzal (eds.). Handbook of Islamic Sects and Movements. Brill Handbooks on Contemporary Religion. Vol. 21\. Leiden; Boston: Brill Pub. pp. 724–742\. doi:10.1163/9789004435544_038. ISBN 978-90-04-43554-4. ISSN 1874-6691.
32. ^ Poonawala, Ismail K. (July–September 1999). "Review: The Fatimids and Their Traditions of Learning by Heinz Halm". Journal of the American Oriental Society. 119 (3). American Oriental Society: 542. doi:10.2307/605981. ISSN 0003-0279. JSTOR 605981. LCCN 12032032. OCLC 47785421.
33. ^ "Are the Druze People Arabs or Muslims? Deciphering Who They Are". Arab America. August 8, 2018. Retrieved April 13, 2020.
34. ^ J. Stewart, Dona (2008). The Middle East Today: Political, Geographical and Cultural Perspectives. Routledge. p. 33\. ISBN 9781135980795. "Most Druze do not consider themselves Muslim. Historically they faced much persecution and keep their religious beliefs secrets."
35. ^ Lewis, James (2002). The Encyclopedia of Cults, Sects, and New Religions. Prometheus Books – via Google Books.
36. ^ De McLaurin, Ronald (1979). The Political Role of Minority Groups in the Middle East. Michigan University Press. p. 114\. ISBN 9780030525964. "Theologically, one would have to conclude that the Druze are not Muslims. They do not accept the five pillars of Islam. In place of these principles the Druze have instituted the seven precepts noted above."
37. ^ Hunter, Shireen (2010). The Politics of Islamic Revivalism: Diversity and Unity: Center for Strategic and International Studies (Washington, D.C.), Georgetown University. Center for Strategic and International Studies. University of Michigan Press. p. 33\. ISBN 9780253345493. "Druze - An offshoot of Shi'ism; its members are not considered Muslims by orthodox Muslims."
38. ^ D. Grafton, David (2009). Piety, Politics, and Power: Lutherans Encountering Islam in the Middle East. Wipf and Stock Publishers. p. 14\. ISBN 9781630877187. "In addition, there are several quasi-Muslim sects, in that, although they follow many of the beliefs and practices of orthodox Islam, the majority of Sunnis consider them heretical. These would be the Ahmadiyya, Druze, Ibadi, and the Yazidis."
39. ^ R. Williams, Victoria (2020). Indigenous Peoples: An Encyclopedia of Culture, History, and Threats to Survival [4 volumes]. Santa Barbara, Ca: ABC-Clio. p. 318\. ISBN 9781440861185. "As Druze is a nonritualistic religion without requirements to pray, fast, make pilgrimages, or observe days of rest, the Druze are not considered an Islamic people by Sunni Muslims."
40. ^ Roald, Anne Sofie (2011). Religious Minorities in the Middle East: Domination, Self-Empowerment, Accommodation. Brill Pub. p. 255\. ISBN 9789004207424. "Therefore, many of these scholars follow Ibn Taymiyya'sfatwa from the beginning of the fourteenth century that declared the Druzes and the Alawis as heretics outside Islam ..."
41. ^ Zabad, Ibrahim (2017). Middle Eastern Minorities: The Impact of the Arab Spring. Taylor & Francis. p. 126\. ISBN 9781317096733.
42. ^ Knight, Michael (2009). Journey to the End of Islam. Soft Skull Press. p. 129\. ISBN 9781593765521.
43. ^ S. Swayd, Samy (2009). The A to Z of the Druzes. Rowman & Littlefield. p. 37\. ISBN 9780810868366. "Subsequently, Muslim opponents of the Druzes have often relied on Ibn Taymiyya's religious ruling to justify their attitudes and actions against Druzes..."
44. ^ a b c d e f Cole, Juan (December 30, 2012) [December 15, 1988]. "BAHAISM i. The Faith". Encyclopædia Iranica. Vol. III/4. New York: Columbia University. pp. 438–446\. doi:10.1163/2330-4804_EIRO_COM_6391. ISSN 2330-4804. Archived from the original on January 23, 2013. Retrieved December 11, 2020.
45. ^ a b c Osborn, Lil (2021). "Part 5: In Between and on the Fringes of Islam – The Bahāʾī Faith". In Cusack, Carole M.; Upal, M. Afzal (eds.). Handbook of Islamic Sects and Movements. Brill Handbooks on Contemporary Religion. Vol. 21\. Leiden; Boston: Brill Pub. pp. 761–773\. doi:10.1163/9789004435544_040. ISBN 978-90-04-43554-4. ISSN 1874-6691.
46. ^ "Sunan Ibn Majah 176 – The Book of the Sunnah – كتاب المقدمة – Sunnah.com – Sayings and Teachings of Prophet Muhammad (صلى الله عليه و سلم)". sunnah.com. Retrieved March 30, 2022.
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175. ^ a b Wagemakers, Joas (2021). "Part 3: Fundamentalisms and Extremists – The Citadel of Salafism". In Cusack, Carole M.; Upal, M. Afzal (eds.). Handbook of Islamic Sects and Movements. Brill Handbooks on Contemporary Religion. Vol. 21\. Leiden and Boston: Brill Publishers. pp. 333–347\. doi:10.1163/9789004435544_019. ISBN 978-90-04-43554-4. ISSN 1874-6691.
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177. ^ a b c d e Haykel, Bernard (2013). "Ibn ‛Abd al-Wahhab, Muhammad (1703-92)". In Böwering, Gerhard; Crone, Patricia; Kadi, Wadad; Mirza, Mahan; Stewart, Devin J.; Zaman, Muhammad Qasim (eds.). The Princeton Encyclopedia of Islamic Political Thought. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. pp. 231–232\. ISBN 978-0-691-13484-0. Retrieved July 15, 2020.
178. ^ a b c d Esposito, John L., ed. (2004). "Ibn Abd al-Wahhab, Muhammad (d. 1791)". The Oxford Dictionary of Islam. New York City: Oxford University Press. p. 123\. ISBN 0-19-512559-2. Retrieved October 1, 2020.
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180. ^ a b c Musa, Mohd Faizal (2018). "The Riyal and Ringgit of Petro-Islam: Investing Salafism in Education". In Saat, Norshahril (ed.). Islam in Southeast Asia: Negotiating Modernity. Singapore: ISEAS Publishing. pp. 63–88\. doi:10.1355/9789814818001-006. ISBN 9789814818001. S2CID 159438333.
181. ^ Hasan, Noorhaidi (2010). "The Failure of the Wahhabi Campaign: Transnational Islam and the Salafi madrasa in post-9/11 Indonesia". South East Asia Research. 18 (4). Taylor & Francis on behalf of the SOAS University of London: 675–705\. doi:10.5367/sear.2010.0015. ISSN 2043-6874. JSTOR 23750964. S2CID 147114018.
182. ^ "6 common misconceptions about Salafi Muslims in the West". OUPblog. October 5, 2016. Retrieved August 20, 2021.
183. ^ Kepel, Gilles (2003). Jihad: The Trail of Political Islam. New York City: I.B. Tauris. pp. 61–62\. ISBN 9781845112578.
184. ^ a b "Terrorism: Growing Wahhabi Influence in the United States". www.govinfo.gov. Washington, D.C.: United States Government Publishing Office. June 26, 2003. Archived from the original on December 15, 2018. Retrieved June 26, 2021. "Nearly 22 months have passed since the atrocity of September 11. Since then, many questions have been asked about the role in that day's terrible events and in other challenges we face in the war against terror of Saudi Arabia and its official sect, a separatist, exclusionary and violent form of Islam known as Wahhabism. It is widely recognized that all of the 19 suicide pilots were Wahhabi followers. In addition, 15 of the 19 were Saudi subjects. Journalists and experts, as well as spokespeople of the world, have said that Wahhabism is the source of the overwhelming majority of terrorist atrocities in today's world, from Morocco to Indonesia, via Israel, Saudi Arabia, Chechnya. In addition, Saudi media sources have identified Wahhabi agents from Saudi Arabia as being responsible for terrorist attacks on U.S. troops in Iraq. The Washington Post has confirmed Wahhabi involvement in attacks against U.S. forces in Fallujah. To examine the role of Wahhabism and terrorism is not to label all Muslims as extremists. Indeed, I want to make this point very, very clear. It is the exact opposite. Analyzing Wahhabism means identifying the extreme element that, although enjoying immense political and financial resources, thanks to support by a sector of the Saudi state, seeks to globally hijack Islam [...] The problem we are looking at today is the State-sponsored doctrine and funding of an extremist ideology that provides the recruiting grounds, support infrastructure and monetary life blood of today's international terrorists. The extremist ideology is Wahhabism, a major force behind terrorist groups, like al Qaeda, a group that, according to the FBI, and I am quoting, is the "number one terrorist threat to the U.S. today"."
185. ^ Haider, Murtaza (July 22, 2013). "European Parliament identifies Wahabi and Salafi roots of global terrorism". Dawn. Pakistan. Retrieved August 3, 2014.
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187. ^ Rabasa, Angel; Benard, Cheryl (2004). "The Middle East: Cradle of the Muslim World". The Muslim World After 9/11. Rand Corporation. p. 103, note 60. ISBN 0-8330-3712-9.
188. ^ Howden, Daniel (August 6, 2005). "The destruction of Mecca: Saudi hardliners are wiping out their own heritage". The Independent. Archived from the original on October 20, 2011. Retrieved December 21, 2009.
189. ^ Finn, Helena Kane (October 8, 2002). "Cultural Terrorism and Wahhabi Islam". Council on Foreign Relations. Archived from the original on September 4, 2014. Retrieved August 5, 2014. "It is the undisputed case that the Taliban justification for this travesty [the destruction of the Buddha statues at Bamiyan] can be traced to the Wahhabi indoctrination program prevalent in the Afghan refugee camps and Saudi-funded Islamic schools (madrasas) in Pakistan that produced the Taliban. ...In Saudi Arabia itself, the destruction has focused on the architectural heritage of Islam's two holiest cities, Mecca and Medina, where Wahhabi religious foundations, with state support, have systematically demolished centuries-old mosques and mausolea, as well as hundreds of traditional Hijazi mansions and palaces."
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194. ^ Brenton Betts, Robert (July 31, 2013). The Sunni-Shi'a Divide: Islam's Internal Divisions and Their Global Consequences. Potomac Books. pp. 14–15\. ISBN 9781612345222. Retrieved August 7, 2015 – via Google Books.

## External links

[edit]

Wikisource has the text of a 1905 New International Encyclopedia article about "Islamic schools and branches".

Wikimedia Commons has media related to Islamic sects.

* The Four Sunni Schools of Thought

* v
* t
* e

Islamic theology

* Fields
* Theologians
* Books

| Fields|

| Aqidah|

* Eschatology
* Ethics
* Kalam

|

Philosophy|

* ‘Aql
* Education
* Logic
* Peace

Science|

* Astronomy
* Cosmology
* Physics

Sufism|

* Cosmology
* Metaphysics
* Philosophy

Theologians|

| Ash'arism
(al-Ash'ari)|

* Al-Bayhaqi
* Al-Baqillani
* Al-Juwayni
* Al-Qushayri
* Al-Shahrastani
* Al-Ghazali
* Al-Taftazani
* Al-Maziri
* Ibn Furak
* Ibn Abi Zayd al-Qayrawani
* Zakariyya al-Ansari
* Abu Mansur al-Baghdadi
* Abu Ishaq al-Isfara'ini
* Ibn Aqil
* Ibn Tumart
* Abdul Qadir Gilani
* Abu al-Walid al-Baji
* Abu Bakr ibn al-Arabi
* Ibn al-Jawzi
* Qadi Ayyad
* Ahmad al-Rifa'i
* Fakhr al-Din al-Razi
* Sayf al-Din al-Amidi
* Izz al-Din ibn 'Abd al-Salam
* Taqi al-Din al-Subki
* Shihab al-Din al-Qarafi
* Abu Hayyan al-Gharnati
* Al-Baydawi
* Ibn Khaldun
* Ibn Arafa
* Abd al-Rahman al-Tha'alibi
* Ibn Hajar al-Haytami
* Al-Sha'rani
* Jalal al-Din al-Dawani
* Al-Maqqari al-Tilmisani
* Abd al-Rahman al-Fasi
* Ibn Ashir
* Al-Bahūtī
* Muhammad Mayyara
* Abu Ali al-Hassan al-Yusi
* 'Illish
* Ibrahim al-Bajuri
* Abdullah ibn Alawi al-Haddad
* Ahmad al-Dardir
* Muhammad Arafa al-Desouki
* Ahmad Zayni Dahlan
* Said Nursî

|

Early Sunni|

* Abū Ḥanīfah al-Nu'mān ibn Thābit (Hanafiyah)
* Malik ibn Anas (Maliki)
* Al-Shafi'i (Shafi‘i)

Maturidism
(Al-Maturidi)|

* Al-Hakim al-Samarqandi
* Al-Sarakhsi
* Al-Bazdawi
* Abu al-Yusr al-Bazdawi
* Abu al-Mu'in al-Nasafi
* Abu Ishaq al-Saffar al-Bukhari
* Abu al-Layth al-Samarqandi
* 'Ala' al-Din al-Bukhari
* Al-Sharif al-Jurjani
* Akmal al-Din al-Babarti
* Jamal al-Din al-Ghaznawi
* Nur al-Din al-Sabuni
* Najm al-Din 'Umar al-Nasafi
* Siraj al-Din al-Ushi
* Shams al-Din al-Samarqandi
* Khidr Bey
* Ibn Kemal
* Ali Qushji
* Ali al-Qari
* Al-Maydani
* Ahmad Sirhindi
* Anwar Shah Kashmiri
* Shah Waliullah Dehlawi
* Shah Abdul Aziz
* Khalil Ahmad Saharanpuri
* Zakariyya Kandhlawi
* Rahmatullah Kairanawi
* Murtada al-Zabidi
* Abd al-Ghani al-Nabulsi
* Muhammad Abu Zahra
* Kanthapuram A. P. Aboobacker Musliyar
* Rumi

Mu'attila|

* Al-Ja'd ibn Dirham
* Mu'jbira
* Abū Muḥrīz Jahm ibn Ṣafwān ar-Rāsibī as-Samarqāndī at-Tirmidhī
* Jahmīyya
* Abū Abdirrahmān Bishr ibn Ghiyāth ibn Abī Karīma al-Marīsī al-Baghdādī

Mu'jassimā|

* Abu’l-Hassan Muqātil ibn Sulaymān ibn Bashīr al-Azdī al-|Balkhī (Muqātilīyya)
* Abū Muḥāmmad (Abū’l-Hākem) Heshām ibn Sālem al-Jawālikī al-Juzjanī al-Kūfī
* Jawālikīyya
* Rum Abdals
* Ibn Karram (Karramiyya)

Murji'ah|

* Abū Marwān Gaylān ibn Mūslīm ad-Dimashqī an-Nabati al-Qībtī (Murjī-Qadariyah)

Mu'tazila
(Wasil ibn 'Ata')|

* Abū Ishāq Ibrāhīm ibn Sayyār ibn Hāni’ an-Nazzām (Nazzāmīyya)
* Abū Bakr Abdurrahmān ibn Kaysān al-Asāmm
* Abū Mūsā Isā ibn Subeyh (Sabīh) al-Murdār al-Bāsrī (Murdārīyya)
* Hīshām ibn Amr al-Fuwātī ash-Shaybānī (Hīshāmīyya)
* Abū Sahl Abbād ibn Sulaimān (Salmān) as-Sāymarī
* Abū Alī Muḥāmmad ibn Abdi’l-Wahhāb ibn Sallām al-Jubbā'ī (Jubbāīyya)
* Abū’l-Hūsayn Abdūrrāhīm ibn Muḥāmmad ibn Uthmān al-Hayyāt (Hayyātīyya)
* Ja'far ibn Harb
* Ja'far ibn Mūbassīr
* Abū Uthmān Amr ibn Bhār ibn Māhbūb al-Jāhiz al-Kinānī (Jāhizīyya)
* Al-Qadi 'Abd al-Jabbar
* Abu al-Husayn al-Basri
* Al-Zamakhshari
* Amr ibn Ubayd
* Ibn Abi'l-Hadid
* Sahib ibn Abbad
* Abū Amr Ḍirār ibn Amr al-Gatafānī al-Kūfī (Ḍirārīyya)

Najjārīyya|

* Abū ʿAbdillāh al-Husayn ibn Muḥāmmad ibn ʿAbdillāh an-Najjār ar-Rāzī
* Abū Amr (Abū Yahyā) Hāfs al-Fard
* Muḥāmmad ibn ʿĪsā (Burgūsīyya)
* Abū ʿAbdallāh Ibnū’z-Zā‘farānī (Zā‘farānīyya)
* Mustadrakīyya

Salafi Theologians|

* Ibn Taymiyyah
* Ibnul Qayyim
* Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab
* Wahhabism
* Al-Shawkani
* Rashid Rida
* Ibn Baz
* Al-Uthaymin
* Muqbil bin Hadi al-Wadi'i
* Al-Albani
* Saleh Al-Fawzan
* Rabee al-Madkhali
* Madkhalism
* Syed Nazeer Husain
* Ahl-i Hadith
* Siddiq Hasan Khan
* Zubair Ali Zai
* Safar Al-Hawali
* Sahwa movement
* Salman al-Ouda
* Osama bin Laden
* Salafi Jihadism
* Ahmad ibn Umar al-Hazimi
* Hazimism
* Yasir Qadhi
* Post-Salafism

Twelver Shi'ism|

* Twelve Imams
* Ali
* Hasan ibn Ali
* Husayn ibn Ali
* Ali al-Sajjad
* Muhammad al-Baqir
* Ja'far al-Sadiq
* Musa al-Kazim
* Ali al-Rida
* Muhammad al-Jawad
* Ali al-Hadi
* Hasan al-Askari
* Muhammad al-Mahdi
* Al-Shaykh Al-Mufid
* Sharif al-Murtaza
* Shaykh Tusi
* Nasir al-Din al-Tusi
* Allamah Al-Hilli
* Mohammad-Baqer Majlesi
* Zurarah ibn A'yan
* Hisham ibn Hakam
* Agha Zia ol Din Araghi
* Ja'far Sobhani
* Ruhollah Khomeini
* Wilayat al-faqih

Isma'ili Shi'ism|

* Al-Qadi al-Nu'man
* Abu Yaqub al-Sijistani
* Hamid al-Din al-Kirmani
* Al-Mu'ayyad fi'l-Din al-Shirazi
* Ahmad ibn Ibrahim al-Naysaburi
* Abu'l-Fawaris Ahmad ibn Ya'qub
* Tayyibi Ismā'īlī doctrine
* Dhu'ayb ibn Musa
* Hassan Ala Dhikrihi's Salam
* Idris Imad al-Din
* Ali ibn Muhammad ibn al-Walid

Zaydi Shi'ism|

* Abu'l-Jarud al-Hamdani
* Ahmad ibn Isa ibn Zayd
* Al-Qasim al-Rassi
* Al-Hadi ila'l-Haqq Yahya
* Al-Mansur al-Qasim

Key books|

| Sunni books|

* Asas al-Taqdis
* Al-Baz al-Ashhab
* Al-Farq bayn al-Firaq
* Al-Milal wa al-Nihal
* Al-Irshad
* Al-Aqidah al-Tahawiyyah
* Al-Sawad al-A'zam
* Kitab al-Tawhid
* Tabsirat al-Adilla
* Masnavi
* Fihi Ma Fihi
* Divan-i Shams-i Tabrizi
* The Moderation in Belief

|

Shia books|

* Eʿteqādātal-Emāmīya
* Al-Amali
* Al-Khisal
* Awail Al Maqalat
* Tashih al-I'tiqad
* Tajrid al-I'tiqad

Independent|

* Encyclopedia of the Brethren of Purity
* Kitab al-Majmu of Alawis
* Malfūzāt of Ahmadiyya
* Umm al-kitab of Musta'li Isma'ilism

* Early Muslim scholars
* List of contemporary Muslim scholars of Islam

Islamic schools and branches

| Sunni Islam|

| Ahl al-Hadith
(Atharism)|

* Kullabiyya
* Ibn Kullab
* Hanbalis
* Ahmad ibn Hanbal
* Al-Qadi Abu Ya'la
* Khwaja Abdullah Ansari
* Zahiris
* Dawud al-Zahiri
* Salafism
* Ahl-i Hadith
* Syed Nazeer Husain / Siddiq Hasan Khan
* Wahhabism
* Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab
* Ibn Baz
* Al-Uthaymin
* Al-Albani
* Other Salafi trends
* Jihadism
* Madkhalism
* Sahwa
* Salafi Modernism
* Muhammad bin Dawud
* Maqrizi

|

Ahl ar-Ra'y
(Ilm al-Kalam)|

* Ash'arism
* Malikis
* Shafi'is
* Abdullah al-Harari – Al-Ahbash
* Maturidism
* Hanafis
* Fazl-e-Haq Khairabadi / Ahmed Raza Khan – Barelvi
* Muhammad Qasim Nanautavi / Rashid Ahmad Gangohi – Deobandi

Shia Islam|

| Zaydism|

* Zayd ibn Ali
* Jarudiyya
* Batriyya
* Imamate
* Alid dynasties of northern Iran
* Hasan al-Utrush
* Yahya ibn Umar
* Imams of Yemen
* Extinct Zaydi Shi'a sects
* Dukayniyya
* Khalafiyya

|

Imami
Mahdiist
Shi'ite
Sects in
Islam|

| Imami
Twelver|

* Theology of Twelvers
* Ja'fari
* Akhbari
* Usuli
* Shaykhism
* Qizilbash
* Sheikh Haydar / Shah Ismail / Pir Sultan / Kul Nesîmî – Safavid Islam
* Ghulat
* al-Khaṣībī / ibn Nusayr – Alawites
* Astarabadi (Naimi) / Imadaddin Nasimi – Hurufism / Bektashism
* Baktāshism
* Demir Bābā – Alians
* Bābā Rexheb – Hārābātīs

|

Imami
Isma'ilism|

* Fathite
* Abdallah al-Aftah
* Batiniyyah
* Hamdan Qarmat – Sevener Qarmatians
* Hamza / Baha al-Din al-Muqtana / ad-Darazi – Druzes
* Fatimids
* Musta'li
* Tayyibi
* Alavi
* Dawoodi
* Sulaymani
* Hafizi
* Nasir Khusraw al-Qubadiani – Badakhshan Alevism
* Nizari
* Hassan-i Sabbah – Assassins
* Aga Khans – Nizaris / Khojas
* Pir Sadardin – Satpanth

Kaysanites
Shia|

* Mukhtār
* Abū ʿAmra Kaysān
* Abd Allah ibn Muhammad ibn al-Hanafiyyah – Hashimiyya
* Hārbīyya
* ʿAbd Allāh ibn al-Hārb ibn al-Kindi
* Janāhiyya
* Abdallah ibn Mu'awiya
* Hārithīyya
* Riyāhīyya
* Sam‘ānīyya
* Bayān ibn Sam‘ān
* Rezāmīyya
* Abu Muslim
* Sunpadh
* Muḥammirah
* Khurramites
* Babak
* Mazyar
* al-Muqanna
* Ishaq al-Turk
* Khashabiyya Shia

Other Mahdists|

* An-Nafs Az-Zakiyyah
* Hurufiyya
* Maḥmūd Pasīkhānī – Nuktawiyya
* Shayki
* Nuqta-yi Ula – Bábīyya
* Tawussite Shia
* ʿAjlan ibn Nawus
* Waqifite Shia

Muhakkima
(Arbitration)|

| Kharijites|

* Ajardi
* Abd al-Karīm ibn Adjrād
* Maymunīyyah
* Sa'labīyyah
* Azariqa
* Nafi ibn al-Azraq al-Hānafī al-Handhalī
* Bayhasīyyah
* Abu Bayhas al-Hāytham ibn Jābir
* Najdat
* Najdah ibn 'Amir al-Hānafī
* Sufri
* Abu Qurra
* Abū Yazīd Mukhallad ibn Kayrād al-Nukkari

|

Ibadism|

* 'Abdullāh ibn Ibāḍ al-Tamimi
* Jābir ibn Zayd
* Abu Qudama Yazid ibn Fandin al-Ifrani
* Abd Allah ibn Wahb al-Rasibi
* Wahbiyyah
* Azzabas

Murji'ah
(Hasan ibn
Muḥāmmad
ibn al-
Hanafiyyah)|

| Karrāmīyya|

* Abū ʿAbdillāh Muḥāmmad ibn Karrām ibn Arrāk ibn Huzāba ibn al-Barā’ as-Sijjī
* ʿĀbidīyya (ʿUthmān al-ʿĀbid)
* Dhīmmīyya
* Hakāiqīyya
* Haisamīyya (Abū ʿAbdallāh Muhammad ibn al-Haisam)
* Hīdīyya (Hīd ibn Saif)
* Ishāqīyya (Abū Yaʿqūb Ishāq ibn Mahmashādh)
* Maʿīyya
* Muhājirīyya (Ibrāhīm ibn Muhājir)
* Nūnīyya
* Razīnīyya
* Sauwāqīyya
* Sūramīyya
* Tarā'ifīyya (Ahmad ibn ʿAbdūs at-Tarā'ifī)
* Tūnīyya (Abū Bakr ibn ʿAbdallāh)
* Wāhidīyya
* Zarībīyya

|

Other sects|

* Gaylānīyya
* Gaylān ibn Marwān
* Yūnusīyya
* Yūnus ibn Awn an-Namīrī
* Gassānīyya
* Gassān al-Kūfī
* Tūmanīyya
* Abū Muāz at-Tūmanī
* Sawbānīyya
* Abū Sawbān al-Murjī
* Sālehīyya
* Sāleh ibn Umar
* Shamrīyya
* Abū Shamr
* Ubaydīyya
* Ubayd al-Mūktaib
* Ziyādīyya
* Muhammad ibn Ziyād al-Kūfī

Other Murjīs|

* Al-Harith ibn Surayj
* Sa'id ibn Jubayr
* Hammād ibn Abū Sūlaimān
* Muhārīb ibn Dithār
* Sābit Kutna
* Awn ibn Abdullāh
* Mūsā ibn Abū Kasīr
* Umar ibn Zar
* Salm ibn Sālem
* Hālaf ibn Ayyūb
* Ibrāhim ibn Yousūf
* Nusayr ibn Yahyā
* Ahmad ibn Hārb
* Amr ibn Murrah

Mu'shabbiha|

| Tamsīl|

* Jawārībīyya
* Dāwūd al-Jawāribî
* Hāshwīyya
* Hulmānīyya
* Abū Hulmān al-Fārisī ad-Dimashqī
* Qalandariyya
* Barak Baba

|

Tajsīm|

* Khaṭṭābiyya
* Abu al-Khattab
* Bāzīghiyya
* Bāzīgh ibn Mūsā
* Muʿāmmarīyya
* Muʿāmmar ibn Ahmar
* ʿIjlīyya/Umayrīyya
* Umayr ibn Bayān al-ʿIjlī
* Mufaḍḍaliyya
* al-Mufaddal ibn Umar al-Ju'fi
* Ghurābīyya
* Mānsūrīyya
* Abū Mānsūr al-ʿIjlī
* Mughīrīyya
* Abū Abdillāh Mugīre ibn Sāīd al-ʿIjlī el-Bajalī
* Mukhāmmīsa
* Namiriya
* ‘Ulyanīyya/'Alyaīyya
* Saba'īyya
* Abdullah ibn Saba'

Qadariyah
(Ma'bad
al-Juhani)|

| Alevism|

* Qutb ad-Dīn Haydar – Malamatiyya / Qalandariyya
* Baba Ishak – Babai revolt
* Balım Sultan – Bektashi Order
* Galip Hassan Kuscuoglu – Galibi Order

|

Muʿtazila
(Rationalism)|

* Mā’marīyya
* Abū Amr (Abū Mu‘tamīr) Muāmmar ibn Abbād as-Sūlamī
* Bishriyya
* Abū Sahl Bīshr ibn al-Mu‘tamīr al-Hilālī al-Baghdādī
* Abū Abdi’l-Lāh Ahmad ibn Abī Du'ad Faraj ibn Carīr ibn Mâlik al-Iyādī
* Bahshamiyya
* Abū Hāshīm Abdu’s-Salām ibn Muḥāmmad ibn Abdi’l-Wahhāb al-Jubbā'ī
* Huzaylīyya
* Abū’l-Huzayl Muḥāmmad ibn al-Huzayl ibn Abdillāh al-Allāf al-Abdī al-Bāsrī
* Abū Ma‘n Sūmāma ibn Ashras an-Nūmayrī al-Bāsrī al-Baghdādī
* Ikhshīdiyya
* Nazzāmīyya
* Ali al-Aswarī
* Abū Bakr Muḥāmmad ibn Abdillāh ibn Shabīb al-Basrī
* Hābītīyya
* Ahmad ibn Hābīt
* Sumamīyya
* Sumāma ibn Ashras
* Kā‘bīyya
* Abū’l-Kāsīm Abdullāh ibn Ahmad ibn Māhmūd al-Balhī al-Kā‘bī

Quranism|

* Ahle Qur'an
* Kala Kato
* Tolu-e-Islam
* Muhammad Iqbal
* Ghulam Ahmed Pervez
* United Submitters International
* Rashad Khalifa
* Edip Yüksel

Independent
Muslim
beliefs|

| Messianism|

* Ahmadiyya
* Mirza Ghulam
* Qadiani
* Lahori
* Kabbalist Dönmes
* Sabbatai Zevi – Sabbatean
* Mahdavīyya
* Muhammad Jaunpuri / Bandagi Mian Syed Khundmir – Zikris
* Nation of Islam
* Wallace Fard Muhammad's doctrine

|

Modernism|

* Modernist Salafism
* Muhammad Abduh
* Muhammad Asad
* Jamal ad-Din al-Afghani
* Rashid Rida
* Other Islamic modernists

Taṣawwuf|

* Tariqah
* Ahmed Raza Khan – Barelvi
* Hilmi Tunahan – Süleymancı
* Ahmad al-Rifa'i – Rifa`i
* Other orders
* Tawassul

Other beliefs|

* Sadaqah
* Sunnah
* Taqwa
* Tawakkul
* Tewafuq
* Thawab

* Other scholars of Sunni schools of jurisprudence:
* Hanafi
* Hanbali
* Maliki
* Shafi'i
* Zahiri

Authority control databases

National|

* United States
* France
* BnF data
* Israel

Other|

* Yale LUX

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