Islamist uprising in Syria

Armed resistance against Syrian Ba'athist rule from 1976 to 1982

Not to be confused with Syrian Civil War.

Islamist uprising in Syria

Part of the Arab Cold War

Militants of the Fighting Vanguard (a breakaway faction of the Muslim Brotherhood) in Syria, 1979.
| Date| 31 May 1976 – 28 February 1982[11]
(5 years, 8 months and 28 days)

|

Location|

Damascus, Hama, Aleppo, Palmyra, and Jisr ash-Shugur, Syria

Result|

Syrian government victory

* Uprising suppressed
* Muslim Brotherhood outlawed

Belligerents
Fighting Vanguard[1][2]
Muslim Brotherhood (after mid-1979)[3][4]
Pro-Iraqi Ba'athists[5]
Supported by:
Iraq (1980–1982)
Jordan[6][7]
West Germany[8]|  Ba'athist Syria
Supported by:
Soviet Union[9][10]
Commanders and leaders

* Marwan Hadid (Founder of the Fighting Vanguard)
* ʽAdnan ʽUqla (Commander of the Fighting Vanguard) (MIA)
* Sa`id Hawwa
* Adnan Saad al-Din
* Ali al-Bayanouni
* Abd al-Fattah Abu Ghudda

* Hafez al-Assad

(President of Syria, Commander-in-Chief)
* Mustafa Tlass

(Minister of Defence)
* Rifaat al-Assad

(commander of the Defense Companies)
* Shafiq Fayadh

(commander of the 3rd Armoured Division)
* Hikmat al-Shihabi

(chief of staff of the SAA)
* Ali Haydar

(special forces commander)
* Ali Duba

(director of Military Intelligence)

* v
* t
* e

Islamist uprising in Syria

* Aleppo Artillery School massacre (1979)
* Jisr al-Shughour (1980)
* Aleppo (1980)
* Syrian President assassination attempt (1980)
* Tadmor Prison massacre (1980)
* Hama (April 1981)
* Azbakiah bombing (November 1981)
* Hama (February 1982)

The Islamist uprising in Syria comprised a series of protests, assassinations, bombings, and armed revolts led by Sunni Islamists, mainly members of the Fighting Vanguard and, after 1979, the Muslim Brotherhood, from 1976 until 1982. The uprising aimed to establish an Islamic republic in Syria by overthrowing the neo-Ba'athist government, in what has been described by the Ba'ath Party as a "long campaign of terror".[12]

After 1980, the popular resistance to Ba'athist rule expanded, with a coalition of Islamist opposition groups coordinating nation-wide strikes, protests and revolts throughout Syria.[13] During the violent events, resistance militias attacked Syrian Arab Army bases and carried out political assassinations of Ba'ath party cadres, army officials, Soviet military advisors, and bureaucrats linked to Assad family.[14][15][10] Civilians were also killed in retaliatory strikes conducted by security forces.[16] The uprising reached its climax in the 1982 Hama massacre, during which the Syrian government killed over 40,000 civilians.[17][18]

## Background

[edit]

Main article: History of the Muslim Brotherhood in Syria

Politics of Syria

Member State of the Arab League

* * *

Constitution

Human rights

Executive

* President (list)

Ahmed al-Sharaa
* Vice President

Vacant
* Prime Minister (list)

Mohammed al-Bashir
* Deputy Prime Minister

Vacant

Legislature

* Interim Legislative Council

Speaker: Vacant

Judiciary

* High Judicial Council
* Supreme Constitutional Court

Subdivisions

* Governorates
* Districts
* Subdistricts (Nahiyas)
* Cities
* Villages

Elections

* Recent elections

* Presidential: 2007
* 2014
* 2021

* Parliamentary: 2016
* 2020
* 2024

* Political parties

Foreign relations

* Ministry of Foreign Affairs and Expatriates

Minister: Asaad al-Shaibani

* * *

* Diplomatic missions of / in Syria

* * *

* Syrian nationality law
* Passport
* Visa requirements
* Visa policy

* * *

* UN resolutions on Syria
* Status of the Golan Heights
* Syrian civil war

* Other countries

* v
* t
* e

### 1963 Coup and 1964 Hama Riots

[edit]

Main articles: 1963 Syrian coup d'état and 1964 Hama riot

In context, the insurgency traces its origins to multiple factors. Historical ideological friction is a result of the Ba'ath Party's ultra-secularist foundation versus the Muslim Brotherhood's religious foundation. Muslim Brotherhood believed that Islamic religion had the central role in directing the laws of the state.[19] On the other hand, secular Ba'athist ideology emphasized Arab nationalism and advocated the replacement of religion with socialism.[20]

This friction became heated following the 1963 Ba'ath Party coup which saw the Party claiming sole power in the country and subsequently outlawing all other organised opposition. In response, the Muslim Brotherhood encouraged general protests across the country. These protests were most acute in the city of Hama, long considered "a stronghold of landed conservatism".[21] During the 1964 Hama uprising, Ba'ath Party responded violently, crushing the revolt with brutal force.[22]

Muslim Brotherhood was forced to continue its activities clandestinely. In the party, the ideological dispute began widening towards a sectarian one; as dominance of Alawite elites in the Ba'athist military, bureaucracy and politics became visible after the Old Guard was overthrown by the neo-Ba'athist military wing of Alawite General Salah Jadid in the 1966 coup.[19] The Syrian Muslim Brotherhood fractured over disputes of the best course of action. Much of the party leadership was afraid to directly oppose the Syrian government, fearing that a violent confrontation could cause more harm than good. In contrast, several of the most radical members of the party split off to form the "Fighting Vanguard", led by Marwan Hadid. The Fighting Vanguard was willing to challenge the government by conducting assassinations and sabotage actions.[1][2]

### 1970 Coup and 1973 Constitutional Amendment

[edit]

Main article: Corrective Movement (Syria)

On 13 November 1970, Hafez Al Assad launched a coup which saw him gain sole power. To cement his power, on 31 January 1973, Assad implemented a new constitution which led to a national crisis. Unlike previous constitutions, this one did not require that the president of Syria must be a Muslim, leading to fierce demonstrations in Hama, Homs and Aleppo organized by the Muslim Brotherhood and the ulama. They labelled Assad as the "enemy of Allah" and called for a jihad against his rule.[23] Under pressure, Assad returned the requirement and convinced Lebanese cleric Musa al-Sadr to issue a fatwa proclaiming the Alawite minority to be part of Shia Islam.[24] The 1973 constitution greatly increased the support for Hadid's Fighting Vanguard, and many Muslim Brotherhood members defected to his faction or at least began to support it. He subsequently reorganized his group to increase the number of attacks, hoping to provoke the Syrian government into a crackdown that would force the Muslim Brotherhood into open rebellion.[25][26]

Robert D. Kaplan has compared Assad's coming to power to

> "an untouchable becoming maharajah in India or a Jew becoming tsar in Russia—an unprecedented development shocking to the Sunni majority population which had monopolized power for so many centuries."[27]

### Economic downturn

[edit]

A Syrian holds a Muslim Brotherhood symbol, Aleppo, 1950.

According to historian Patrick Seale, the "economic boom following the October War had run out of steam, and new inequalities were created".[28] Raphael Lefevre adds that the emergence of secular ideology had led to the "overturning of traditional structures of political and socioeconomic power".[29] Additionally, a decrease in Gulf countries' economic support, the cost of Syria's military campaign in Lebanon, and the take-in of several refugees from the conflict all further exacerbated Syria's economic livelihood.[30]

Economic impact of state socialism adopted by the Ba'athist government as well as rising assertiveness of Alawites in the new socio-political system resulted in the alienation of the traditional elites, landowners, industrialists and the bourgeoisie. Their support shifted in favour of the Islamic opposition which positioned itself as ideological defenders of private property and free trade.[19]

## Phases of the Insurgency

[edit]

### Phase One: Clandestine Terrorist Operations 1976–1979

[edit]

1976 marked the Syrian army's intervention in the Lebanese Civil War, initially against the Palestinian guerrillas (PLO). This was received with surprise across the Arab world and contributed to pre-existing reasons for discontent with the Syrian government. Historian Patrick Seale described this attack as "slaughtering Arabism's sacred cow".[31]

In the same year, Syria experienced sporadic terror attacks, mostly explosions and assassinations.[32] The killings were largely aimed at prominent military officers, bureaucrats and government officials, including doctors and teachers. Most of the victims were Alawites, which led some to suggest "that the assassins had targeted the community" but "no one could be sure who was behind" the killings.[33]

The Iraqi government of Saddam Hussein had supported the insurgents with a steady flow of arms and supplies.[34] General Rifa'at al-Assad, younger brother of Hafez al-Assad, became a powerful figure in the Ba'ath party and Syrian politics, as a result of his activities in the Lebanese Civil War. Rifa'at's corruption as well as the sectarian excesses of his increasingly autonomous Alawite loyalist private militias provoked widespread resentment across the Syrian population. As a result, internal situation in Syria became further destabilized and protests spread further across the cities.[35]

### Phase Two: Large-scale Campaign June 1979 – January 1982

[edit]

See also: Aleppo Artillery School massacre

16 June 1979 marked the day of the Aleppo artillery school massacre. Member of school staff, Captain Ibrahim Yusuf, called cadets to an urgent meeting at the dining hall. Once assembled, gunmen fired indiscriminately at the cadets with automatic weapons and grenades.[32] The massacre was masterminded by 'Adnan 'Uqla, a Fighting Vanguard commander.[36][37] 'Uqla committed the mass murder without the permission of the Fighting Vanguard's formal leader, Hisham Jumbaz, or its field commando in Aleppo.[38][39][3]

This massacre signalled a turn in the insurgency as it was now more than just a series of sporadic attacks, but a campaign of "large-scale urban warfare".[40] By August, the Brotherhood had declared a jihad against the Syrian government, effectively claiming responsibility for the insurgency.[41]

In the days leading up to 8 March 1980 (the 17th anniversary of the 1963 Ba'athist coup), nearly all Syrian cities were paralysed by strikes and protests, which sometimes developed into pitched battles with security forces.[42] The events escalated into a widescale crackdown in Aleppo, where the government responded with overwhelming military force, sending in tens of thousands of troops, supported by tanks and helicopters. In and around Aleppo, hundreds of demonstrators were killed, and eight thousand were arrested. By April, the uprising in the area had been crushed.[43]

Between 1979 and 1981, Brotherhood insurgents continued to target Ba'ath party officials, party offices, police stations, military vehicles, barracks, factories, and even Russian officials.[40] Insurgents would form 'hit teams' to kill Ba'ath party members in their sleep, such as 'Abd al 'Aziz al 'Adi, who was murdered in front of his wife and children and had his body thrown into the street.[44] On occasion, individuals who had denounced the killings were also targeted, including Sheikh al-Shami, Imam of the Suleymania mosque of Aleppo.[45]

Other instances of terrorism include attacks in August, September and November 1981, where the Brotherhood carried out three car-bomb attacks against government and military targets in Damascus, killing hundreds of people, according to the official press.[46] Among the victims were Soviet officials, experts, and their families serving with the United Nations as part of the United Nations Disengagement Observer Force.[47]

### Phase Three: Government Response 1979-1981

[edit]

Main articles: Siege of Aleppo (1980) and Jisr ash-Shughur massacre (1980)

Losing control over the streets, the government decided on a policy of all-out-war on the insurgents after a Ba'ath party congress concluded in January 1980.[48] The Party's first step was to arm Party loyalists and sympathizers, effectively creating a 'citizen militia'.[48] By March and April, the cities of Jisr al-Shughur and Aleppo were brought into line with thousands of troops in garrison and tanks on the streets. Hundreds were rounded up in search-and-destroy operations.

In another case, in retaliation to a failed terror attack on an Alawite village near Hama, the army executed about 400 of Hama's Sunni inhabitants, chosen randomly among the male population of over the age of 14.[49]

On 27 June 1980, Hafez Al Assad himself narrowly escaped death after a failed assassination attempt. The assailant fired a burst of rounds and threw two grenades, the first being kicked away by Assad and the second being covered by his personal bodyguard, Khalid al-Husayn, who died instantly. In retaliation, the very next day, Rifaat Al Assad's defence company flew into the infamous Palmyra prison in helicopters and killed hundreds of prisoners who had been Brotherhood-affiliates. By 8 July, membership of the Muslim Brotherhood became a capital offence altogether,[50] with a month-long grace period for those who wished to turn themselves in and avoid a death sentence. Some couple thousand individuals turned themselves in, hoping to escape the death penalty; mostly urban, educated, young men.[51]

Rifaat Al Assad (Left) next to his brother Hafez Al Assad (Right). Rifaat Al Assad commanded the military divisions that entered Hama to crush the insurgency.

### Phase Four: Crushing of the Insurgency 1982

[edit]

Main article: 1982 Hama Islamic uprising

The insurgency is generally considered to have been crushed by the bloody Hama massacre of 1982, in which thousands of insurgents, soldiers and residents were killed, according to anti-Syrian Government claims "the vast majority innocent civilians".[52][53] On 2 February 1982, the Brotherhood led a major insurrection in Hama, rapidly taking control of the city; the military responded by bombing Hama (whose population was about 250,000) throughout the rest of the month, killing between 2,000 and 25,000 people. The Hama events marked the defeat of the Brotherhood, and the militant Islamic movement in general, as a political force in Syria.[54]

US Intelligence conducted an intelligence analysis with regards to possible outcomes of the conflict.[55]

## Aftermath

[edit]

Having suppressed all opposition, Hafez al-Assad released some imprisoned members of the Brotherhood in the mid-1990s.

The Muslim Brotherhood would have no physical presence in Syria again.

Although its leadership is in exile, the Brotherhood continues to enjoy considerable sympathy among Syrians. Riyad al-Turk, a secular opposition leader, considers it "the most credible" Syrian opposition group[citation needed]. The Brotherhood has continued to advocate a democratic political system; it has abandoned its calls for violent resistance and for the application of shari'a law. The Brotherhood also maintains that it condemns sectarianism against Alawites and is only against the Baathist dictatorship. Al-Turk and others in the secular opposition are inclined to take this evolution seriously, as a sign of the Brotherhood's greater political maturity, and believe that the Brotherhood would now be willing to participate in a democratic system of government.[citation needed]

In a January 2006 interview, the Brotherhood's leader, Ali Sadreddine Bayanouni, "said the Muslim Brotherhood wants a peaceful change of government in Damascus and the establishment of a 'civil, democratic state', not an Islamic republic."[56] According to Bayanouni, the Syrian government admits having detained 30,000 people, giving a fair representation of the Brotherhood's strength.[52]

## List of assassinations during the uprising

[edit]

### Individuals assassinated between 1976 and 1979

[edit]

* the commander of the Hama garrison, Colonel Ali Haydar, killed in October 1976
* the rector of Damascus University, Muhammad al-Fadl, killed in February 1977
* the commander of the missile corps, Brigadier 'Abd al Hamid Ruzzug, killed in June 1977
* the doyen of Syrian dentists, Ibrahim Na'ama, killed in March 1978
* the director of police affairs at the Ministry of the Interior, Colonel Ahmad Khalil, killed in August 1978
* Public Prosecutor 'Adil Mini of the Supreme State Security Court, killed in April 1979.
* President Hafez al-Assad's own doctor, the neurologist Muhammad Shahada Khalil, who was killed in August 1979.

### Individuals assassinated between 1980 and 1982

[edit]

* Salim al-Lawzi, publisher of al-Hawadith, in Lebanon killed by Syrian assassins in March 1980.
* Riad Taha, head of the journalists' union in Beirut killed in July 1980.[citation needed]
* Banan al-Tantawi, wife of the former general director of Muslim Brothers Issam al-Attar, killed in Aachen in July 1980.
* Salah al-Din Bitar, co-founder of the Ba'ath Party, killed in Paris on 21 July 1980.

While the involvement of the Syrian government "was not proved" in these killings, it "was widely suspected."

## See also

[edit]

* Hama Massacre
* History of the Muslim Brotherhood in Syria
* Human rights in Syria
* List of modern conflicts in the Middle East
* Syrian civil war
* Terrorism in Syria

## References

[edit]

1. ^ a b Lefèvre 2013, pp. 100–101.
2. ^ a b Conduit 2019, p. 34.
3. ^ a b Conduit 2019, p. 35.
4. ^ Lefèvre 2013, p. 110.
5. ^ "The Syrian Muslim Brotherhood". Cablegate. 26 February 1985. Archived from the original on 8 May 2014. Retrieved 12 July 2013.
6. ^ Milton Edwards, Beverly; Hinchcliffe, Peter (2001). "4: International Relations". Jordan: A Hashemite Legacy. New York, USA: Routledge. p. 97\. ISBN 0-415-26726-9.
7. ^ Conduit 2019, pp. 138–141.
8. ^ Nina Wiedl, Kathrin (2006). The Hama Massacre – reasons, supporters of the rebellion, consequences. GRIN Verlag. pp. 26–31\. ISBN 978-3-638-56770-1. "Another reason for West Germany to oppose Asad [sic] was his involvement in international terrorism, such as the RAF (Baader Meinhof Gang) clique and the "Movement 2nd of June – Tupamaros West Berlin"... West Germany, as an ally in the anti-Soviet camp, had a reason to support the Brotherhood in Syria and to provide them a safe exile in Germany as a place from where they could continue their attempts to overthrow Asad [sic], in order to weaken the Soviet bloc... Three ways how West Germany supported the Syrian Brotherhood.. It provided asylum and a save haven from where the exile-brotherhood could organise its struggle against Asad [sic], it protected them against attacks of Syrian intelligence, and West German newspapers reported about the Hama incident in a way that supported the aims of the Brotherhood."26-31&rft.pub=GRIN+Verlag&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-3-638-56770-1&rft.aulast=Nina+Wiedl&rft.aufirst=Kathrin&rft_id=https://books.google.com/books?id=-2jCN5Ur6yUC&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:Islamist+uprising+in+Syria" class="Z3988">
9. ^ Nina Wiedl, Kathrin (2006). The Hama Massacre – reasons, supporters of the rebellion, consequences. GRIN Verlag. pp. 3–34\. ISBN 978-3-638-56770-1.3-34&rft.pub=GRIN+Verlag&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-3-638-56770-1&rft.aulast=Nina+Wiedl&rft.aufirst=Kathrin&rft_id=https://books.google.com/books?id=-2jCN5Ur6yUC&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:Islamist+uprising+in+Syria" class="Z3988">
10. ^ a b "Like Father, Like Son – Tyranny in Syria, A Massacre in Hama". Association for Diplomatic Studies and Training. 11 June 2015. Archived from the original on 16 May 2016.
11. ^ "Timeline: The Syrian revolt". Al Jazeera.
12. ^ Seale (1989), pp. 336–337.
13. ^ "Key events in Syria 1946–2010". Encyclopædia Britannica. Archived from the original on 4 August 2016.
14. ^ Ismael, Quiades (22 December 2009). "The Hama Massacre – February 1982". SciencesPo. Archived from the original on 3 November 2020.
15. ^ Nina Wiedl, Kathrin (2006). The Hama Massacre – reasons, supporters of the rebellion, consequences. GRIN Verlag. p. 23\. ISBN 978-3-638-56770-1.
16. ^ Lefèvre (2013), p. 59.
17. ^ Lefèvre (2013), p. [page needed].
18. ^ "Sufism and Sufi Brotherhoods in Syria and Palestine". ou.edu.
19. ^ a b c Alzaben, Eias (2022). The Implications of Social Theory of Fear on the Alawi Section in the Syrian civil conflict (Bachelors). Linnaeus University. p. 27\. Archived from the original on 26 February 2023 - via Linneuniversitet.
20. ^ D. Kaplan, Robert (February 1993). "Syria: Identity Crisis". The Atlantic. Archived from the original on 2 June 2022.
21. ^ Seale (1989), pp. 92–93.
22. ^ Seale (1989), p. 93.
23. ^ Alianak, Sonia (2007). Middle Eastern Leaders and Islam: A Precarious Equilibrium. Peter Lang. p. 55\. ISBN 978-0-8204-6924-9.
24. ^ Glassé, Cyril (2001). The new encyclopedia of Islam (Rev. ed.). Walnut Creek, CA: AltaMira Press. pp. 36–37\. ISBN 0-7591-0189-2. OCLC 48553252.36-37&rft.edition=Rev.&rft.pub=AltaMira+Press&rft.date=2001&rft_id=info:oclcnum/48553252&rft.isbn=0-7591-0189-2&rft.aulast=Glassé&rft.aufirst=Cyril&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:Islamist+uprising+in+Syria" class="Z3988">
25. ^ Lefèvre 2013, pp. 102–103.
26. ^ Conduit 2019, p. 99.
27. ^ Kaplan, Robert (February 1993). "Syria: Identity Crisis". The Atlantic.
28. ^ Seale (1989), p. 317.
29. ^ Lefèvre (2013), p. 49.
30. ^ Seale (1989), pp. 320–321.
31. ^ Seale (1989), p. 285.
32. ^ a b Seale (1989), p. 316.
33. ^ Seale (1989), pp. 316–317.
34. ^ Seale (1989), pp. 336.
35. ^ Roberts, David (2015). "12: Hafiz al-Asad – II". The Ba'ath and the creation of modern Syria (Routledge Library Editions: Syria ed.). Abingdon, Oxon: Routledge. pp. 120, 121. ISBN 978-0-415-83882-5.
36. ^ Lia, Brynjar (1 October 2016). "The Islamist Uprising in Syria, 1976–82: The History and Legacy of a Failed Revolt". British Journal of Middle Eastern Studies. 43 (4): 546. doi:10.1080/13530194.2016.1139442. ISSN 1353-0194. S2CID 146869114.
37. ^ Conduit 2019, p. 101.
38. ^ Lefèvre 2015, p. 128.
39. ^ Lefèvre 2013, p. 105.
40. ^ a b Seale (1989), p. 324.
41. ^ Lia, Brynjar (1 October 2016). "The Islamist Uprising in Syria, 1976–82: The History and Legacy of a Failed Revolt". British Journal of Middle Eastern Studies. 43 (4): 542. doi:10.1080/13530194.2016.1139442. ISSN 1353-0194. S2CID 146869114.
42. ^ Lia, Brynjar (1 October 2016). "The Islamist Uprising in Syria, 1976–82: The History and Legacy of a Failed Revolt". British Journal of Middle Eastern Studies. 43 (4): 548. doi:10.1080/13530194.2016.1139442. ISSN 1353-0194. S2CID 146869114.
43. ^ Carré & Michaud (1983), pp. 141–146.
44. ^ Seale (1989), pp. 324–325.
45. ^ Seale (1989), p. 325.
46. ^ Tashijan, Yeghia (December 2011). "The Other Face of the Islamists".
47. ^ Allan, James H. (1996). Peacekeeping: outspoken observations by a field officer. Praeger. p. 59\. OCLC 1132130545.
48. ^ a b Seale (1989), p. 327.
49. ^ Carré & Michaud (1983), pp. 148–151.
50. ^ "جماعة الإخوان المسلمين في سورية". Carnegie Middle East Center (in Arabic). Retrieved 26 May 2022.
51. ^ Carré, Olivier (1983). Les Frères Musulmans: Egypte et Syrie (1928-1982). Gallimard. pp. 148–151\. OCLC 1203497428.148-151&rft.pub=Gallimard&rft.date=1983&rft_id=info:oclcnum/1203497428&rft.aulast=Carré&rft.aufirst=Olivier&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:Islamist+uprising+in+Syria" class="Z3988">[clarification needed]
52. ^ a b Wright, Robin (2008). Dreams and Shadows: the Future of the Middle East. Penguin Press. pp. 243–248.243-248&rft.pub=Penguin+Press&rft.date=2008&rft.aulast=Wright&rft.aufirst=Robin&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:Islamist+uprising+in+Syria" class="Z3988">
53. ^ Seale (1989), p. 334.
54. ^ Carré & Michaud (1983), p. 159.
55. ^ "ملف:CIA-RDP86T01017R000100770001-5.pdf" (PDF). المعرفة (in Arabic). Retrieved 26 May 2022.
56. ^ McCarthy, Rory (26 January 2006). "We would share power, says exiled leader of Syrian Islamist group". The Guardian.

* Conduit, Dara (2019). The Muslim Brotherhood in Syria. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-108-49977-4.
* Carré, Olivier; Michaud, Gérard (1983). Les Frères musulmans: Egypte et Syrie (1928–1982). Paris: Gallimard.
* Lefèvre, Raphaël (2013). Ashes of Hama: the Muslim Brotherhood in Syria. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-936545-6. OCLC 867049938.
* Lefèvre, Raphaël (2015). "The Syrian Muslim Brotherhood's Alawi Conundrum". The Alawis of Syria: War, Faith and Politics in the Levant. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-045811-9.
* Seale, Patrick (1989). Asad of Syria: the struggle for the Middle East (1st ed.). Berkeley: University of California Press. ISBN 0-520-06667-7. OCLC 19130614.

## External links

[edit]

* Media related to Islamic uprising in Syria at Wikimedia Commons

* v
* t
* e

List of modern conflicts in the Middle East

1910s|

* Italo-Turkish War
* World War I
* Middle Eastern theatre
* Battle of Robat Karim
* Arab Revolt
* Armenian genocide
* Assyrian genocide
* Mount Lebanon starvation
* Unification of Saudi Arabia
* Simko Shikak revolt
* 1919 Egyptian revolution
* Turkish War of Independence
* Anglo-Turkish War
* Al-Jazeera Front
* Greco-Turkish War
* Turkish–Armenian War
* Franco-Turkish War
* Revolts
* United States
* Mahmud Barzanji revolts

1920s|

* Franco-Syrian War
* Iraqi Revolt (1920)
* Intercommunal conflict in Mandatory Palestine
* Adwan Rebellion
* Arab separatism in Khuzestan
* Great Syrian Revolt
* Sheikh Said rebellion

1930s|

* Ararat rebellion
* Ahmed Barzani revolt
* Simele massacre
* Saudi–Yemeni War (1934)
* Goharshad Mosque rebellion
* 1935–1936 Iraqi Shia revolts
* 1935 Yazidi revolt
* 1936–1939 Arab revolt in Palestine
* Dersim rebellion

1940s|

* World War II
* Italian bombing of Palestine
* Allied invasion of Iraq
* Syria–Lebanon campaign
* Anglo-Soviet invasion of Iran
* 1943 Barzani revolt
* Al-Waziri coup
* Al-Wathbah uprising
* Kurdish separatism in Iran
* Iran crisis of 1946
* Arab–Israeli conflict
* 1948 Arab–Israeli War
* Suez Crisis
* 1967 Six-Day War
* 1973 Yom Kippur War
* 1982 Lebanon War

1950s|

* 1952 Egyptian revolution
* 1953 Iranian coup d'état
* Jebel Akhdar War
* Cyprus Emergency
* Suez Crisis
* Yemeni–Adenese clan violence
* 1958 Lebanon crisis
* 1958 Iraqi revolution
* 1959 Mosul uprising

1960s|

* Cyprus crisis of 1963–1964
* Iraqi–Kurdish conflict
* First Iraqi–Kurdish War
* Second Iraqi–Kurdish War
* Dhofar Rebellion
* North Yemen civil war
* Feb. 1963 Iraqi coup
* Mar. 1963 Syrian coup
* Nov. 1963 Iraqi coup
* Aden Emergency
* 1964 Hama riot
* Israeli–Palestinian conflict
* 1948 Palestine war
* First Intifada
* Second Intifada
* 1966 Syrian coup d'état
* 1969 Saudi Arabian coup attempt

1970s|

* Black September in Jordan
* 1972 Sharjawi coup d'état attempt
* Yemenite War of 1972
* Turkish invasion of Cyprus
* Shatt al-Arab clashes
* Lebanese Civil War
* Political violence in Turkey
* Islamist uprising in Syria
* 1977 Shia uprising in Iraq
* NDF Rebellion
* Yemenite War of 1979
* Iranian revolution
* Consolidation of the Iranian revolution
* 1979 Qatif Uprising
* Grand Mosque seizure
* 1979–1980 Shia uprising in Iraq

1980s|

* Iran–Iraq War
* 1980 Turkish coup d'état
* Kurdish–Turkish conflict
* Turkey–PKK conflict
* South Yemen civil war
* 1986 Egyptian conscripts riot
* 1986 Damascus bombings
* 1987 Sharjawi coup d'état attempt
* Mecca massacre
* Abu Nidal's executions

1990s|

* Gulf War (1990–1991)
* 1991 Iraqi uprisings
* Terror campaign in Egypt (1990s)
* Yemeni Civil War (1994)
* Iraqi Kurdish Civil War
* Islamic insurgency in Saudi Arabia (2000–present)
* Operation Desert Fox
* al-Qaeda insurgency in Yemen
* 1999 Shia uprising in Iraq

2000s|

* Iraq War
* Balochi insurgency in Iran
* 2004 Qamishli riots
* Houthi insurgency in Yemen
* Iran–Israel proxy conflict
* 2006 Lebanon War
* Fatah–Hamas conflict
* South Yemen insurgency

2010s|

* 2011 Bahraini uprising
* Egyptian Crisis
* Sinai insurgency
* Insurgency in Egypt (2013–present)
* Syrian civil war
* Turkish involvement in Syria
* Syrian War spillover in Lebanon
* Iraqi insurgency (2011–2013)
* War in Iraq (2013–2017)
* Islamic State insurgency in Iraq (2017–present)
* Yemeni crisis
* Yemeni civil war (2014–present)

2020s|

* 2021 Beirut clashes
* Gaza war
* Israel–Hezbollah conflict (2023–present)
* Red Sea crisis

This list includes World War I and later conflicts (after 1914) of at least 100 fatalities each
Prolonged conflicts are listed in the decade when initiated; ongoing conflicts are marked italic, and conflicts with +100,000 killed with bold.

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Syrian civil war

Overviews

| Main overviews|

* Syria
* Rojava
* Syrian civil war
* Timeline
* Background and causes
* Syrian government reactions
* Belligerents
* Inter-rebel conflict
* Spillover
* Cities and towns
* Sectarianism and minorities
* Syrian Desert campaign (December 2017–present)
* 2024 Syrian opposition offensives
* Fall of the Assad regime

|

Effects and ongoing concerns|

* Casualties of the Syrian civil war
* Refugees of the Syrian civil war
* Humanitarian aid during the Syrian civil war
* Human rights violations during the Syrian civil war

Phases and processes|

* Syrian revolution
* Early insurgency phase
* 2012–2013 escalation
* Ceasefires
* Syrian peace process

World reaction|

* International reactions to the Syrian civil war
* Foreign involvement in the Syrian civil war
* Reactions to the fall of the Assad regime

Specific groups and countries|

* Russian involvement
* Russian intervention
* Turkish involvement
* Turkish occupation of northern Syria
* Second Northern Syria Buffer Zone
* Russian-Turkish agreement on Syria
* US intervention in the Syrian civil war
* 2023 attacks on U.S. bases in Iraq and Syria
* Kurdish Area in Syria
* Syrian Democratic Forces
* Rojava conflict
* U.S. task force

Agreements and dialogues|

* Russian-Turkish agreement on Syria
* Relations between Syrian government and Kurdish groups in Syria

Transitional phase|

* Syrian transitional government

Timeline

| Background|

* 1963 coup
* 1966 coup
* Corrective Movement
* Islamist uprising
* Latakia protests
* Damascus Spring
* Qamishli riots
* Syrian occupation of Lebanon
* Damascus Declaration
* Human rights in Syria
* 2010s in Syria political history
* Arab Spring

|

2011
Jan–Apr
May–Aug
Sep–Dec|

* Syrian revolution
* Death of Hamza Ali Al-Khateeb
* Siege of Daraa
* Siege of Baniyas
* May Talkalakh siege
* Siege of Rastan and Talbiseh
* June Jisr ash-Shughur operation
* Siege of Hama
* Siege of Homs
* Jabal al-Zawiya operation
* Siege of Latakia
* Deir ez-Zor clashes (2011–2014)
* Rif Dimashq clashes (Nov 2011-Mar 2012)
* Battle of Zabadani
* Battle of Douma
* Daraa Governorate clashes
* Battle of Rastan
* Shayrat and Tiyas airbase ambush
* Idlib Governorate clashes
* December Jabal al-Zawiya massacres

2012
Jan–Apr
May–Aug
Sep–Dec|

* January al-Midan bombing
* Battle of Rastan
* First Battle of Idlib
* Battle of al-Qusayr
* Idlib Governorate operation (Apr)
* Battle of Taftanaz
* May Battle of Rastan
* Houla massacre
* Battle of al-Haffah
* Al-Qubeir massacre
* Battle of Tremseh
* Battle of Damascus
* 18 July 2012 Damascus bombing
* Battle of Aleppo
* Battle of Anadan
* Siege of Base 46
* Al-Hasakah Governorate campaign (2012–2013)
* Rif Dimashq offensive (Aug-Oct)
* Darayya massacre
* Battle of Khirbet Al-Joz
* Battle of Maarrat al-Numan
* First siege of Wadi Deif
* Battle of Harem
* Rif Dimashq offensive (Nov 2012–Feb 2013)
* Battle of Darayya
* Aqrab massacre
* Hama offensive
* Halfaya massacre
* Battle of Darayya
* Quneitra Governorate clashes
* Talbiseh bakery massacre

2013
Jan–Apr
May–Dec|

* Battle of Safira
* Battle of Shadadeh
* Damascus offensive
* Raqqa campaign (2012–2013)
* Battle of Raqqa (Mar)
* Daraa offensive
* Rif Dimashq offensive (Mar–Aug)
* Battle of Jdaidet al-Fadl
* Ghouta chemical attack
* Al-Qusayr offensive
* Battle of al-Qusayr
* Bayda and Baniyas massacres
* Hama offensive
* Hatla massacre
* Khan al-Assal chemical attack
* Khan al-Assal massacre
* Adra massacre
* Battle of Ras al-Ayn
* Battle of Tell Abyad
* Rif Dimashq offensive (Sep–Nov)
* Aleppo offensive (Oct–Dec)
* Battle of al-Yaarubiyah
* Battle of Tell Hamis and Tell Brak (Dec–Jan)

2014
Jan–Jul
Aug–Dec|

* First Inter-rebel conflict
* Battle of Markada
* Deir ez-Zor offensive
* Battle of Morek
* Daraa offensive (Feb–May)
* Maan massacre
* Al-Otaiba ambush
* Idlib offensive
* Battle of Hosn
* Latakia Offensive
* Battle of Al-Malihah
* Kafr Zita chemical attack
* Second siege of Wadi Deif
* Qalamoun offensive (Jun–Aug)
* Battle of Arsal
* First Battle of the Shaer gas field
* Eastern Syria offensive
* Battle of Tabqa Airbase
* Northern Aleppo offensive (Feb–Jul)
* Hama Offensive
* Quneitra offensive
* Rif Dimashq offensive (Aug–Nov)
* Siege of Kobanî
* Homs school bombing
* Daraa offensive (Oct)
* Al-Safira offensive
* Idlib Raid
* Second Inter-Rebel Conflict
* Second Battle of the Shaer gas field
* Battle of Al-Shaykh Maskin
* Deir ez-Zor offensive (Dec)

2015
Jan–Jul
Aug–Dec|

* Air Force An-26 crash
* Daraa Offensive (Jan)
* Southern Syria Offensive
* Eastern al-Hasakah offensive
* Battle of Sarrin (Mar–Apr)
* Battle of Sarrin (Jun–Jul)
* Battle of Bosra
* Idlib Offensive
* Second Battle of Idlib
* Battle of Nasib Border Crossing
* Battle of Yarmouk Camp
* Western al-Hasakah offensive
* Palmyra offensive (May)
* Qamishli bombings
* Tell Abyad offensive
* Kobanî massacre
* Quneitra offensive (Jun)
* Palmyra offensive (Jul–Aug)
* Rif Dimashq offensive (Sep)
* Northwestern Syria offensive (Oct–Nov)
* Aleppo offensive (Oct–Dec)
* Al-Hawl offensive
* Homs offensive (Nov-Dec)
* East Aleppo offensive (2015–2016)
* 2015–2016 Latakia offensive
* Tishrin Dam offensive
* Russian Sukhoi Su-24 shootdown

2016
Jan–Apr
May–Aug
Sep–Dec|

* Second Battle of Al-Shaykh Maskin
* Deir ez-Zor offensive (Jan)
* January Sayyidah Zaynab bombings
* Northern Aleppo offensive (Feb)
* Ithriyah-Raqqa offensive (Feb–Mar)
* Al-Shaddadi offensive
* February Homs bombings
* February Sayyidah Zaynab bombings
* Khanasir offensive
* Battle of Tel Abyad
* Battle of Maarrat al-Numan
* Battle of Qamishli (Apr)
* Northern Aleppo offensive (Mar–Jun)
* Palmyra offensive (Mar)
* East Ghouta inter-rebel conflict (Apr–May)
* Rif Dimashq offensive (Apr–May)
* Northern Raqqa offensive (May)
* May Jableh & Tartous bombings
* Ithriyah-Raqqa offensive (Jun)
* Rif Dimashq offensive (Jun–Oct)
* Manbij offensive
* Tokhar massacre
* Southern Aleppo campaign
* Battle of al-Rai (Aug)
* Operation Euphrates Shield
* Aleppo summer campaign
* Western al-Bab offensive (Sep)
* 5 September bombings
* September Deir ez-Zor air raid
* September Urum al-Kubra aid convoy attack
* Aleppo offensive (Sep–Oct)
* Dabiq offensive
* Western al-Bab offensive (Oct–Nov)
* Khan al-Shih offensive (Oct–Nov)
* Raqqa campaign
* Battle of al-Bab
* Aleppo offensive (Nov-Dec)
* Palmyra offensive (Dec)

2017
Jan–Apr
May–Aug
Sep–Dec|

* Wadi Barada offensive (2016–2017)
* January Azaz bombing
* Desert campaign (Dec 16–Apr 17)
* Idlib clashes (Jan–Mar)
* Deir ez-Zor offensive (Jan–Feb)
* Daraa offensive (Feb–Jun)
* Southwestern Daraa offensive (Feb)
* Qaboun offensive
* Palmyra offensive
* East Aleppo offensive (Jan–Apr)
* March Damascus bombings
* Al-Jinah airstrike
* Hama offensive (Mar–Apr)
* Battle of Tabqa
* Khan Shaykhun chemical attack
* Shayrat missile strike
* Aleppo bombing
* April Turkish airstrikes
* East Ghouta inter-rebel conflict (Apr–May)
* Desert campaign (May–Jul)
* Maskanah Plains offensive
* East Hama offensive
* Battle of Raqqa
* Daraa offensive (Jun)
* Southern Raqqa offensive (Jun)
* Jobar offensive (Jun–Aug)
* Quneitra offensive (Jun)
* Idlib clashes (Jul)
* Central campaign
* Qalamoun (Jul–Aug)
* Deir ez-Zor offensive (Sep 17–Mar 18)
* Hama offensive (Sep)
* Northwestern campaign (Oct 17–Feb 18)
* Turkish military operation in Idlib Governorate
* Battle of Harasta
* Eastern campaign (Sep–Dec)
* Euphrates Crossing offensive
* Mayadin offensive
* Battle of Deir ez-Zor (Sep–Nov)
* Abu Kamal offensive
* Beit Jinn offensive

2018
Jan–Apr
May–Aug
Sep–Dec|

* Operation Olive Branch
* Battle of Khasham
* Rif Dimashq offensive (Feb–Apr)
* Southern Damascus offensive (Jan–Feb)
* Syrian Liberation Front–Tahrir al-Sham conflict
* Southern Damascus offensive (Mar)
* Douma chemical attack
* Missile strikes (Apr)
* Northern Homs offensive (Apr–May)
* Eastern Qalamoun offensive (Apr)
* Southern Damascus offensive (Apr–May)
* Deir ez-Zor clashes (Apr)
* Deir ez-Zor offensive (May–Jun)
* As-Suwayda offensive (Jun)
* Southern offensive
* As-Suwayda attacks
* As-Suwayda (Aug-Nov)
* Qamishli clashes (Sep)
* Missile strikes (Sep)
* Northern border clashes

2019
Jan–Apr
May–Aug
Sep–Dec|

* Idlib inter-rebel conflict
* Manbij bombing
* Battle of Baghuz Fawqani
* ISIL insurgency in Deir-ez-Zor
* Dêrik prison escape attempt
* Tell Rifaat clashes
* Northwestern offensive (Apr–Aug)
* June bombings
* Hass refugee camp bombing
* Missile strikes (Aug)
* Turkish offensive into northeast
* Barisha raid
* November bombings
* Israeli missile strikes (Nov)
* Qah missile strike
* Northwestern offensive (Dec 19–Mar 20)
* US airstrikes

2020
Jan–Dec|

* COVID-19 pandemic
* Afrin bombing
* Idlib Governorate clashes
* Kafr-Takharim airstrike
* Ayn Issa clashes
* Deir ez-Zor ambush

2021
Jan–Dec|

* Siege of Qamishli and Al-Hasakah
* Missile strikes (Jan)
* US airstrike (Feb)
* Battle of Qamishli (Apr)
* US airstrike (Jun)
* Daraa clashes
* Tahrir al-Sham–Junud al-Sham conflict

2022
Jan–Dec|

* Battle of al-Hasakah
* Ahrar al-Sham–Levant Front clashes
* Jabal al-Bishrī clashes
* Jarqli airstrikes
* Northern Aleppo clashes (Oct)
* Operation Claw-Sword
* Northwest clashes (Dec)

2023
Jan-Dec|

* Al-Sukhnah attack
* Damascus airstrike
* Hama attack
* Northern border clashes

2024
Jan–Oct
Nov–present|

* Opposition offensives
* Deir ez-Zor offensive
* Battle of Aleppo
* Aleppo University Hospital airstrike
* Southern offensive
* Operation Dawn of Freedom
* Manbij offensive
* Al-Mustariha strike
* Kobani clashes
* Hama offensive
* Homs offensive
* Palmyra offensive
* Fall of Damascus
* Fall of the Assad regime
* Western Syria clashes
* Massacres of Syrian Alawites
* Hezbollah-Syria clashes
* Druze–Syria clashes
* Israeli invasion

Spillover|

| Israel and Golan Heights:|

* March 2017 incident
* February 2018 incident
* May 2018 Israel–Iran incidents

|

Iraq:|

* Akashat ambush
* Operation al-Shabah
* April 2014 Iraqi border airstrike

Jordanian border incidents|

* April 2014 Jordanian border airstrike

Lebanon:|

* Lebanese border clashes
* Battle of Sidon
* Iranian embassy bombing in Beirut
* North Lebanon clashes
* Qalamoun (Jul–Aug 2017)

Turkey:|

* December 2011 Turkish border clash
* 2012 Turkish F-4 Phantom shootdown
* 2012 Turkish border clashes
* 2013 Reyhanlı car bombings
* January 2014 Turkish attack in Syria
* Assassination of Andrei Karlov
* Russian Air Force Al-Bab incident
* 2020 Balyun airstrikes
* Operation Spring Shield

Elsewhere:|

* Deir ez-Zor missile strike (Iran)

Belligerents

| Ba'athist regime|

| Politics of Ba'athist Syria|

* Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party – Syria Region
* Ba'ath Brigades
* Syrian Social Nationalist Party
* Arab Socialist Movement
* Syrian Communist Party
* Syrian Communist Party (Unified)

|

Military and militias|

* Lions of Hussein
* Guardians of the Dawn
* Arab Nationalist Guard
* Jaysh al-Muwahhidin
* Sootoro
* Ba'ath Brigades
* National Defence Forces
* Popular Committees
* Golan Regiment
* Syrian Armed Forces
* Eagles of the Whirlwind
* The Islamic Resistance Front in Syria
* Military Council for the Liberation of Syria
* Syrian Popular Resistance
* Syrian Resistance
* Popular Resistance of the Eastern Region
* PFLP-GC
* Jihad Jibril Brigades
* Galilee Forces
* Free Palestine Movement
* Palestinian People's Party
* Liwa Fatemiyoun
* As-Sa'iqa
* al-Quds Brigade
* Palestine Liberation Army

Foreign support|

* Hezbollah involvement
* Iranian involvement
* Liwa Fatemiyoun
* Russian involvement
* medical facility targeting
* military intervention
* Wagner Group
* Russia–Syria–Iran–Iraq coalition
* Popular Mobilization Forces

Opposition|

| Interim government|

* National Coalition
* Local Coordination Committees
* Syrian National Council
* Supreme Council of the Syrian Revolution
* National Coordination Committee for Democratic Change
* Syrian Revolution General Commission
* Syrian Support Group
* Adopt a Revolution
* Syrian Patriotic Group

|

Opposition militias|

* Syrian National Army
* Free Syrian Army
* National Front for Liberation
* Army of Glory
* Authenticity and Development Front
* Army of Free Tribes
* Revolutionary Commando Army
* Muslim Brotherhood in Syria
* Grey Wolves

Foreign support|

* US intervention
* Jordanian intervention
* Qatar
* Saudi Arabia
* Turkey

Autonomous Administration
of North and East Syria|

| DFNS Government|

* Democratic Union Party
* Kurdish National Council
* Smaller political parties

|

SDF militias|

* People's Protection Units
* Women's Protection Units
* Anti-Terror Units
* Al-Sanadid Forces
* Army of Revolutionaries
* SDF military councils
* Syriac Military Council
* Liwa Thuwar al-Raqqa
* Northern Democratic Brigade

Support|

* Patriotic Union of Kurdistan
* Kurdistan Workers' Party
* International Freedom Battalion
* Sinjar Resistance Units
* Êzîdxan Women's Units

Islamists|

| Islamic State|

* Military activity of ISIL
* Dokumacılar
* Al-Barakah
* Khalid ibn al-Walid Army
* Yarmouk Martyrs Brigade
* Islamic Muthanna Movement
* Jaysh al-Jihad
* Jund al-Aqsa
* Group of the One and Only
* Liwa Dawud
* Liwa Aqab al-Islami
* Katibah Nusantara
* Katiba al-Bittar al-Libi
* Al-Khansaa Brigade

|

al-Qaeda and allies|

* Al-Nusra Front (Jabhat Fatah al-Sham (Khorasan group, Suqour al-Ezz) Jaysh Muhammad in Bilad al-Sham
* Tahrir al-Sham
* Turkistan Islamic Party in Syria
* Caucasus Emirate
* Ajnad al-Kavkaz
* Junud al-Makhdi
* Rouse the Believers Operations Room (Ansar al-Tawhid (Firqat al-Ghuraba), Hurras al-Din, Ansar al-Din Front (Harakat Sham al-Islam), Ansar al-Islam in Kurdistan)
* Jaish al-Haramoun
* Jaysh al-Sunna
* Liwa al-Muhajireen wal-Ansar (Green Battalion)
* Mujahideen Shura Council
* Malhama Tactical
* Katibat al-Tawhid wal-Jihad
* Katibat Jabal al-Islam
* Jama'at Ansar al-Furqan in Bilad al Sham
* Ghuraba al-Sham
* Taliban (Pakistani Taliban, Imam Bukhari Jamaat)
* Fatah al-Islam
* Muhajirin wa-Ansar Alliance (Liwaa al-Umma)

People

* Ammar Abdulhamid
* Ali al-Abdallah
* Adnan al-Aroor
* al-Assad family
* Bashar
* Maher
* Rifaat
* Rami Makhlouf
* Hafez Makhlouf
* Riad al-Asaad
* Hadi al-Bahra
* Anwar al-Bunni
* Fahd Jassem al-Freij
* Suheil al-Hassan
* Haitham al-Maleh
* Moaz al-Khatib
* Kamal al-Labwani
* Hamza al-Khateeb
* Tal al-Mallohi
* Fida al-Sayed
* Riad al-Turk
* Khaled Khoja
* Ammar al-Qurabi
* Suheir Atassi
* Ali Sadreddine Al-Bayanouni
* Aref Dalila
* Farid Ghadry
* Burhan Ghalioun
* Razan Ghazzawi
* Ghassan Hitto
* Salim Idris
* Randa Kassis
* Abdul Halim Khaddam
* Michel Kilo
* Bassma Kodmani
* Ali Habib Mahmud
* Ali Mahmoud Othman
* Ibrahim Qashoush
* Dawoud Rajiha
* Yassin al-Haj Saleh
* Bouthaina Shaaban
* Ahmed al-Sharaa
* Abdulbaset Sieda
* Riad Seif
* Fadwa Souleimane
* Mohamad Anas Haitham Soueid
* Yaser Tabbara
* Razan Zaitouneh
* Rami Jarrah
* Abdurrahman Mustafa
* Fadlallah al-Haji

Related

| Elections|

* 2011 local elections
* 2012 parliamentary election
* 2014 presidential election
* 2015 Northern local elections
* 2016 parliamentary election
* 2017 Northern local elections
* 2017 Northern regional elections
* 2018 local elections
* 2020 parliamentary election
* 2021 presidential election

|

Issues|

* Casualties
* Cities and towns
* Chemical weapons
* Damaged heritage sites
* Foreign involvement
* Human rights violations
* Humanitarian aid
* International demonstrations and protests
* International reactions
* Massacres
* Mass graves
* Refugees
* Sectarianism and minorities
* Status of the Golan Heights
* Spillover in Lebanon
* Syrian government reactions

Peace process|

* Arab League monitors
* Friends of Syria Group
* Kofi Annan peace plan
* UN supervision mission
* Lakhdar Brahimi peace plan
* U.S.–Russia peace proposals
* 39th G8 summit
* UN Security Council Resolution 2118
* Geneva II conference
* 2015 Zabadani cease-fire agreement
* Vienna talks
* 2016 Geneva talks
* Idlib demilitarization (2018–present)
* First Northern Syria Demilitarization Deal
* Second Northern Syria Demilitarization Deal
* Syrian Negotiation Commission
* Syrian Constitutional Committee

Investigations/legal cases|

* Investigations
* International Commission
* Chemical weapons
* War crimes cases
* Germany
* Canada + Netherlands vs Syria

Related topics|

* Exclusive mandate
* Fourth Extraordinary Session of the Islamic Summit Conference
* Syria Files
* Syrian detainee report
* Syrian media coverage
* 2015 European migrant crisis
* Syrian civil war in popular culture

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