Italian entry into World War I

Italy entered into the First World War in 1915 with the aim of completing national unity: for this reason, the Italian intervention in the First World War is also considered the Fourth Italian War of Independence,[1] in a historiographical perspective that identifies in the latter the conclusion of the unification of Italy, whose military actions began during the revolutions of 1848 with the First Italian War of Independence.[2][3]

On the left, a map of the Kingdom of Italy before the First World War, on the right, a map of the Kingdom of Italy after the First World War.

## Premises

[edit]

Further information: Italian irredentism

After the Capture of Rome (1870), almost the whole of Italy was united in a single state, the Kingdom of Italy. However, the so-called "irredent lands" were missing, that is, Italian-speaking, geographically or historically Italian lands that were not yet part of the unitary state. Among the irredent lands still belonging to Austria-Hungary were usually indicated as such: Julian March (with the city of Fiume), Trentino-Alto Adige and Dalmatia.

The Italian irredentism movement, which aimed at the reunification of the aforementioned with the motherland and therefore their consequent redemption, was active precisely between the last decades of the 19th century and the early 20th century. It was precisely in the irredentist sphere that the theme of the need for a "Fourth Italian War of Independence" against Austria-Hungary began to develop in the last decades of the 19th century,[4][5] when Italy was still firmly incorporated in the Triple Alliance; also the Italo-Turkish War was seen, in the irredentist context, as part of this theme[6]

## Treaty of London

[edit]

Obverse of the Commemorative Medal for the Italo-Austrian War 1915–1918; the inscription reads "War for the unification of Italy 1915-1918" Territories promised to Italy by the Treaty of London (1915), i.e. Trentino-Alto Adige, Julian March and Dalmatia (tan), and the Snežnik Plateau area (green). Dalmatia, after the WWI, however, was not assigned to Italy but to Yugoslavia

When World War I broke out in August 1914, Italy declared neutrality [it]. Although nominally allied with the German Empire and the Empire of Austria-Hungary in the Triple Alliance, the Kingdom of Italy did not join the Central Powers; in fact, Germany and Austria–Hungary had taken the offensive while the Triple Alliance was supposed to be a defensive alliance. Moreover, the Triple Alliance recognized that both Italy and Austria-Hungary were interested in the Balkans and required both to consult each other before changing the status quo and to provide compensation for whatever advantage in that area: Austria-Hungary did consult Germany but not Italy before issuing the ultimatum to Serbia, and refused any compensation before the end of the war. Italy negotiated for a better deal with the Allies, especially in terms of gaining territory from the Austro-Hungarian Empire. However, Russia had its own pro-Slavic interests in the Balkans; with her ally Serbia claiming much of the same territory sought by Italian irrendists, complicating negotiations. Russia's position was greatly weakened by heavy military losses throughout the first year of the war. In the face of insistence from London and Paris, Russia, by April 1915, abandoned its support for most of Serbia's claims and accepted terms for Italy's entry into the war, which would limit the Russian strategic presence in the postwar Adriatic.[7][8] Italy accepted the Allies’ offer in which Italy would receive a slice of Austria and a slice of the Ottoman Empire after the defeat of the Central Powers. This was formalised by the Treaty of London. In 1915, Italy entered the war joining the Triple Entente (i.e. the Allies).[9]

Public and elite opinion was split on the wisdom of entering the war, for either side. Italy was very poorly prepared, the army was not well trained, and there was too small an industrial and financial base. A handful of leaders made the basic decisions, notably Prime Minister Antonio Salandra and especially the two foreign ministers Antonio di San Giuliano and Sidney Sonnino. They optimistically expected that victory would bring new territories and new glory, hopefully closing some of Italy's internal conflicts. The country made a fundamental contribution to defeating the Central Powers and Italy was recognized as one of the "Big Four" top Allied powers. Under the Peace Treaties of Saint-Germain, Rapallo and Rome, Italy gained a permanent seat in the League of Nations's executive council. Despite the increased international prestige, expectations of territorial expansion fell short. After the war, Italy never received any portion or "slice" of the Ottoman Empire, further, the Allies granted Italy barely half of the European territories that had been promised-prompting nationalists to label the result as a "Mutilated victory"; that angry sentiment helped to the rise of the fascist dictatorship of Benito Mussolini in 1922.[10]

Military alignments in 1914. When the war started Italy declared neutrality; in 1915 it switched and joined the Triple Entente (i.e. the Allies).

Roy Pryce summarized the bitter experience:

The government's hope was that the war would be the culmination of Italy's struggle for national independence. Her new allies promised her the 'natural frontiers' which she had so long sought- the Trentino and Trieste-and something more. At the end of hostilities she did indeed extend her territory, but she came away from the peace conference dissatisfied with her reward for three and a half years' bitter warfare, having lost half a million of her noblest youth, with her economy impoverished and internal divisions more bitter than ever. That strife could not be resolved within the framework of the old parliamentary regime. The war that was to have been the climax of the Risorgimento produced the Fascist dictatorship. Something, somewhere, had gone wrong.[11]

## Leadership

[edit]

The Italian leadership was inexperienced, unfamiliar with international affairs, and often quite ill. Forces outside the government played minor roles. The business and financial communities wanted peace, but they were ignored in the decision-making. Likewise intellectuals and foreign policy experts, as well as nationalistic pressure groups, were ignored. The King (since July 1900 it was Victor Emmanuel III) had nominal power over war and peace, but he had severe psychiatric problems in 1914, and in any case he turned over all major issues to his cabinet. Prime Minister Antonio Salandra took office in March 1914, had little experience in foreign affairs, and had no talent or taste for statecraft. The decision for war was in the hands of Foreign Minister Antonio di San Giuliano, an experienced diplomat, cynical and cautious. He was in poor health and died in October 1914. He was replaced by Sidney Sonnino, who maneuvered to join the Allies primarily to gain territory. Tommaso Tittoni, the ambassador to France, was often consulted; he also pled for joining the Allies. Civilian politicians marginalized the generals; the chief of staff died on July 1, and he was finally replaced by General Luigi Cadorna in late July. Cadorna exaggerated the Italian Army's capabilities to the unsuspecting civilians, while working hard to remove its weaknesses. All of the leaders distrusted Austria, and were eager to take control of the Austrian province of Trentino-Alto-Adige in the Alps,[12] and the Austrian city of Trieste. They all distrusted the Ottoman Empire, and were proud that Italy had recently seized control of the Ottoman holdings in Libya. Italy, Austria and Serbia were all contending for control of Albania.[13]

## Prelude to war

[edit]

Italy was a formal member of the Triple Alliance, alongside Germany and Austria-Hungary. However it also maintained good relations with France and Russia. The other countries understood this duality, and did not expect Italy to join in the war in 1914. Its treaty obligations did not require it to join with Germany and Austria, and it saw very little to gain from doing so. Public opinion wanted peace, and the leadership in Rome realized how poorly prepared the nation was in contrast to the powerhouses at war. By late 1914, however, Prime Minister Antonio Salandra and Foreign Minister Sidney Sonnino decided that major territorial gains were possible by joining the Allies, and would help calm extremely serious internal dissension, by bringing glory to the victorious army, as well as satisfying popular feeling by freeing Italian-speaking territories from Austrian rule. There were also new patronage opportunities and political victories for the politicians. They planned to argue, plausibly, that these results would be the triumphant climax of "Risorgimento" (that is, Italian unification). In December 1914 Sonnino opened negotiations in Vienna, asking for territorial compensation in return for remaining neutral. These talks were designed to conceal the government's true intentions from the Italian public opinion, and from the countries at war. In March 1915 Sonnino began serious negotiations with London and France . The Treaty of London was signed on 26 April 1915 and Italy declared war against Austria-Hungary on 23 May 1915. Salandra boasted that the Pact of London was "the greatest, if not the first completely spontaneous act of foreign policy executed by Italy since the Risorgimento."[14]

From the standpoint of its erstwhile allies, Italy's recent success in occupying Libya as a result of the Italo-Turkish War had sparked tension with its Triple Alliance allies, who had been seeking closer relations with the Ottoman Empire. Germans reacted to Italy's aggression by singing anti-Italian songs. Italy's relations with France remained tense: France still felt betrayed by Italy's refusal to help in the Franco-Prussian War back in 1870. Italy's relations with Great Britain had been impaired by constant Italian demands for more recognition in the international stage following its occupation of Libya and its demands that other nations accept its spheres of influence in Eastern Africa and the Mediterranean Sea.[15]

Italy and its colonial possessions in 1914.

In the Mediterranean, Italy's relations with Greece were aggravated when Italy occupied the Greek-populated Dodecanese Islands, including Rhodes, from 1912 to 1914. These islands had been formerly controlled by the Ottoman Empire. Italy and Greece were also in open rivalry over the desire to occupy Albania.[16] King Victor Emmanuel III himself was uneasy about Italy pursuing distant colonial adventures and said that Italy should prepare to take back Italian-populated land from Austria-Hungary as the "completion of the Risorgimento".[17] This idea put Italy at odds with Austria-Hungary.

Freemasonry was an influential semi-secret force in Italian politics with a strong presence among professionals and the middle class across Italy, as well as among the leadership in parliament, public administration, and the army. The two main organization were the Grand Orient and the Grand Lodge of Italy. They had 25,000 members in 500 or more lodges. Freemasons took on the challenge of mobilizing the press, public opinion, and the leading political parties in support of Italy's joining the war as an ally of France and Great Britain. In 1914–15 they temporarily dropped their traditional pacifistic rhetoric and adopted the objectives of the nationalists. Freemasonry had historically promoted cosmopolitan universal values, and by 1917 onwards they reverted to their internationalist stance and pressed for the creation of a League of Nations to promote a new post-war universal order based upon the peaceful coexistence of independent and democratic nations.[18]

## Internal instability

[edit]

A major hindrance to Italy's decision on what to do about the war was the political instability throughout Italy in 1914. After the formation of the government of Prime Minister Salandra in March 1914, the government attempted to win the support of nationalists and moved to the political right.[19]

At the same time, the left became more repulsed by the government after the killing of three anti-militarist demonstrators in June. Many elements of the left including syndicalists, republicans and anarchists protested against this and the Italian Socialist Party declared a general strike in Italy.[20] The protests that ensued became known as "Red Week", as leftists rioted and various acts of civil disobedience occurred in major cities and small towns such as seizing railway stations, cutting telephone wires and burning tax-registers. However, only two days later the strike was officially called off, though the civil strife continued.

Militarist nationalists and anti-militarist leftists fought on the streets until the Italian Royal Army forcefully restored calm after having used thousands of men to put down the various protesting forces. Following the invasion of Serbia by Austria-Hungary in 1914, World War I broke out as Germany and Austria stood opposed to Serbia, Russia, France and Britain. Despite Italy's official alliance to Germany and membership in the Triple Alliance, it remained neutral, claiming that the Triple Alliance was only for defensive purposes.[21]

Gabriele D'Annunzio, national poet (vate) of Italy was the voice of nationalist revolutionaries calling for joining the Allies

Society was divided over the war: Italian socialists generally opposed the war and supported pacifism, while nationalists militantly supported the war. Long-time nationalists Gabriele D'Annunzio and Luigi Federzoni and a Marxist journalist once praised by Lenin, now a new convert to nationalist sentiment, Benito Mussolini, demanded that Italy join the war. For nationalists, Italy had to maintain its alliance with Germany and Austria in order to gain colonial territories at the expense of France. For the liberals, the war presented Italy a long-awaited opportunity to use an alliance with the Entente to gain territories from Austria-Hungary, which had long been part of Italian patriotic aims since unification. Luigi Federzoni emphasized the need to join the war and warned of continued disunity if it did not:

> Italy has awaited this since 1866 her truly national war, in order to feel unified at last, renewed by the unanimous action and identical sacrifice of all her sons. Today, while Italy still wavers before the necessity imposed by history, the name of Garibaldi, resanctified by blood, rises again to warn her that she will not be able to defeat the revolution save by fighting and winning her national war.
> — Luigi Federzoni, 1915 [22]

Mussolini used his new newspaper Il Popolo d'Italia and his strong oratorical skills to urge nationalists and patriotic revolutionary leftists to join the Allies: "Enough of Libya, and on to Trento and Trieste".[23] Mussolini argued that it was in the interests of all socialists to join the war to tear down the aristocratic Hohenzollern dynasty of Germany because it was the enemy of all European workers.[24] Mussolini and other nationalists warned the Italian government that Italy must join the war or face revolution and called for violence against pacifists and neutralists.[25] Left-wing nationalism also erupted in Southern Italy as socialist and nationalist Giuseppe De Felice Giuffrida saw joining the war as essential to relieving southern Italy of the rising cost of bread which had caused riots in the south, and advocated a "war of revolution".[26]

## A bidding war: bargaining with both sides

[edit]

Italy joined the war in order to seek territories deemed part of the nation still occupied by foreign powers, as well as to dissolve the intense internal disharmony through unity of purpose among the people. The strategy was to bargain for the best possible offer in terms of both territorial gains and coverage of Italian financial and military weaknesses.[27][28]

By August 1914 Russia was eager for Italy's entry into the war, expecting it would open a new front that would paralyze any Austrian offensive. Russia had nothing to give Italy, so there were no results. Rome refused to make a commitment, and there was a pause when Foreign Minister San Giuliano died in October.[29] His replacement Sonnino planned to join the winning side in order to gain new territory. At first he expected the Central Powers to win, but the war looked more like a long one, so it was not necessary to hurry and join in. Austria had too little to offer and was showing its military weakness. Berlin pressured Vienna to make more territorial concessions to Rome, but it was too little, too late as Sonnino turned to the Allies. They were more than willing to promise large territorial spoils taken from Austria and Turkey. Italy's very long coastline made it exposed to the vastly superior power of the Allied navies. Public opinion was divided and Sonnino used that to mislead the cabinet. By February 1915 he was negotiating with both sides, but had decided that the Allies were making the better offer. He ignored the poor state of the Italian military, expecting that Britain and France would do all the fighting that was necessary. The Italian treasury could not fund a war, but again there were promises of money and munitions from London and Paris.[30][31] In April 1915 Italy signed the London Pact with Britain and France. The pact ensured Italy the right to attain all Italian-populated lands it wanted from Austria-Hungary, as well as concessions in the Balkan Peninsula and suitable compensation for any territory gained by the Allies from Germany in Africa. Italy declared war a month later and invaded Austria from the south.

The reaction in Italy was divided: former Prime Minister Giovanni Giolitti was furious over Italy's decision to go to war against its two long-time former allies. Giolitti claimed that Italy would fail in the war, predicting high numbers of mutinies, Austro-Hungarian occupation of even more Italian territory. He warned that the failure would produce a catastrophic rebellion that would destroy the liberal-democratic monarchy and the liberal-democratic secular institutions of the state. Sonnino made the decision and ignored Giolitti's dire predictions, which came horribly true.[32]

One major result was that Italian nationalism was greatly strengthened and became a major force at both elite and popular levels until 1945, when popular democracy became a much more important force.[33]

## See also

[edit]

* Causes of World War I
* Historiography of the causes of World War I
* American entry into World War I
* Austro-Hungarian entry into World War I
* British entry into World War I
* French entry into World War I
* German entry into World War I
* Ottoman entry into World War I
* Russian entry into World War I
* Color books
* Diplomatic history of World War I
* Triple Alliance (1882)
* International relations of the Great Powers (1814–1919)
* Allies of World War I
* Home front during World War I covering all major countries
* Italian propaganda during World War I
* Military history of Italy during World War I
* Harukichi Shimoi
* Radiosomaggismo

## Notes

[edit]

1. ^ "Il 1861 e le quattro Guerre per l'Indipendenza (1848-1918)" (in Italian). 6 March 2015. Archived from the original on 19 March 2022. Retrieved 12 March 2021.
2. ^ "La Grande Guerra nei manifesti italiani dell'epoca" (in Italian). Archived from the original on 23 September 2015. Retrieved 12 March 2021.
3. ^ Genovesi, Piergiovanni (11 June 2009). Il Manuale di Storia in Italia, di Piergiovanni Genovesi (in Italian). FrancoAngeli. ISBN 9788856818680. Retrieved 12 March 2021.
4. ^ Scottà, Antonio (2003). La Conferenza di pace di Parigi fra ieri e domani (1919-1920), di Antonio Scottà (in Italian). Rubbettino Editore. ISBN 9788849802481. Retrieved 12 March 2021.
5. ^ Lussu, Emilio (1997). La catena, di Emilio Lussu (in Italian). Baldini & Castoldi. ISBN 9788880892120. Retrieved 12 March 2021.[permanent dead link‍]
6. ^ Schiavulli, Antonio (2009). La guerra lirica: il dibattito dei letterati italiani sull'impresa di Libia, di Antonio Schiavulli (in Italian). casa editrice Fernandel. ISBN 9788896117026. Retrieved 12 March 2021.
7. ^ Paul Du Quenoy, "With allies like these, who needs enemies?: Russia and the problem of Italian entry into World War I." Canadian Slavonic Papers 45.3-4 (2003): 409–40.
8. ^ William A. Renzi, "The Russian Foreign Office and Italy’s Entrance Into the Great War, 1914–1915: A Study In Wartime Diplomacy." The Historian 28.4 (1966): 648–68.
9. ^ C.J. Lowe, "Britain and Italian Intervention 1914–1915." Historical Journal (1969) 12#3 533–48.
10. ^ H. James Burgwyn, The legend of the mutilated victory: Italy, the Great War, and the Paris Peace Conference, 1915–1919 (Greenwood, 1993).
11. ^ Roy Pryce, "Italy and the Outbreak of the First World War." Cambridge Historical Journal 11#2 (1954): 219–27, at p. 219. online.
12. ^ Moos, Carlo (2017), "Südtirol im St. Germain-Kontext", in Georg Grote and Hannes Obermair (ed.), A Land on the Threshold. South Tyrolean Transformations, 1915–2015, Oxford-Berne-New York: Peter Lang, pp. 27–39, ISBN 978-3-0343-2240-927-39&rft.pub=Peter+Lang&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=978-3-0343-2240-9&rft.aulast=Moos&rft.aufirst=Carlo&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:Italian+entry+into+World+War+I" class="Z3988">
13. ^ Richard F. Hamilton and Holger H. Herwig, Decisions for War, 1914-1917 (2004), pp 184–89.
14. ^ William A. Renzi, "Italy's neutrality and entrance into the Great War: a re-examination." American Historical Review 73.5 (1968): 1414–32. online
15. ^ Richard J. B. Bosworth, Italy and the Approach of the First World War (1983) pp 101–12.
16. ^ Bosworth (1983), pp 112–4
17. ^ Bosworth (1983), p. 119
18. ^ Fulvio Conti, "From Universalism to Nationalism: Italian Freemasonry and the Great War." Journal of Modern Italian Studies 20.5 (2015): 640–62.
19. ^ Martin Clark, Modern Italy: 1871–1982 (1984) p. 180
20. ^ Clark, Modern Italy, p. 180
21. ^ Giordano Merlicco, "Italy and the Austro‐Serbian crisis of July 1914", in VVAA, Serbian‐Italian Relations: History and Modern Times, The Institute of History, Belgrade, 2015, pp. 121–35
22. ^ John A. Thayer, Italy and the Great War. (1964) p 345.
23. ^ Thayer, Italy and the Great War. (1964). p 279)
24. ^ Thayer, p. 272
25. ^ Thayer, p. 253
26. ^ Thayer, p. 254
27. ^ C.J. Lowe, "Britain and Italian Intervention 1914-1915." Historical Journal (1969) 12#3, pp. 533-48.
28. ^ Denis Mack Smith, Italy: A Modern History (1969), pp. 292–305.
29. ^ Lowe, pp 534-36.
30. ^ Lowe
31. ^ Mack Smith, pp 296-305.
32. ^ Clark, Modern Italy: 1871–1982. (1984) p. 184.
33. ^ Massimo Salvadori, "Nationalism in Modern Italy-1915 and after." Orbis-A Journal of World Affairs 10.4 (1967): 1157-1175.

* Bosworth, Richard J. B. Italy and the Approach of the First World War (1983).

## Further reading

[edit]

* Carteny, Andrea. "Italy and Neutrality: Cultural, Political and Diplomatic Framework." Mediterranean Journal of Social Sciences 6.6 S2 (2015): 737+. online
* Cornelissen, Christoph, and Arndt Weinrich, eds. Writing the Great War – The Historiography of World War I from 1918 to the Present (2020) free download; full coverage for major countries.
* Crawford, Timothy W. "The Alliance Politics of Concerted Accommodation: Entente Bargaining and Italian and Ottoman Interventions in the First World War." Security Studies 23.1 (2014): 113–47.
* Du Quenoy, Paul. "With allies like these, who needs enemies?: Russia and the problem of Italian entry into World War I." Canadian Slavonic Papers 45.3-4 (2003): 409–40.
* Ferrari, Paolo. "The Memory And Historiography Of The First World War In Italy" Comillas Journal of International Relations (2015) #2 pp 117–26 [ISSN 2386-5776] DOI: cir.i02.y2015.009 online
* Gibelli, Antonio. La Grande Guerra degli italiani, 1915-1918, Milano, Sansoni (1998)
* Gooch, John. The Italian army and the first world war (2014).
* Hamilton, Richard F. and Holger H. Herwig, eds. Decisions for War, 1914-1917 (2004), pp 184–201; scholarly essays on Italy and 12 other countries.
* Lowe, C. J. and F. Marzari. Italian Foreign Policy, 1870–1940 (2001)
* Mack Smith, Denis. Italy: A Modern History (1969), pp. 292–305.
* Page, Thomas N. Italy and the World War, New York, Charles Scribner's Sons Full Text Available Online (1920)
* Pergher, Roberta. "An Italian War? War and Nation in the Italian Historiography of the First World War" Journal of Modern History (Dec 2018) 90#4 pp. 863–99 online
* Pryce, Roy. "Italy and the Outbreak of the First World War." Cambridge Historical Journal 11#2 (1954): 219–27. online.
* Renzi, William A. "Italy's neutrality and entrance into the Great War: a re-examination." American Historical Review 73.5 (1968): 1414–32. online
* Renzi, William A. In the Shadow of the Sword: Italy's Neutrality and Entrance Into the Great War, 1914–1915 (1987).
* Renzi, William A. "The Russian Foreign Office and Italy’s Entrance Into the Great War, 1914‐1915: A Study In Wartime Diplomacy." The Historian 28.4 (1966): 648–68.
* Stevenson, David. "From Balkan conflict to global conflict: the spread of the First World War, 1914–1918." Foreign Policy Analysis 7.2 (2011): 169–82.
* Tucker, Spencer, ed. European Powers in the First World War: An Encyclopedia (1999).

### Primary sources

[edit]

* Albertini, Luigi. The Origins of the War of 1914 (3 vol 1952).
* Geiss, Imanuel, ed. July 1914, The outbreak of the First World War: Selected Documents (1968).
* Gooch, G.P. Recent revelations of European diplomacy (1928) pp 245–63. online
* Major 1914 documents from BYU

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1918|

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* Olympians

| Disease|

* 1899–1923 cholera pandemic
* 1915 typhus epidemic in Serbia
* Spanish flu

|

Occupations|

* Austro-Hungarian occupation of Serbia
* Bulgarian occupations
* Albania
* Serbia
* German occupations
* Belgium
* Luxembourg
* Northeast France
* Ober Ost
* Occupied Enemy Territory Administration
* Russian occupations
* Eastern Galicia
* Western Armenia

POWs|

* Germans
* in the United States
* Italians
* POW locations
* Canada
* Germany / camps
* Switzerland

Refugees|

* Belgian refugees
* Netherlands
* United Kingdom

War crimes|

* Allied blockades
* Eastern Mediterranean
* Mount Lebanon famine
* Germany
* Deportations from East Prussia
* Destruction of Kalisz
* Sack of Dinant
* Late Ottoman genocides
* Armenian genocide
* Assyrian genocide
* Pontic Greek genocide
* Rape of Belgium
* Urkun (Kyrgyzstan)
* Massacres of Albanians
* Internment of Ukrainian Canadians

Diplomacy

| Entry into the war|

* Austria-Hungary
* France
* Germany
* Italy
* Japan
* Ottoman Empire
* Russia
* United Kingdom
* United States

|

Declarations of war|

* Austria-Hungary against Serbia
* UK against Germany
* Ottomans against the Triple Entente
* Jihad
* USA against Germany
* USA against Austria-Hungary

Agreements|

* Constantinople Agreement
* Treaty of London
* Damascus Protocol
* Bulgaria–Germany treaty
* Treaty of Darin
* Sykes–Picot Agreement
* Sazonov–Paléologue Agreement
* Paris Economy Pact
* Treaty of Bucharest
* Agreement of Saint-Jean-de-Maurienne

Peace treaties

* Modus vivendi of Acroma
* Treaties of Brest-Litovsk
* Russia–Central Powers
* Ukraine–Central Powers
* Treaty of Bucharest
* Paris Peace Conference
* Treaty of Versailles
* Treaty of St. Germain
* Treaty of Neuilly
* Treaty of Trianon
* Treaty of Sèvres
* Treaty of Lausanne

Other|

* Arrest of a Suspect in Sarajevo
* Mutilated victory
* The Golden Virgin
* They shall not pass

* Category

* v
* t
* e

Foreign relations of Italy

Africa|

* Algeria
* Angola
* Egypt
* Eritrea
* Ethiopia
* Kenya
* Libya
* Morocco
* Somalia
* South Africa
* Tunisia

Americas|

* Argentina
* Brazil
* Canada
* Chile
* Colombia
* Costa Rica
* Dominican Republic
* Honduras
* Mexico
* Peru
* United States
* Uruguay
* Venezuela

Asia|

* Armenia
* Azerbaijan
* Bangladesh
* China
* Georgia
* India
* Indonesia
* Iran
* Historical
* Iraq
* Kurdistan Region
* Israel
* Japan
* Kazakhstan
* Lebanon
* Malaysia
* Nepal
* North Korea
* Pakistan
* Palestine
* Philippines
* Qatar
* Saudi Arabia
* South Korea
* Sri Lanka
* Syria
* Taiwan
* Thailand
* Turkey
* Vietnam
* Yemen

Europe|

* Albania
* Austria
* Bulgaria
* Croatia
* Czech Republic
* Denmark
* Finland
* France
* Germany
* Greece
* Holy See
* Ireland
* Kosovo
* Malta
* Moldova
* Monaco
* Montenegro
* Netherlands
* Poland
* Portugal
* Romania
* Russia
* San Marino
* Serbia
* Slovenia
* Spain
* Sweden
* Switzerland
* Ukraine
* United Kingdom

| Former|

* Yugoslavia

|

Oceania|

* Australia

Diplomatic missions|

* Diplomatic missions of Italy / in Italy
* Ministry of Foreign Affairs
* Ambassadors of Italy

* v
* t
* e

Unification of Italy (Risorgimento)

Pre-unitary states|

* Kingdom of Sardinia (House of Savoy)
* Kingdom of the Two Sicilies
* Kingdom of Lombardy–Venetia
* Papal States
* Grand Duchy of Tuscany
* Duchy of Parma
* Duchy of Modena and Reggio

Timeline|

* Rimini Proclamation
* Carbonari
* Revolutions during the 1820s
* Revolutions of 1830
* Young Italy
* Neo-Guelphism
* Revolutions of 1848
* Revolutions of 1848 in the Italian states
* Republic of San Marco
* Roman Republic
* Quadrilatero
* First Italian War of Independence
* Five Days of Milan
* Sortie on Mestre
* Sicilian revolution of 1848
* Ten Days of Brescia
* Belfiore martyrs
* Crimean War
* Plombières Agreement
* Second Italian War of Independence
* United Provinces of Central Italy
* Expedition of the Thousand
* Dictatorship of Garibaldi
* Proclamation of the Kingdom of Italy
* Brigandage in Southern Italy after 1861
* Roman Question
* Third Italian War of Independence
* Capture of Rome
* Law of Guarantees
* Italian entry into World War I
* Impresa di Fiume

Symbols|

* Cockade of Italy
* Flag of Italy

Main leaders|

* Massimo d'Azeglio
* Agostino Bertani
* Camillo Benso, Count of Cavour
* Celso Ceretti
* Federico Confalonieri
* Francesco Crispi
* Giuseppe Garibaldi
* Daniele Manin
* Giuseppe Mazzini
* Bettino Ricasoli
* Aurelio Saffi
* Annibale Santore di Santarosa
* Ruggero Settimo
* Victor Emmanuel II

Literature and philosophy|

* Giovanni Arrivabene
* Cesare Balbo
* Giosuè Carducci
* Carlo Cattaneo
* Felice Cavallotti
* Vincenzo Cuoco
* Giuseppe Ferrari
* Ugo Foscolo
* Vincenzo Gioberti
* Francesco Domenico Guerrazzi
* Giacomo Leopardi
* Francesco Lomonaco
* Goffredo Mameli
* Alessandro Manzoni
* Ippolito Nievo
* Silvio Pellico
* Carlo Pisacane
* Gian Domenico Romagnosi
* Antonio Rosmini
* Francesco Saverio Salfi

Opponents|

* Pope Pius IX
* Franz Joseph I of Austria
* Francis II of the Two Sicilies
* Klemens von Metternich
* Joseph Radetzky von Radetz

Museums|

* Museum of the Risorgimento (Bologna)
* Museum of the Risorgimento (Milan)
* Museum of the Risorgimento (Rome)
* Museum of the Risorgimento (Turin)
* Tricolour Flag Museum

National days|

* Anniversary of the Unification of Italy
* National Unity and Armed Forces Day

Other|

* Altare della Patria
* Italian irredentism
* Italian nationalism
* Redshirts
* Revisionism of Risorgimento
* Southern question
* Third Rome

* v
* t
* e

Italy articles

History|

| Overview|

* Timeline of Italian history

|

By topic|

* Citizenship
* Currency and coinage
* Economy
* Fashion
* Flags
* Genetic
* Historic states
* Judaism
* LGBT
* Military
* Music
* Name
* Postage
* Railways

Prehistory|

* Prehistory
* Neolithic
* Villanovan
* Terramare
* Rinaldone
* Apennine
* Nuragic
* Golasecca
* Canegrate
* Latial

Ancient|

* Ancient peoples
* Italic peoples
* Latins
* Osci
* Picentes
* Samnites
* Umbri
* Veneti
* Etruscans
* Celts
* Magna Graecia
* Ligures
* Messapians
* Ancient Rome
* Kingdom
* Republic
* Roman conquest
* Roman Italy
* Empire
* Western Empire

Middle Ages|

* Middle Ages
* Italy under Odoacer
* Ostrogoths
* Byzantium
* Lombards
* Papal States
* the Holy Roman Empire
* the Sardinian Judicates
* Arabs
* Normans
* Guelphs and Ghibellines
* Lombard League
* Kingdom of Sicily
* War of the Sicilian Vespers
* Kingdom of Naples

Early modern|

* Italian city-states
* Florence
* Siena
* Milan
* Maritime republics
* Venice
* Genoa
* Pisa
* Amalfi
* Kingdom of Sardinia
* Grand Duchy of Tuscany
* Duchy of Savoy
* Renaissance
* Italian Wars
* Early Modern period
* Napoleonic Italy
* Austrian occupation and Kingdom of Lombardy-Venetia
* Kingdom of the Two Sicilies

Late modern|

* Unification
* First War of Independence
* Second War of Independence
* Niçard exodus
* Expedition of the Thousand
* Proclamation of the Kingdom of Italy
* Third War of Independence
* Capture of Rome
* Monarchy and the World Wars
* Kingdom of Italy
* Colonial Empire
* World War I
* Fourth War of Independence
* Fascist Italy
* World War II
* Fall of the Fascist regime
* Resistance and Social Republic
* Civil War

Contemporary|

* Republic
* Institutional referendum
* Istrian–Dalmatian exodus
* Economic Boom
* Years of Lead
* Maxi Trial
* Mani pulite
* Coronavirus pandemic

Geography|

* Italian geographical region
* Peninsula
* Climate
* Climate change
* Geology
* Fauna
* Flora
* Mountains
* Prealps
* Alps
* Apennines
* Volcanism
* Volcanoes
* Beaches
* Canals
* Caves
* Earthquakes
* Islands
* Lakes
* Marine protected areas
* National parks
* Regional parks
* Rivers
* Valleys

Politics|

* Constitution
* Elections
* Foreign relations
* Government
* Human rights
* LGBT rights
* Judiciary
* Law
* Law enforcement
* Military
* Nationality
* Parliament
* Political parties
* President (List)
* Prime Minister (List)
* Council of Ministers
* Regions
* Provinces
* Metropolitan cities
* Cities
* Comune
* Municipalities
* Security and intelligence

Economy|

* Economy
* Italian regions by GDP
* Agriculture
* Automotive industry
* Banking
* Banks
* Central Bank
* Brands
* Companies
* Energy
* Exports
* Science and technology
* Southern question
* Stock exchange
* Taxation
* Telecommunications
* Tourism
* Trade unions
* Transport
* air
* rail
* road
* Welfare
* Wine

Society|

* Aristocracy
* Censorship
* Corruption
* Crime
* Demographics
* Education
* Emigration and diaspora
* Gambling
* Health
* Healthcare
* Immigration
* Inventions and discoveries
* Italians
* People
* Languages
* Italian
* Regional
* Life expectancy
* Orders, decorations, and medals
* Poverty
* Prostitution
* Public administration
* Racism
* Religion
* Social class
* Terrorism
* Water supply and sanitation
* Women

Culture|

* Duecento
* Trecento
* Quattrocento
* Cinquecento
* Seicento
* Settecento
* Ottocento
* Anthem
* Architecture
* Art
* Castles
* Cathedrals
* Cinema
* Coat of arm
* Cuisine
* Design
* Fashion
* Flag
* Folklore
* Gardens
* Internet
* Italophilia
* Libraries
* Literature
* Media
* Museums
* Music
* Mythology
* National symbols
* Palaces
* Philosophy
* Public holidays
* Sport
* Television
* Theatre
* Traditions
* World Heritage Sites

* Italy portal
* Category

* v
* t
* e

Historiography

* Historians
* list / by area of study
* History

* historians
* historicity
* history
* theories of history

Historical sources

| Types|

* Primary sources
* Secondary sources
* Tertiary sources

|

Sources|

* Annals
* Archives
* Artifacts
* Archaeological site
* Chronicles
* Codices
* Deeds
* Facsimiles
* Features
* Hieroglyphs
* Historical documents
* Logbooks
* Manuscripts
* Illuminated
* Oral tradition
* Papyri
* Religious texts
* Scrolls
* War diaries
* Service records

Fields of study

| By scale|

* Big History
* World history
* Human history
* Local history
* Microhistory

|

By source|

* Archival science / Library and information science (template)
* Books / Writing systems
* Chorography
* Chronology
* dating
* Diplomatics
* Encyclopaedistics
* Epigraphy
* Genealogy
* Heraldry
* Numismatics (Money)
* Onomastics
* Oral history
* preservation
* Phaleristics
* Philology
* Postage stamps
* Prosopography
* Sigillography
* Toponymy
* Vexillology

By topic|

* Anthropology / Paleoanthropology
* Cultural
* Ecology / Environment / Geography
* Economic
* Business
* Capitalism
* Perspectives on capitalism by school of thought
* Thought
* Intellectual
* Geistesgeschichte
* Linguistics
* Maritime
* Medieval churches
* Military
* Political
* Constitutional
* Diplomatic
* Social
* Feminism
* Gender
* Indigenous
* Labour
* LGBTQ
* Rural
* Quantitative
* Urban
* Women

Methodology

* Case study
* Periodization
* Historical eras
* Tarikh
* Three-age system

| Approaches,
schools|

* Annales school
* History of mentalities
* Nouvelle histoire
* Historiometry / Cliometrics
* Comparative historical research
* Critical
* Decoloniality
* Feminist
* Historical anthropology
* Historical determinism
* Historism
* Historical-critical method
* Humanistic
* Indiscipline of history [pt]
* Leninist
* Marxist
* Historical materialism
* Nationalist
* Ancestral civilisation
* Nationalization of history
* People's history
* Subaltern Studies
* Pop history
* Quantitative history
* Revisionist
* Transnational
* Whig
* Great Man theory

|

Concepts

| General|

* Change and continuity
* Historic preservation
* Historic recurrence
* Historical significance
* Historicity
* Historiology [es]
* Theory of history [de]
* Philosophy

|

Specific|

* Black legend
* Coloniality and decolonization of knowledge
* Dark Ages
* Historical negationism
* Historian's fallacy / Presentism
* Invented tradition
* Modernisation theory
* Narratives
* Paradigm shift
* Pax
* list
* Thirty-year rule
* Transhistoricity
* Translatio imperii / Translatio studii
* Vaticinium ex eventu

| Periodization of
modern history|

* Age of Discovery
* Age of Enlightenment
* European Civil War / Second Thirty Years' War
* Long 18th / 19th century
* Renaissance
* Continuity thesis

|

By country or region

| Africa|

* Egypt
* Pyramid construction techniques
* Black Egypt Thesis [es]
* Ethiopia
* Morocco
* Greater Morocco
* Rwanda
* Double genocide theory
* Maafa

|

Americas|

* Canada
* Metropolitan-hinterland thesis
* Residential schools
* Staples thesis
* Indigenous population history

| Latin America|

* Argentina
* May Revolution / Causes
* Revisionist [es]
* Peru
* Iquicha Royalism
* Colonial Spanish America
* Casta

|

United States|

* African-American history
* Nadir of American race relations
* Neoabolitionism
* Reconstruction era
* Consensus history
* Cyclical theory
* Frontier thesis
* Political history
* Eras
* Progressive-era historians

Eurasia|

* Albania
* Dealbanisation
* Austria
* Habsburg myth
* Balhae
* Belarus
* Litvinism
* Bulgaria
* Byzantine Empire [de]
* Early [ru]
* Croatia
* Europe
* Ancient [ru]
* Medieval [ru]
* New Age [ru]
* Georgia
* Aryan Kartli
* Greek
* Ages of Man
* Iran
* 2,500-year celebration
* Japan
* Korea
* Nationalist
* Goguryeo controversies
* North Macedonia
* Philippines
* Early settlements
* Portugal [pt]
* Lusotropicalism
* Romania
* Great Union
* Serbia
* Kosovo Myth
* Sweden
* Götaland theory
* Switzerland
* Taiwan
* Ukraine
* Executed Renaissance
* Vietnam
* Nam tiến
* Trưng sisters

| Ancient Rome|

* Catilinarian conspiracy
* Christianization
* Constantinian shift
* Expansion
* Fall of Western Rome
* Prosopography
* Succession
* Byzantine succession
* Moscow, third Rome
* Ottoman claim
* Problem of two emperors

|

China|

* 5000-year civilization assertion
* Archaeology
* Wunu School [zh]
* Century of humiliation
* Conquest dynasty
* "Chineseness" debate
* New Qing History
* Golden ages
* Hua–Yi distinction
* Four Barbarians
* Sinocentrism
* Self-Strengthening Movement
* Sprouts of capitalism
* Tibetan sovereignty debate

France|

* Cordon sanitaire
* Frankish Interregnum [fr]
* Grand Siècle
* Legendary Saracen [fr]
* Location of Alésia [fr]
* Lyon [fr]

Germany|

* Alltagsgeschichte
* Borussian myth
* Historikerstreit
* Sonderweg
* Strukturgeschichte [de]
* Sybel-Ficker controversy
* Vergangenheitsbewältigung

India|

* Greater Magadha
* Indocentrism
* Indigenous Aryanism

Ireland|

* Great Famine
* "More Irish than the Irish themselves"
* Revisionism
* Revolutionary period

Italy|

* Fascist Italy
* Fourth Italian War of Independence
* Historiae Patriae Monumenta
* Historical Series of the Bank of Italy
* Italians, the good people
* Rerum italicarum scriptores
* Revisionism of Risorgimento
* Southern question
* Neo-Bourbonism

Poland|

* Golden Liberty
* Sarmatism
* Deluge
* Partitions
* Polish People's Republic [pl]

Russia|

* Anti-Normanism
* Pre-Revolutionary Russia [ru]
* Skeptic School [ru]
* Soviet Union
* October Revolution
* Soviet famine of 1930–1933
* Causes of the Holodomor
* Holodomor genocide question
* Holodomor in modern politics

Spain|

* Black legend / White legend
* Hispanism
* Carlism in the Francoist era
* Convivencia
* Inquisition
* Limpieza de sangre controversy [es]
* Reconquista
* Islamic revolution of Spain [es]
* Revisionist
* Colonies or Provinces
* Spanish decline [es]
* Ser de España [es]

Turkey|

* Kemalist
* Ottoman Empire
* Ghaza thesis
* Decline thesis

United
Kingdom|

* Poor Laws
* Scotland
* Kingdom of Alba
* Westminster Stone
* Storm over the gentry
* Suffragette Campaign
* Tudor myth
* Ricardians
* Winter of Discontent

| British
Empire|

* Cambridge School
* Porter–MacKenzie debate
* Second colonial occupation

|

Oceania|

* Colonial Australia

By war, conflict

* v
* t
* e

Military historiography

* Military history
* List of military museums

Pre-18th century
conflicts|

* Albigensian Crusade
* Catharism debate
* Crusades
* Islamic views
* Eighty Years' War
* Origins
* Fall of Babylon
* Gallic Wars
* Late Bronze Age collapse
* Dorian invasion
* Sea Peoples
* Peloponnesian War

18th and 19th
century conflicts|

| Coalition Wars
(1792–1815)|

* French Revolution
* Pre-revolution [fr]
* Causes
* New Russian School [ru]
* War in the Vendée
* Napoleonic era
* Invasion of Russia
* Waterloo

|

* American Civil War
* Origins
* Turning point
* Franco-Prussian War
* Causes
* Paris Commune
* Great Game
* Indian Rebellion of 1857
* Causes
* Paraguayan War
* War of 1812
* Origins
* War of the Pacific
* Causes
* Myth of English aid [es]

World War I|

* Causes (Color books / Fischer thesis)
* Late Ottoman genocides (Causes of the Armenian genocide)
* Patriotic consent [fr]
* Persian famine of 1917–1919
* Powder keg of Europe
* Schlieffen Plan
* Spirit of 1914 / 1917
* Treaty of Brest-Litovsk [ru]

| Treaty of
Versailles|

* Reparations
* War guilt question
* Article 231
* Reichstag inquiry

|

Interwar period|

* Burning of Smyrna
* Polish–Soviet War
* Causes
* Spanish Civil War
* Background

World War II|

* Causes
* "Blitzkrieg" concept
* Broad vs. narrow front
* German resistance to Nazism
* Nazi foreign policy debate

| Eastern Front|

* Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact
* Soviet offensive plans
* Soviets and the Warsaw Uprising
* Massacres of Poles in Volhynia and Eastern Galicia
* Winter War
* Background
* Spirit

|

The Holocaust|

* Auschwitz bombing debate
* Awareness in Nazi Germany and German-occupied Europe
* Functionalism–intentionalism debate
* In relation to the Armenian genocide / Nakba
* Pope Pius XII and the Holocaust
* Pius Wars
* "Polish death camp"
* Responsibility
* Slovakia
* Uniqueness

Pacific War|

* Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki
* "Battle for Australia"
* Bengal famine
* Second Sino-Japanese War
* Nanjing Massacre

Western Front|

* Battle of France
* Guilty Men
* Résistancialisme
* Vichy France [fr]

Cold War|

* Origins
* 1948 Palestine war
* Palestinian expulsion and flight / Ongoing Nakba
* Zionism as settler colonialism
* New Historians
* Malayan Emergency
* Causes
* Algerian War
* Six-Day War
* Origins
* Iranian revolution
* Causes
* Iran–Iraq War
* Falklands War
* Sovereignty dispute
* Sri Lankan civil war
* Origins

Post-Cold War|

* Russo-Georgian War
* Background
* Responsibility
* Syrian revolution
* Causes

Related|

* Conflict thesis
* Gunpowder and gun transmission
* Torsion mangonel myth
* War and genocide

* Category

By person

| Political
leaders|

* Adolf Hitler
* Alexander the Great
* Amin al-Husseini
* Aurangzeb
* Cato the Younger
* Che Guevara
* Chiang Ching-kuo [zh]
* Chiang Kai Shek [zh]
* Constantine the Great
* Gregory Palamas
* Horatio Nelson
* Hypatia
* Jiang Zemin [zh]
* Joseph Stalin [ru]
* José de San Martín
* Juan Manuel de Rosas
* Klemens von Metternich
* Leonid Brezhnev
* Louis Riel
* Mao Zedong [zh]
* Muammar Gaddafi
* Napoleon
* Neville Chamberlain
* Pedro II of Brazil
* Simon Bolivar
* Cult of personality [es]
* Bolivarianism
* Saladin
* Sun Yat-sen [zh]
* Thomas Aquinas
* Thomas Jefferson
* Ulysses S. Grant
* Warren G. Harding
* Yuan Shikai [zh]
* Zhou Enlai [zh]
* Zhuge Liang [zh]

| Historical
rankings|

* Australia
* Canada
* Modern Germany
* Netherlands
* United Kingdom
* United States

|

Others|

* The Beatles
* Charles Darwin
* Friedrich Nietzsche
* H. P. Lovecraft
* Jane Austen
* Muhammed
* Historicity
* Judaism
* Medieval Christian
* Jesus
* Historicity
* Resurrection
* Religious perspectives
* Christianity
* Judaism
* Islam
* J. R. R. Tolkien
* The Lord of the Rings
* Madonna
* Robert Falcon Scott
* Socrates
* Søren Kierkegaard
* William Shakespeare

Other topics

* Bears in antiquity
* Crisis of historiography [pt]
* Feudalism
* Library of Alexandria
* Nationalism in the Middle Ages
* Professionalization and institutionalization of history
* Salons
* Western European colonialism and colonization
* Desacralization of knowledge

| Economics|

* Industrial Revolution
* Great Recession
* Great Depression
* School of Thoughts
* Historical school of economics
* English historical school of economics

|

Religion|

* Avestan geography
* Early Christianity
* Background
* Historical reliability of the Gospels
* Primacy of Peter
* Opposition to Papal supremacy
* Proto-orthodox Christianity
* Early Islam
* Criticism of the Quran
* Succession to Muhammad
* Islamic golden age
* Kharijites
* Ecclesiastical history of the Catholic Church
* Second Vatican Council
* Hermeneutics of Vatican Council II [it]
* Hesychast controversy
* Protestant Reformation
* Proto-Protestantism
* Criticism of Protestantism
* Protestant work ethic
* Jesuit historiography
* Modern Jewish history
* Wissenschaft des Judentums
* Schools of thought
* Biblical criticism
* Catholic theology
* Panbabylonism
* Urreligion
* Perennial
* Religionsgeschichtliche Schule
* Roman
* Revisionist school of Islamic studies

Science /
Technology|

* Merton thesis
* Protestant Ethic and Capitalism
* Heroic theory of invention and scientific development
* Gunpowder and gun transmission
* Torsion mangonel myth

Organizations, publications

* Heritage registers
* Historical society (list)
* History institutes
* History journals
* template

Related

* Commemorative plaque
* Documentary film
* Hagiography
* Historical fiction
* Historical realism
* Historiographic metafiction
* Historical geographic information system

* Category
* Multimedia

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