Italian East Africa

Italian colony in the Horn of Africa from 1936 to 1941

Italian East Africa

Africa Orientale Italiana (Italian)

In native languages

* | شرق أفريقيا الإيطالية (Arabic)

Talyaaniga Bariga Afrika (Somali)
የጣሊያን ምሥራቅ አፍሪካ (Amharic)
Xaaliyaanii Baha Afrikaa (Oromo)
ኢጣልያ ምብራቕ ኣፍሪቃ (Tigrinya)

1936–1941

Flag

Coat of arms

Motto: FERT
(Motto for the House of Savoy)
Anthem:

Marcia Reale d'Ordinanza
"Royal March of Ordinance"

Italian East Africa in 1941:

Italian East Africa

Conquered in 1940

Italian controlled territory

Kingdom of Italy

Status| Colony of Italy
Capital| Addis Ababa
Common languages| Italian (official), Arabic, Oromo, Amharic, Tigrinya, Somali, Tigre
Emperor|

• 1936–1941

| Victor Emmanuel III
Governor-General[a]|

• 1936

| Pietro Badoglio

• 1936–1937

| Rodolfo Graziani

• 1937–1941

| Amedeo di Aosta

• 1941 (acting)

| Pietro Gazzera

• 1941 (acting)

| Guglielmo Nasi
Historical era| Interwar period to World War II

• Italian Ethiopia proclaimed by Italy

| 9 May 1936

• Italian Ethiopia declared part of Italian East Africa

| 1 June 1936

• Second Italo-Ethiopian War ends

| 19 February 1937

• British Somaliland annexed

| 19 August 1940

• Allied occupation

| 27 November 1941

• Relinquished by Italy

| 10 February 1947
Area
1939[2]| 1,725,000 km2 (666,000 sq mi)
Population

• 1939[2]

| 12,100,000
Currency| Italian East African lira

Preceded by | Succeeded by

|

|  | 1936:
Italian Eritrea

|

| Italian Somaliland
| Ethiopian Empire
| 1937:
Sultanate of Aussa
| 1940:
British Somaliland
| Military Administration in Eritrea |

|

Military Administration in Somaliland |
Military Administration in Ethiopia |
Military Administration in Ogaden |
British Somaliland |
Today part of| Eritrea
Somalia
Ethiopia
Somaliland

Italian East Africa (Italian: Africa Orientale Italiana, A.O.I.)[3] was a colonial possession of Fascist Italy from 1936 to 1941 in the Horn of Africa.[4][5][6] It was established following the Second Italo-Ethiopian War, which led to the military occupation of the Ethiopian Empire (Abyssinia).[7][8] It encompassed Italian Somaliland, Italian Eritrea and the acquired Ethiopian territories, all governed by a single administrative unit, the Governo Generale dell'Africa Orientale Italiana.[4][9] Its establishment contributed to the outbreak of the  Second World War by exposing the weaknesses of the League of Nations.[10][11][12]

Italian East Africa was divided into six governorates. Eritrea and Somalia, Italian possessions since the 1880s, were enlarged with captured Ethiopian territory and became the Eritrea and  Somalia Governorates. The remainder of the occupied Ethiopian territories comprised the Harar, Galla-Sidamo, Amhara, and  Scioa Governorates. At its largest extent, Italian East Africa occupied territories in British Somaliland, British Kenya, and Anglo-Egyptian Sudan.[13] By 1939, it was settled by about 165,270 Italian colonists.

During World War II, Italian East Africa became the battleground of the East African campaign (part of the Mediterranean and Middle East theater).[14] After the Battle of Gondar in November 1941, it was occupied by a British-led force including colonial units and Ethiopian resistance fighters.[15][16] All former Italian territories came under British administration;[7] occupied Ethiopia was ruled until full sovereignty was restored in 1944. In 1950, Allied occupied Somalia became the United Nations Trust Territory of Somaliland, administered by Italy from 1950 until its independence in 1960. Allied occupied Eritrea became an autonomous part of Ethiopia in 1952. It was later annexed by the Ethiopian Empire in 1962 and gained its independence in 1993 as Eritrea.[17]

## History

[edit]

### Italian ambitions and rise of fascism

[edit]

Main articles: Italian fascism and Italian imperialism under fascism

Mussolini and the fascist paramilitary Blackshirts' March on Rome in October 1922. Marshal  De Bono, standing left of Mussolini, commanded Italian forces during the Second Italo-Ethiopian War

In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, Italy sought to expand its colonial empire, competing with other European powers for overseas territories. Early efforts included the colonization of Eritrea (1890) and Italian Somaliland (1905), followed by the unsuccessful invasion of the Ethiopian Empire in the First Italo-Ethiopian War (1895–1896).[18] After World War I, nationalist sentiments grew, fueled by the belief that Italy had been denied its rightful territorial rewards for its contribution to the war effort, a sentiment known as the  Mutilated Victory (Italian: Vittoria Mutilata).[19][20] The combination of mobilization costs and the  social unrest that followed the war is widely thought to have strengthened Italian irredentism and  nationalism.[21] This frustration contributed to the rise of Benito Mussolini and his  Fascist regime in 1922.[22]

Mussolini injected a new and aggressive impetus into these frustrations and ambitions, framing colonial expansion as a means to restore Roman greatness, enhance national prestige, and solve Italy's economic problems by providing land and resources.[23][24] Mussolini believed the Italian people lacked a strong nationalistic and colonial conscience and thus sought to cultivate these sentiments through Fascist propaganda, particularly in the lead-up to the invasion and during occupation of the Ethiopia Empire.[25] This propaganda emphasized Italy's need for colonial territories (Italian: spazio vitale), the perceived danger of Ethiopian aggression, and the injustice of international opposition to Italian expansion.[26] The conquest of Ethiopia in 1936 and the subsequent formation of Italian East Africa were presented as major achievements of the Fascist regime, aimed at fulfilling long-standing Italian ambitions and establishing Italy as a major power.[27][23] Despite earlier consideration of a protectorate over parts of Ethiopia, the Fascist government pursued full conquest, driven by Mussolini's determination to achieve a significant colonial victory to bolster his regime's legitimacy and international standing.[28] This ambition, however, was met with Ethiopian resistance and international complications.[29][16] This further aligned Italy with Nazi Germany, setting the stage for its involvement in World War II.[30]

### Second Italo-Ethiopian War

[edit]

Main article: Second Italo-Ethiopian War

Mussolini inspecting troops during the Second Italo-Ethiopian War

The Italo-Ethiopian Treaty of 1928 stated that the border between Italian Somaliland and Ethiopia was 21 leagues parallel to the Benadir coast. In 1934, a border clash at Ual-Ual between Italian and Ethiopian forces during a boundary survey provided Mussolini with a pretext for a war.[31] The Second Italo-Ethiopian War began without prior declaration of war in October 1935, with Italy sending a modern army of two hundred thousand soldiers commanded by Marshal Emilio De Bono and General Rodolfo Graziani (and later Pietro Badoglio). This army was equipped with superior weaponry, including an air force and tanks. Italian troops used mustard gas in aerial bombardments (in violation of the Geneva Protocol and Geneva Conventions) against combatants and civilians in an attempt to discourage the Ethiopian people from supporting the resistance.[32][33][34] This military superiority over the Ethiopian army, combined with the then Ethiopian Emperor Haile Selassie's initial strategy of engaging in frontal battles led to significant Italian victories.[35] During the late stages of the war, Italian forces violated international agreements by bombing Red Cross ambulances and hospitals, claiming these actions were in retaliation for alleged Ethiopian atrocities.[36][37]

While some Italians initially opposed the war due to fears of a broader European conflict and Italy's financial instability, the Italian public largely shifted to support Mussolini following reported victories.[38] Selassie was forced to flee to England, with Italian forces entering the capital city, Addis Ababa by 5 May 1936. Shortly after, Mussolini proclaimed an "Italian Empire of Ethiopia" and the Italian Empire on May 9, 1936.[39] Following the Italian conquest, Ethiopian patriotic resistance continued in various parts of the country, particularly in the north and northwest. The resistance, although facing the challenge of Italy's modern military and harsh reprisals, prevented Italy from fully controlling Ethiopia and hindered its plans for economic and demographic exploitation.[40][16][41] This ongoing opposition set the stage for Ethiopia's eventual involvement in the Second World War.[15]

### League of Nations

[edit]

Main articles: League of Nations and Abyssinia Crisis

Since 28 September 1923, The Ethiopian Empire had been one of the member states of the League of Nations after its membership was supported by Mussolini.[42] Following Italy's invasion, the League imposed economic sanctions on Italy, restricting trade in arms, rubber, and certain raw materials.[31] However, the sanctions did not include oil, which was needed for Italy's war effort.[43] France and Britain, concerned about maintaining good relations with Italy against the growing German threat, hesitated to enforce harsher penalties (appeasement). In 1936, the League lifted the sanctions, effectively legitimizing Italy's conquest. The failure of the League to protect the Ethiopian Empire exposed its weaknesses, demonstrating its inability to deter aggression from major powers. This failure was a key moment in the lead-up to World War II, undermining the League's credibility as a force for global peace.[10][11][12] Although Selassie fled to England and appealed to the League of Nations for help, many nations gradually recognized the Italian annexation for political and economic reasons.[44][45] On 18 November 1936, the Italian Empire was recognised by the Empire of Japan and Italy recognised the Japanese occupation of Manchuria, marking the end of the Stresa Front. Mussolini's international popularity further decreased as he endorsed the annexation of Austria by Nazi Germany, beginning a political tilt toward Germany that eventually led to the downfall of Mussolini and the Fascist regime in Italy in World War II.

Selassie at the League of Nations appealing Italy's invasion in 1936

On 12 May 1936, the League of Nations allowed Selassie to  address the assembly. Selassie was introduced as "His Imperial Majesty, the Emperor of Ethiopia" (French: Sa Majesté Imperiale, l'Empereur d'Éthiopie), to jeering and whistling by Italian journalists.[46] The Romanian delegate Nicolae Titulescu shouted "To the door with the savages!" (Romanian: A la porte les sauvages!), and the journalists were removed from the hall. Selassie responded with a speech.[47][48][49][50] In a speech on 30 June 1936 to the assembly, he predicted "It is us today, it will be you tomorrow" if the League of Nations permitted Italian aggression.[12] Mussolini grew frustrated over the continued recognition of Selassie by the League of Nations and on 11 December 1937 announced the withdrawal of Italy's delegation to the League.[51]

### Second World War

[edit]

Main article: East African campaign (World War II)

East Africa Campaign northern front: Allied advances in 1941

On 10 June 1940, Italy declared war on Britain and France, which made Italian military forces in Libya a threat to Egypt and those in the Italian East Africa a danger to the British and French territories in the Horn of Africa. Italian belligerence also closed the Mediterranean to Allied merchant ships and endangered British supply routes along the coast of East Africa, the Gulf of Aden, Red Sea and the Suez Canal. (The Kingdom of Egypt remained neutral during World War II, but the Anglo-Egyptian Treaty of 1936 allowed the British to occupy Egypt and Anglo-Egyptian Sudan.)[52]: 6–7, 69 Egypt, the Suez Canal, French Somaliland and British Somaliland were also vulnerable to invasion, but the Comando Supremo (Italian General Staff) had planned for a war after 1942. In the summer of 1940, Italy was far from ready for a long war or for the occupation of large areas of Africa.[52]: 38–40

Hostilities began on 13 June 1940, with an Italian air raid on the base of 1 Squadron Southern Rhodesian Air Force (237 (Rhodesia) Squadron RAF) at Wajir in the East Africa Protectorate (Kenya). In August 1940, the protectorate of British Somaliland was occupied by Italian forces and absorbed into Italian East Africa, which lasted around six months.[53] Anthony Eden, the Secretary of State for War, convened a conference in Khartoum at the end of October 1940 with Selassie, South African Prime Minister Jan Smuts, Wavell, Lieutenant-General William Platt and Lieutenant-General Alan Cunningham. A plan to attack Italian East Africa, including support for Ethiopian resistance forces, was agreed.[54] General Wavell, commander of British troops in the Middle East, charged Colonel Sandford to make plans to aid and mobilize the Ethiopian patriots.[55][56]

By early 1941, Italian forces had been largely pushed back from Kenya and Sudan. On 6 April 1941, Addis Ababa was occupied by the 11th (African) Division, which received the surrender of the city.[52]: 421–422 The remnants of the Italian forces in the Italian East Africa surrendered after staging a last stand at the Battle of Gondar in November 1941. In Ethiopia, some Italian forces continued to fight in an Italian guerrilla war in Ethiopia against the British and Ethiopian forces until the Armistice of Cassibile (3 September 1943) ended hostilities between Italy and the Allies.[57] In January 1942, with the final official surrender of the Italians, the British signed an interim Anglo-Ethiopian Agreement with Selassie, acknowledging Ethiopian sovereignty. Makonnen Endelkachew was named as Prime Minister and on 19 December 1944, the final Anglo-Ethiopian Agreement was signed.

### Treaty of Paris (1947)

[edit]

Main article: Treaty of Paris between Italy and the Allied Powers

In the peace treaty of February 1947, Italy officially renounced sovereignty over its African colonies of Libya, Eritrea and Somalia (art. 23) and recognized the independence of Ethiopia (art. 33).[58] Italy further agreed to:

* Pay war reparation of US$25,000,000 to Ethiopia
* Accept "Annex XI of the Treaty", upon the recommendation of the United Nations General Assembly in Resolution 390, that indicated that Eritrea was to be federated with Ethiopia.

Eritrea was placed under British military administration and became an autonomous part of Ethiopia in 1952. After 1945, Britain controlled both Somalilands, as protectorates. In November 1949, the United Nations granted Italy trusteeship of Italian Somaliland under close supervision, on condition that Somalia achieve independence within ten years.[59] British Somaliland became independent on 26 June 1960 as the State of Somaliland, the Trust Territory of Somalia (ex-Italian Somaliland) became independent on 1 July 1960 and the territories united as the Somali Republic.[60]: 835 After the war, Italian Ethiopians were given a full pardon by the newly returned Selassie, as he saw the opportunity to continue the modernization efforts of the country.

## Italian occupation

[edit]

### Administration

[edit]

Main articles: List of governors-general of Italian East Africa and List of governors of the governorates of Italian East Africa

Prince Amedeo, Duke of Aosta, longest serving Governor General of Italian East Africa

Italian East Africa was administered by a single administrative unit, the Governo Generale dell'AOI. (GGAOI), with the city of  Addis Abeba as its capital.[61][62] The colonial government was overseen by Ministry of Italian Africa (Italian: Ministro per l'Africa italiana) and was administered by a Viceroy of Ethiopia and Governor General of Italian East Africa, appointed by the Italian king. Victor Emmanuel III of Italy consequently adopted the title of "Emperor of Ethiopia". The dominion was further divided for administrative purposes into six governorates, further divided into forty commissariati.

Fascist colonial policy in Italian East Africa had a divide and conquer characteristic. To weaken the Orthodox Christian Amhara people who had run Ethiopia in the past, territory claimed by Eritrean Tigray-Tigrinyas and Somalis was given to the Eritrea Governorate and Somalia Governorate.[63]: 5 Reconstruction efforts after the war in 1936 were partially focused on benefiting the Muslim peoples in the colony at the expense of the Amhara to strengthen support by Muslims for the Italian colony.[63]: 5

In 1938 Mussolini enacted The Italian Racial Laws (Italian: Leggi Razziali), which institutionalized racial discrimination against Italian Jews and African inhabitants of the Italian Empire. These laws, and later a policy of pacification by apartheid, enforced segregation and reinforced racial hierarchies in Italy's colonies, further aligning Italian fascism with Nazi ideology. Italians and Natives were racially segregated and lived in separate parts of towns.[64] Interracial marriage was prohibited and so was having children between those of different races. However concubinages did exist. Those who were mixed-race could not get Italian citizenship or go to schools meant for Italians. Married Italian colonists had to bring their families and those who were unmarried could not employ servants.[65]

### Territory

[edit]

Administrative subdivisions of Italian East Africa

When established in 1936, Italian East Africa consisted of the old Italian possessions in the Horn of Africa: Italian Eritrea and Italian Somaliland, combined with the recently conquered Empire of Ethiopia.[66] The territory was divided into the six governorates: Eritrea and Somalia, consisting of the respective former colonies, enlarged with territory from Ethiopia. The remainder of "Italian Ethiopia" consisted of the Harar, Galla-Sidamo, Amhara, and Addis Abeba Governorates. The Addis Abeba Governorate was enlarged into the Scioa Governorate with territory from neighboring Harar, Galla-Sidamo and Amhara in November 1938.

Italian East Africa was briefly enlarged in 1940, as Italian forces invaded British Somaliland, thereby bringing all Somali territories, aside from the small colony of French Somaliland, under Italian administration. At its largest extent, The colony occupied territories in British Somaliland, British Kenya, and Anglo-Egyptian Sudan. However, it was dismembered only a year later, when in the course of the East African campaign.[67]

### Economic development

[edit]

Map showing in red the new roads (like the "Imperial road", and those in construction in 1941) created by the Italians in Ethiopia and AOI[68]

Italy's Fascist regime encouraged Italian peasants to colonize Ethiopia by setting up farms and small manufacturing businesses.[63]: 5 However, few Italians came to the Ethiopian colony, with most going to Eritrea and Somalia. While Italian Eritrea enjoyed some degree of development, supported by nearly 80,000 Italian colonists,[69] by 1940 only 3,200 farmers had arrived in Ethiopia, less than ten percent of the Fascist regime's goal.[63]: 6 Continued insurgency by native Ethiopians, lack of natural resources, rough terrain, and uncertainty of political and military conditions discouraged development and settlement in the countryside.[63]: 6

Italians constructed a road between Addis Ababa and Massaua, Addis Ababa and Mogadishu, and Addis Ababa to Assab.[70] 900 km of railways were reconstructed or initiated (like the railway between Addis Ababa and Assab), dams and hydroelectric plants were built. Public companies were established in Ethiopian governorates, such as the Ethiopian Electricity Company (Italian: Imprese elettriche d'Etiopia). Italians built additional airports and in 1936 started the Linea dell'Impero, a flight connecting Addis Ababa to Rome. The line was opened after the Italian conquest of Ethiopia and was followed by the first air links with the AOI governorates. The route was enlarged to 6,379 km and initially joined Rome with Addis Ababa via Syracuse, Benghazi, Cairo, Wadi Halfa, Khartoum, Kassala, Asmara, Dire Dawa.[71]

The Djibouti–Addis Ababa Railway, the most significant railway in Italian East Africa, was acquired following the Italian conquest of Ethiopia in 1936. Until 1935, steam trains operated the 784 km route, taking about 36 hours to travel between Addis Ababa and Djibouti. In 1938, Italy introduced four high-capacity "Type 038" rail-cars, derived from the Fiat ALn56 model, increasing speeds to 70 km/h and reducing travel time to 18 hours. These diesel railcars remained in use until the mid-1960s. Major stations offered bus connections to other cities in Italian East Africa, and a fire brigade unit was established near Addis Ababa station—the only one of its kind in Africa at the time.[72][73][74][75]

Italians invested substantively in Ethiopian infrastructure development. However Ethiopia and Italian East Africa proved to be extremely expensive to maintain, as the budget for the fiscal year 1936–37 had been set at 19.136 billion lira to create the necessary infrastructure for the colony.[63]: 5 At the time, Italy's entire yearly revenue was only 18.581 billion lira.[63]: 5

* Asmara station on the Eritrean Railway in 1938, with passengers boarding a Littorina

* The Italian-era Ethiopian electric power corporation building, Addis Ababa

* Italian commercial buildings in Massawa, Eritrea

### Education

[edit]

Prior to Fascism, education in Italian Somaliland and Italian Eritrea had primarily been the responsibility of both Roman Catholic and Protestant missionaries.[76] With Mussolini's rise to power, government schools were created which eventually incorporated the Catholic missionaries' educational programmes while those of the Protestant missionaries became marginalised and circumscribed. Andrea Festa, who was made director of the central office governing primary education in Eritrea in November 1932, declared in 1934 that Fascist efforts in education needed to ensure that native Africans were "acquainted with a little of our civilisation" and that they needed to "know Italy, its glories, and ancient history, in order to, become a conscious militia man in the shade of our flag." Such education initiatives were designed to train Africans in a variety of practical tasks useful to the Fascist regime as well as to indoctrinate them with the tenets and lifestyle of Fascist ideology with the aim of creating citizens obedient and subservient to the state.[77]

The propagandistic nature of the education was especially apparent in history textbooks issued to African children, which entirely omitted any discussion of events such as Italian disunity, Giuseppe Mazzini's "Young Italy" movement, the revolutions of 1848, or Giuseppe Garibaldi's Expedition of the Thousand and instead stressed the "glories" of the Roman Empire and those of the Italian state that claimed to be its successor. Glorification and lionisation of Mussolini and his "great work" likewise pervaded them, while periods during which Libya and other then-Italian possessions had been controlled by older, non-Italian empires, such as the Ottoman Empire, were portrayed through an unflattering lens.[76] Use of the Fascist salute was mandatory in schools for African children, who were constantly encouraged to become "little soldiers of the Duce", and every day there was morning ceremony at which the Italian flag was hoisted and patriotic songs were sung. Italian children, whose education the Fascist government prioritised over that of Africans, received education similar to that in Fascist Italy's metropole, though with some aspects of it tailored to the local situation in East Africa. Fascist education in the colony proved to be a failure in the end, with only one twentieth of Italian colonial soldiers possessing any literacy.[78]

In Italian East Africa, Fascist Italy sought to neutralize any educational institutions which provided instruction to Africans beyond the level expected by Fascist ideology.[77] In particular the secondary education network in the Ethiopian Empire had prepared and enabled a relatively small but significant amount of Ethiopians to study abroad at universities in Europe. As a result of this policy and state-sponsored mass murder, post-World War II Ethiopia found itself impoverished of skilled workers due to the very limited and propagandistic education provided to its non-Italian inhabitants under Mussolini's rule.[79] During World War II, few African natives displayed any loyalty to the Fascist state that the state's schools had so fervently tried to instill.[80]

### Banknotes and postage stamps

[edit]

Frontal Image  | Back Image  | Amount  | Color  | Frontal Description  | Back Description

|
|
|
|
|

|  | 50 Lire | Green  | LIRE CINQVANTA – BANCA D'ITALIA | 50 LIRE – Lupa romana
|  | 100 Lire | Green/gray  | LIRE CENTO – BANCA D'ITALIA – Dea Roma | LIRE CENTO – BANCA D'ITALIA – Aquila

On 5 May 1936 the capital Addis Ababa was captured by the Italians: on 22 May three new stamps showing the King of Italy were issued. Four further values inscribed "ETIOPIA" were issued on 5 December 1936. After that date, the stamps were issued with the name "Africa Orientale Italiana" on it.[81][citation needed]

### Demographics

[edit]

In 1939, there were 165,267 Italian citizens in Italian East Africa, mostly concentrated in Asmara, Addis Ababa, and Mogadishu. The total population was estimated at 12.1 million, with an uneven distribution across the region. Eritrea had around 1.5 million people in 90,000 square miles (16.7 people per square mile), Ethiopia had 9.5 million people in 305,000 square miles (31 people per square mile), and Italian Somaliland had 1.1 million people in 271,000 square miles (4 people per square mile). Most Italians in Ethiopia were troops because Ethiopian resistance in the countryside made permanent settlement difficult. Frequent attacks disrupted efforts to establish enough farms and secure food supplies, preventing the troops from transitioning into farming colonists.[82]

English | Capital | Total population[2] | Italians[2] | Tag | Coat of Arms

|
|
|
|
|

Amhara Governorate | Gondar | 2,000,000 | 11,103 | AM |
Eritrea Governorate | Asmara | 1,500,000 | 72,408 | ER |
Galla-Sidamo Governorate | Jimma | 4,000,000 | 11,823 | GS |
Harar Governorate | Harar | 1,600,000 | 10,035 | HA |
Scioa Governorate | Addis Ababa | 1,850,000 | 40,698 | SC |
Somalia Governorate | Mogadishu | 1,150,000 | 19,200 | SOM |

## Atrocities

[edit]

### War Crimes

[edit]

Main articles: Second Italo-Ethiopian War § War crimes, and Italian war crimes

Rome brings black culture to the Abbysians, caricature by Adolf Hoffmeister, 1936.

During the Second Italo-Ethiopian War, Italian forces used between 300 and 500 tons of mustard gas (yperite) against both military and civilian targets, despite being a signatory to the 1925 Geneva Protocol banning chemical warfare.[83] This gas, produced during World War I, was a decisive factor in the conflict, with historian Walter Laqueur estimating that up to one-third of Ethiopian casualties resulted from chemical weapons.[84] Although Italy justified its use of gas by citing the execution of pilot Tito Minniti, Mussolini had authorized gas attacks two months before Minniti’s death and later expanded their use on a massive scale. Mustard gas was delivered via bombs and gas shells, sprayed from aircraft onto Ethiopian soldiers, villages, and even Red Cross medical units.[32][33] The attacks, which the Italians attempted to keep secret, were exposed by the International Red Cross and foreign observers.[36][37] Selassie, in his plea to the League of Nations, condemned the use of chemical weapons, detailing their widespread and horrific effects on people, animals, and the environment. Ethiopian forces employed Dum-Dum bullets, banned under the Hague Convention, and reportedly mutilated captured Eritrean Askari and Italian soldiers. On 13 February 1936, a camp of civilian workers for the logistics company Gondrand, engaged at the time in road construction, was attacked and massacred at dawn by Ethiopian soldiers under the orders of Ras Imru. The massacre was publicized by Fascist Italy in an attempt to justify its ongoing invasion and the escalating the brutality of the reprisals.[85][86][87]

### Yekatit 12

[edit]

Main article: Yekatit 12

On 19 February 1937, to celebrate the birth of the Prince of Naples, Rodolfo Graziani announced he would personally distribute alms to the poor at the Genete Leul Palace (also known as the Little Gebbi). Two young Eritreans living in Ethiopia named Abraha Deboch and Mogus Asgedom made an attempt on Graziani's life by throwing grenades.[88] Following the attempt, Italian soldiers raided the Debre Libanos monastery, where the assassins were believed to have taken refuge, and executed hundreds of the monks and nuns.[63]: 5 Italian forces, mostly Blackshirts, then continued to carry out brutal reprisals in Addis Ababa. Over the next three days, thousands of Ethiopian civilians were massacred: estimates range from 1,400 to 19,000 deaths,[89][90] while Ethiopians claimed 30,000 victims. Italian troops, Blackshirt militias, and Fascist supporters set fire to homes, businesses, and churches, killing indiscriminately.[63]: 5 [91] The massacre has come to be known as Yekatit 12 (the date in the Ethiopian language).[92] After the massacres, Graziani became known as "the Butcher of Ethiopia" and was subsequently removed by Mussolini.[93] Mussolini viewed the action as a major setback for Fascist propaganda and was concerned that the growing resentment among the natives would increase the number of individuals joining the resistance.[94] As a result, Graziani was replaced by Prince Amedeo, Duke of Aosta, whose pacification by apartheid approach minimized the risk of a united front against the Italians as an aftermath of the massacre.[95]

* Rodolfo Graziani after surviving an attempt on his life

* A victim tied to a tree

* Dead bodies being loaded off of a transport

### Concentration camps

[edit]

Main articles: List of Italian concentration camps, Nocra prison camp, and Danane concentration camp

Nocra prison camp was a notorious Italian detention facility located on Nocra Island in the Dahlak Archipelago, Eritrea. Originally established by the Italians in the late 19th century, it was used throughout the colonial period as a remote and harsh prison for political dissidents, Ethiopian resistance fighters, and other individuals deemed threats to Italian rule. The prison was infamous for its inhumane conditions, including extreme heat, forced labor, and inadequate food.[96] Prisoners were subjected to harsh punishments, with many dying due to disease or malnutrition.[97] During the Italian occupation of Ethiopia (1936-1941), Nocra housed much of the intelligentsia of Ethiopia with some being executed and the remainder exiled to penal colonies. As a result, post-World War II Ethiopia found itself impoverished of skilled workers.[98]

The Danane concentration camp was another Italian concentration camp established near Mogadishu in Italian East Africa.[99] Danane concentration camp Prisoners were transported from Addis Ababa to Danane in covered trucks by night to avoid them being seen. By the time they arrived at Danane, a journey of more than four weeks, several had died of disease and hardships along the way.[99] Conflicting reports make it hard to accurately assess the extent of death among the prisoners. Graziani ordered that they be given only enough food to survive, and the conditions in which they were held were dire.[100] The facilities were poor, with insufficient latrines, and they faced a humid climate that contributed to outbreaks of malaria, stomach infections, and venereal diseases.[101][102]

## See also

[edit]

* List of governors-general of Italian East Africa
* List of governors of the governorates of Italian East Africa
* Dubats
* Political history of Eastern Africa
* Italians of Ethiopia
* Italian guerrilla war in Ethiopia
* Italian African Police
* Italian East African lira
* Augusto Turati
* Languages of Africa

## Notes

[edit]

1. ^ The full title was Viceroy of Ethiopia and Governor General of Italian East Africa.[1]

## References

[edit]

1. ^ Page, Melvin E; Sonnenburg, Penny M (2006). Colonialism: An International Social, Cultural and Political Encyclopedia. ABC-CLIO. p. 1054\. ISBN 9781576077627. OCLC 690378095.
2. ^ a b c Istat (December 2010). "I censimenti nell'Italia unita I censimenti nell'Italia unita Le fonti di stato della popolazione tra il XIX e il XXI secolo ISTITUTO NAZIONALE DI STATISTICA SOCIETÀ ITALIANA DI DEMOGRAFIA STORICA Le fonti di stato della popolazione tra il XIX e il XXI secolo" (PDF). Annali di Statistica. XII. 2: 263. Archived from the original (PDF) on 3 August 2014. Retrieved 24 December 2013.
3. ^ Sbacchi 1997, p. xi.
4. ^ a b Ben-Ghiat & Fuller 2016, p. 7.
5. ^ Mockler 2019, p. 475.
6. ^ Pergher 2017, p. 4.
7. ^ a b Ben-Ghiat & Fuller 2016, p. xvii.
8. ^ Sbacchi 1997, p. 163.
9. ^ Mockler 2019, p. 165.
10. ^ a b Sbacchi 1997, p. 35.
11. ^ a b Pergher 2017, p. 18.
12. ^ a b c Campbell 2017, p. 352.
13. ^ Stewart 2016, p. 75-147.
14. ^ Stewart 2016.
15. ^ a b Stewart 2016, p. 191-204,228-231.
16. ^ a b c Sbacchi 1997, p. 164-186.
17. ^ Ben-Ghiat & Fuller 2016, p. xviii.
18. ^ Ben-Ghiat & Fuller 2016, p. xiv-xvii.
19. ^ Cfr. Gabriele D'Annunzio, in an editorial in Corriere della Sera, October 24, 1918, Vittoria nostra, non sarai mutilata ('Our victory will not be mutilated')
20. ^ Pergher 2017, p. 32.
21. ^ Kallis 2000, p. 16.
22. ^ Kallis 2000.
23. ^ a b Ben-Ghiat & Fuller 2016, p. 121.
24. ^ Pergher 2017, p. 2.
25. ^ Ben-Ghiat & Fuller 2016, p. 180.
26. ^ Campbell 2017.
27. ^ Campbell 2017, p. 18.
28. ^ Sbacchi 1997, p. 269-271.
29. ^ Ben-Ghiat & Fuller 2016, p. 44.
30. ^ Burgwyn 1997.
31. ^ a b Campbell 2017, p. 21.
32. ^ a b Belladonna 2015.
33. ^ a b Sbacchi 1997, p. 57-85.
34. ^ Campbell 2017, p. 37.
35. ^ Gooch 2020.
36. ^ a b Ben-Ghiat & Fuller 2016, p. 4-56.
37. ^ a b Campbell 2017, p. 38.
38. ^ Sbacchi 1997, p. 35-36.
39. ^ Sbacchi 1997, p. 105.
40. ^ Ben-Ghiat & Fuller 2016, p. 43.
41. ^ Stewart 2016, p. 14-16,191-204,228-231.
42. ^ Sbacchi 1997, p. 8.
43. ^ Sbacchi 1997, p. 214-218.
44. ^ O'Mahoney 2018, p. 105.
45. ^ Sbacchi 1997, p. 209.
46. ^ Moseley 1999, p. 27.
47. ^ Jarrett-Macauley, Delia (1998), The Life of Una Marson, 1905–65, Manchester University Press, ISBN 0-7190-5284-X, pp. 102–3.
48. ^ Barker, A. J., The Rape of Ethiopia 1936, p. 133
49. ^ Safire, William (1997), Lend Me Your Ears: Great Speeches in History, W.W. Norton, pp. 297–298, ISBN 978-0-393-04005-0
50. ^ Luti, William (2 April 2022). "A 1936 Speech Offers Dire Warnings for Today". Hudson. Archived from the original on 29 December 2023. Retrieved 29 December 2023.
51. ^ Spencer 2006, p. 72.
52. ^ a b c Playfair, Ian Stanley Ord; Molony, Chartres James Chatterton; Stitt, George Marquis Stewart; Toomer, Sydney Edward (1954). The Mediterranean and Middle East. OCLC 504230580.
53. ^ Raugh, H. E. (1993). Wavell in the Middle East, 1939–1941: A Study in Generalship. London: Brassey's. pp. 67, 72–73\. ISBN 978-0-08-040983-2.
54. ^ Dear 2005, p. 245.
55. ^ Sbacchi 1997, p. 307.
56. ^ Mockler 2019, p. 190.
57. ^ Italian Map showing with green lines the territories conquered in 1940 by the Italians in Sudan and Kenya. British and French somaliland are shown in white, as part of the A.O.I. (Africa Orientale Italiana). It also shows the last areas of Italian stand before surrender in 1941
58. ^ "Treaty of Peace with Italy" (PDF). Queen's University Belfast. Retrieved 26 March 2025.
59. ^ Zolberg, Aristide R; Aguayo, Sergio; Suhrke, Astri (1992). Escape from Violence: Conflict and the Refugee Crisis in the Developing World. Oxford University Press. p. 106\. ISBN 9780195079166. OCLC 718241912.
60. ^ The New Encyclopædia Britannica (15th ed.). Chicago: Encyclopædia Britannica. 2002. ISBN 978-0-85229-787-2.
61. ^ Mockler 2019.
62. ^ Sbacchi 1997, p. xii.
63. ^ a b c d e f g h i Cannistraro, Philip V (1982). Historical Dictionary of Fascist Italy. Greenwood. ISBN 9780313213175. OCLC 185703605.
64. ^ Forgacs, David (27 March 2014). Italy's Margins: Social Exclusion and Nation Formation since 1861. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-107-05217-8.
65. ^ Aldrich, Robert; Stucki, Andreas (29 December 2022). The Colonial World: A History of European Empires, 1780s to the Present. Bloomsbury Publishing. ISBN 978-1-350-09242-6.
66. ^ Fuller, Mia (2016). Ben-Ghiat, Ruth (ed.). Italian Colonialism. Palgrave Macmillan US. ISBN 9781403981585. OCLC 961059564.
67. ^ Clapham, Christopher (1984). "The Horn of Africa". In Crowder, Michael (ed.). The Cambridge history of Africa. Vol. 8, From c. 1940 to c. 1975. Crowder, Michael, 1934-1988. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 460\. ISBN 9781139054621. OCLC 317592773.
68. ^ "More detailed map". Archived from the original on 24 August 2023. Retrieved 26 August 2023.
69. ^ "Italian industries and companies in Eritrea". Archived from the original on 29 April 2009.
70. ^ "1940 Article on the special road Addis Abeba-Assab and map (in Italian)" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2 April 2012. Retrieved 22 September 2011.
71. ^ "AFRICA in "Enciclopedia Italiana"". www.treccani.it. Archived from the original on 6 June 2019. Retrieved 3 July 2019.
72. ^ "LE CHEMIN DE FER FRANCO ETHIOPIEN ET DJIBOUTO ETHIOPIEN". www.train-franco-ethiopien.com. Archived from the original on 24 February 2021. Retrieved 1 July 2018.
73. ^ "LE CHEMIN DE FER FRANCO ETHIOPIEN ET DJIBOUTO ETHIOPIEN". www.train-franco-ethiopien.com. Archived from the original on 2 August 2020. Retrieved 1 July 2018.
74. ^ "LE CHEMIN DE FER FRANCO ETHIOPIEN ET DJIBOUTO ETHIOPIEN". www.train-franco-ethiopien.com. Archived from the original on 24 July 2017. Retrieved 1 July 2018.
75. ^ ""Pompieri ad Addis Abeba" (in Italian)". Archived from the original on 4 November 2016. Retrieved 20 December 2018.
76. ^ a b Ben-Ghiat & Fuller 2016, p. 29.
77. ^ a b Ben-Ghiat & Fuller 2016, p. 84.
78. ^ Pankhurst, Richard (1972). "Education in Ethiopia during the Italian Fascist Occupation (1936-1941)". The International Journal of African Historical Studies. 5 (3): 361–396\. doi:10.2307/217091. JSTOR 217091.
79. ^ Campbell 2017, p. 239.
80. ^ Pankhurst, Richard (1972). "Education in Ethiopia during the Italian Fascist Occupation (1936-1941)". The International Journal of African Historical Studies. 5 (3): 361–396\. doi:10.2307/217091. JSTOR 217091.
81. ^ "Italian Stamps - Ethiopia". www.italianstamps.co.uk.
82. ^ Royal Institute of International Affairs (24 August 1940). "Italian Possessions in Africa: II. Italian East Africa". Bulletin of International News. 17 (17): 1065–1074.
83. ^ Ben-Ghiat & Fuller 2016, p. 41.
84. ^ Laqueur 2001, p. 57.
85. ^ Andreani, Marco; Pazzaglia, Nicoletta (2019). Photography as Power: Dominance and Resistance through the Italian Lens. Cambridge Scholars Publishing. pp. 83–86\. ISBN 978-1527524880.
86. ^ Baudendistel, Rainer (2006). Between Bombs and Good Intentions: The International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC) and the Italo-Ethiopian War, 1935-1936. Oxford and New York: Berghahn Books. pp. 242–246\. ISBN 1782388729.
87. ^ Forgacs, David (2014). Italy's Margins: Social Exclusion and Nation Formation since 1861. Cambridge University Press. pp. 123–127\. ISBN 978-1139868143.
88. ^ Mockler, Anthony (2003). "Chapter 14: Yekatit 12". Haile Selassie's War (3rd ed.). Oxford: Signal Books. pp. 163–173\. ISBN 9781902669533 - via Google Books.
89. ^ Del Boca, Angelo (2014). Italiani, brava gente? [Italians, Good People?] (in Italian). Vicenza: Neri Pozza. p. 222\. ISBN 978-88-6559-178-9.
90. ^ Campbell, Ian (20 July 2017). "Italy and the Addis Ababa massacre". The Economist. Vol. 418, no. 9053\. London. ISSN 0013-0613. Archived from the original on 1 August 2017. Retrieved 21 July 2017.
91. ^ Sarti, Roland (1974). The Ax Within: Italian Fascism in Action. New Viewpoints. p. 191. ISBN 978-0-53-106367-5. OCLC 600764772.
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94. ^ Knox, MacGregor (2005). Mussolini Unleashed, 1939–1941: Politics and Strategy in Fascist Italy's Last War. ACLS History E-Book Project. p. 150\. OCLC 278096179.
95. ^ Campbell 2017, p. 338-339.
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97. ^ Sbacchi 1997, p. 131-133.
98. ^ Campbell 2017, p. 234.
99. ^ a b Campbell 2017, p. 233.
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101. ^ Sbacchi 1997, p. 132-133.
102. ^ Campbell 2017, p. 232.

## Bibliography

[edit]

* Sbacchi, Alberto (1997). Legacy of Bitterness. Lawrenceville, NJ: Red Sea Press(NJ). ISBN 0-932415-74-1.
* Ben-Ghiat, R.; Fuller, M. (30 April 2016). Italian Colonialism. New York: Springer. ISBN 1-4039-8158-2.
* Mockler, Anthony (2019). Il mito dell'Impero. Storia delle guerre italiane in Abissinia e in Etiopia (in Italian). ISBN 978-88-6697-269-3.
* Pergher, Roberta (2 November 2017). Mussolini's Nation-Empire. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-108-35595-7.
* Campbell, Ian (2017). The Addis Ababa Massacre. Oxford ; New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-067472-4. OCLC 960837850.
* Stewart, Andrew (1 January 2016). The First Victory. New Haven: Yale University Press. ISBN 0-300-20855-3.
* Kallis, Aristotle A. (2000). Fascist Ideology. London New York: Psychology Press. ISBN 978-0-415-21612-8.
* Burgwyn, H. James (16 April 1997). Italian Foreign Policy in the Interwar Period. Westport (Conn.) London: Praeger. ISBN 0-275-94877-3.
* Gooch, John (1 December 2020). Mussolini's War. New York London: Pegasus Books. ISBN 1-64313-548-1.
* Belladonna, Simone (2015). Gas in Etiopia. I crimini rimossi dell'Italia coloniale (in Italian). Vicenza: Neri Pozza. ISBN 978-88-545-0814-9.
* O'Mahoney, Joseph (15 January 2018). Denying the Spoils of War. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press. ISBN 978-1-4744-3444-7.
* Spencer, John H. (7 July 2006). Ethiopia at Bay. Tsehai Publishers. ISBN 1-59907-000-6.
* Moseley, Ray (1 January 1999). Mussolini's Shadow. New Haven (Conn.): Yale University Press. ISBN 0-300-07917-6.
* * Dear, I. C. B. (2005) [1995]. Foot, M. R. D. (ed.). Oxford Companion to World War II. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-280670-3.
* Antonicelli, Franco (1961). Trent'anni di storia italiana 1915-1945 (in Italian). Turin: Einaudi. p. 387.
* Brioni, Simone; Gulema, Shimelis Bonsa, eds. (2017). The Horn of Africa and Italy: Colonial, Postcolonial and Transnational Cultural Encounters. Oxford: Peter Lang. ISBN 978-1-78707-993-9.
* Calchi Novati, Gian Carlo (2019). L'Africa d'Italia (in Italian). Rome: Carrocci. ISBN 978-8843096589.
* Mauri, Arnaldo (1967). Il mercato del credito in Etiopia (in Italian). Milan: Giuffrè. pp. XVI, 504.
* Tuccimei, Ercole (1999). La Banca d'Italia in Africa, Presentazione di Arnaldo Mauri, Laterza, Bari, ISBN 88-420-5686-3 [in Italian].
* Di Lalla, Fabrizio (2014). Le italiane in Africa Orientale. Storie di donne in colonia (in Italian). Chieti: Solfanelli Editore. ISBN 978-8874978342.
* Di Lalla, Fabrizio (2016). Sotto due bandiere. Lotta di liberazione etiopica e resistenza italiana in Africa Orientale (in Italian). Chieti: Solfanelli Editore. ISBN 978-8874979325.
* Laqueur, Walter (2001). The New Terrorism. London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson. ISBN 978-1-84212-125-2.

## External links

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