Javanese language

Austronesian language

Not to be confused with Java (programming language), Japanese language, Javan, JavaScript, or Javanais.

"Tegal language" redirects here. Not to be confused with Tegali language.

Javanese

basa Jawa
ꦧꦱꦗꦮ
باسا جاوا

Basa Jawa (Javanese language) written in the Javanese script

Pronunciation| [bɔsɔ d͡ʒɔwɔ] (central and eastern dialects)
[basa d͡ʒawa] (western and Tenggerese dialect)
[basə d͡ʒawə] (Serangese dialect)
Native to| Indonesia
Ethnicity|

* Javanese
* • Samin
* • Banyumasan
* • Tenggerese
* • Cirebonese
* • Osing

Native speakers

| 68 million (2015)[1]

Language family

Austronesian

* Malayo-Polynesian
* Javanese

Early forms

Old Javanese

* Middle Javanese

Standard forms

* Kawi
(Early standard form)
* Surakartan Javanese
(Modern standard form)

Dialects| Javanese dialects

Writing system

| Latin script
Javanese script
Pegon script
Official status

Official language in

| Indonesia

* Special Region of Yogyakarta (co-official with Indonesian)[2]

Regulated by| Badan Pengembangan dan Pembinaan Bahasa
Language codes
ISO 639-1| `jv`
ISO 639-2| `jav`
ISO 639-3| Variously:
`jav` – Javanese
`jvn` – Caribbean Javanese
`jas` – New Caledonian Javanese
`osi` – Osing
`tes` – Tenggerese
Glottolog| `java1253` Javanesic
`java1254`
Linguasphere| `31-MFM-a`

Dark green: areas where Javanese is the majority language. Light green: where it is a minority language.

This article contains IPA phonetic symbols. Without proper rendering support, you may see question marks, boxes, or other symbols instead of Unicode characters. For an introductory guide on IPA symbols, see Help:IPA.

This article contains letters from the Javanese script. Without proper rendering support, you may see question marks, boxes, or other symbols instead of Javanese characters.

The word Jawa (Java) written in Javanese script Two Javanese speakers, recorded in Indonesia

Javanese (/ˌdʒɑːvəˈniːz/ JAH-və-NEEZ,[3] /dʒævə-/ JAV-ə-, /-ˈniːs/ -⁠NEESS;[4] basa Jawa, Javanese script: ꦧꦱꦗꦮ, Pegon: باسا جاوا, IPA: [bɔsɔ d͡ʒɔwɔ]) is a Malayo-Polynesian language of the Austronesian language family spoken primarily by the Javanese people from the central and eastern parts of the island of Java, Indonesia. There are also pockets of Javanese speakers on the northern coast of western Java. It is the native language of more than 68 million people.[5]

Javanese is the largest of the Austronesian languages in number of native speakers. It has several regional dialects and a number of clearly distinct status styles.[6] Its closest relatives are the neighboring languages such as Sundanese, Madurese, and Balinese. Most speakers of Javanese also speak Indonesian for official and commercial purposes as well as a means to communicate with non-Javanese-speaking Indonesians.

There are speakers of Javanese in Malaysia (concentrated in the West Coast part of the states of Selangor and Johor) and Singapore. Javanese is also spoken by traditional immigrant communities of Javanese descent in Suriname, Sri Lanka and New Caledonia.[7]

Along with Indonesian, Javanese is an official language in the Special Region of Yogyakarta, Indonesia.[2]

## Classification

[edit]

Javanese is part of the Malayo-Polynesian branch of the Austronesian language family, although its precise relationship to other Malayo-Polynesian languages is hard to determine. Using the lexicostatistical method, Isidore Dyen classified Javanese as part of the "Javo-Sumatra Hesion", which also includes the Sundanese and "Malayic" languages.[a][8][9] This grouping is also called "Malayo-Javanic" by linguist Berndt Nothofer, who was the first to attempt a reconstruction of it based on only four languages with the best attestation at the time (Javanese, Sundanese, Madurese, and Malay).[10]

Malayo-Javanic has been criticized and rejected by various linguists.[11][12] Alexander Adelaar does not include Javanese in his proposed Malayo-Sumbawan grouping (which also covers Malayic, Sundanese, and Madurese languages).[12][13] Robert Blust also does not include Javanese in the Greater North Borneo subgroup, which he proposes as an alternative to Malayo-Sumbawan grouping. However, Blust also expresses the possibility that Greater North Borneo languages are closely related to many other western Indonesian languages, including Javanese.[14] Blust's suggestion has been further elaborated by Alexander Smith, who includes Javanese in the Western Indonesian grouping (which also includes GNB and several other subgroups), which Smith considers as one of Malayo-Polynesian's primary branches.[15]

## History

[edit]

In general, the history of the Javanese language can be divided into two distinct phases: 1) Old Javanese and 2) New Javanese.[13][16]

### Old Javanese

[edit]

Main article: Old Javanese

The earliest attested form of Old Javanese can be found on the Sukabumi inscription at Kediri regency, East Java which dates from 804 CE.[17] Between the 8th and the 15th century, this form of Javanese flourished in the island of Java. Old Javanese is commonly written in the form of verses. This language variety is also called kawi or 'of poets, poetical's, although this term could also be used to refer to the archaic elements of New Javanese literature.[13] The writing system used to write Old Javanese is a descendant of the Pallava script from India.[17] Almost half of the entire vocabularies found in Old Javanese literature are Sanskrit loanwords, although Old Javanese also borrowed terms from other languages in the Maritime Southeast Asia.[13][17]

The form of Old Javanese found in several texts from 14th century onward (mostly written in Bali) is sometimes referred to as "Middle Javanese". Both Old and Middle Javanese written forms have not been widely used in Java since early 16th century. However, Old Javanese works and poetic tradition continue to be preserved in the Javanese-influenced Bali, and the variety is also used for religious purposes.[13][18]

### Modern Javanese

[edit]

Modern Javanese emerged as the main literary form of the language in the 16th century. The change in the literary system happened as Islam started to gain influence in Java.[16] In its early form, Modern Javanese literary form was based on the variety spoken in the north coast of Java, where Islam had already gained foothold among the local people. Many of the written works in this variety were Islamic in nature, and several of them were translation from works in Malay.[19] The Arabic abjad was also adopted (as Pegon) to write Javanese.[16][19]

The rise of Mataram in the 17th century shifted the main literary form of Javanese to be based on the inland variety. This written tradition was preserved by writers of Surakarta and Yogyakarta, and later became the basis of the modern written standard of the language.[19] Another linguistic development associated with the rise of Mataram is the stratification of Javanese into speech levels such as ngoko and krama,[20] which were unknown in Old Javanese.[19][20]

Books in Javanese have been printed since 1830s, at first using the Javanese script, although the Latin alphabet started to be used later. Since mid-19th century, Javanese has been used in newspapers and travelogues, and later, also novels, short stories, as well as free verses. Today, it is used in media, ranging from books to TV programs, and the language is also taught at schools in primarily Javanese areas.

Although Javanese is not a national language, it has recognized status as a regional language in the three Indonesian provinces with the biggest concentrations of Javanese people: Central Java, Yogyakarta, and East Java.[citation needed] Javanese is designated as the official language of the Special Region of Yogyakarta under Yogyakarta Special Region Regulation Number 2 of 2021.[2] Previously, Central Java promulgated a similar regulation—Regional Regulation 9/2012[21]—but this did not imply an official status for the language.

Javanese is taught at schools and is used in some mass media, both electronically and in print. There is, however, no longer a daily newspaper in Javanese. Javanese-language magazines include Panjebar Semangat, Jaka Lodhang, Jaya Baya, Damar Jati, and Mekar Sari. Damar Jati, a new Javanese language magazine, appeared in 2005 is not published in the Javanese heartlands, but in Jakarta.

Since 2003, an East Java local television station (JTV) has broadcast some of its programmes in the Surabayan (Suroboyoan) dialect, including Pojok Kampung [id] ("Village Corner", main newscast), Kuis RT/RW ("RT/RW Quiz"), and Pojok Perkoro ("Case Corner", a crime newscast). In later broadcasts, JTV offers programmes in the Central Javanese dialect (called by them basa kulonan, "the western language") and Madurese. The speakers of Suroboyoan dialect are well known for being proud of their distinctive dialect and consistently maintain it wherever they go.[22]

## Geographical distribution

[edit]

See also: Javanese people

Javanese is spoken throughout Indonesia, neighboring Southeast Asian countries, the Netherlands, Suriname, New Caledonia, and other countries. The largest populations of speakers are found in the six provinces of Java itself, and in the neighboring Sumatran province of Lampung.

The language is spoken in Yogyakarta, Central and East Java, as well as on the north coast of West Java and Banten. It is also spoken elsewhere by the Javanese people in other provinces of Indonesia, who are numerous due to the government-sanctioned transmigration program in the late 20th century, including Lampung, Jambi, and North Sumatra provinces. In Suriname, Javanese is spoken among descendants of plantation migrants brought by the Dutch during the 19th century.[23] In Madura, Bali, Lombok, and the Sunda region of West Java, it is also used as a literary language. It was the court language in Palembang, South Sumatra, until the palace was sacked by the Dutch in the late 18th century.

Javanese is written with the Latin script, Javanese script, and Arabic script.[24] In the present day, the Latin script dominates writings, although the Javanese script is still taught as part of the compulsory Javanese language subject in elementary up to high school levels in Yogyakarta, Central and East Java.

Javanese is the twenty-second largest language by native speakers and the seventh largest language without official status at the national level. It is spoken or understood by approximately 100 million people. At least 45% of the total population of Indonesia are of Javanese descent or live in an area where Javanese is the dominant language. All seven Indonesian presidents since 1945 have been of Javanese descent.[b] It is therefore not surprising that Javanese has had a deep influence on the development of Indonesian, the national language of Indonesia.

There are three main dialects of the modern language: Central Javanese, Eastern Javanese, and Western Javanese. These three dialects form a dialect continuum from northern Banten in the extreme west of Java to Banyuwangi Regency in the eastern corner of the island. All Javanese dialects are more or less mutually intelligible.

A table showing the number of native speakers in 1980, for the 22 Indonesian provinces (from the total of 27) in which more than 1% of the population spoke Javanese:[c]

Indonesian province | % of provincial population | Javanese speakers (1980)

|
|

Aceh | 6.7%  | 175,000
North Sumatra | 21.0%  | 1,757,000
West Sumatra | 1.0%  | 56,000
Jambi | 17.0%  | 245,000
South Sumatra | 12.4%  | 573,000
Bengkulu | 15.4%  | 118,000
Lampung | 62.4%  | 2,886,000
Riau | 8.5%  | 184,000
Jakarta | 3.6%  | 236,000
West Java[d] | 13.3%  | 3,652,000
Central Java | 96.9%  | 24,579,000
Yogyakarta | 97.6%  | 2,683,000
East Java | 74.5%  | 21,720,000
Bali | 1.1%  | 28,000
West Kalimantan | 1.7%  | 41,000
Central Kalimantan | 4.0%  | 38,000
South Kalimantan | 4.7%  | 97,000
East Kalimantan | 10.1%  | 123,000
North Sulawesi | 1.0%  | 20,000
Central Sulawesi | 2.9%  | 37,000
Southeast Sulawesi | 3.6%  | 34,000
Maluku | 1.1%  | 16,000

According to the 1980 census, Javanese was used daily in approximately 43% of Indonesian households. By this reckoning there were well over 60 million Javanese speakers,[25] from a national population of 147,490,298.[26][e]

Madurese in Javanese script

In Banten, the descendants of the Central Javanese conquerors who founded the Islamic Sultanate there in the 16th century still speak an archaic form of Javanese.[27] The rest of the population mainly speaks Sundanese and Indonesian, since this province borders directly on Jakarta.[f]

At least one third of the population of Jakarta are of Javanese descent, so they speak Javanese or have knowledge of it. In the province of West Java, many people speak Javanese, especially those living in the areas bordering Central Java, the cultural homeland of the Javanese.

Almost a quarter of the population of East Java province are Madurese (mostly on the Isle of Madura); many Madurese have some knowledge of colloquial Javanese. Since the 19th century, Madurese was also written in the Javanese script.[g]

The original inhabitants of Lampung, the Lampungese, make up only 15% of the provincial population. The rest are the so-called "transmigrants", settlers from other parts of Indonesia, many as a result of past government transmigration programs. Most of these transmigrants are Javanese who have settled there since the 19th century.

In Suriname (the former Dutch colony of Surinam), South America, approximately 15% of the population of some 500,000 are of Javanese descent, among whom 75,000 speak Javanese. A local variant evolved: the Tyoro Jowo-Suriname or Suriname Javanese.[28]

## Phonology

[edit]

The phonemes of Modern Standard Javanese as shown below.[29][30]

### Vowels

[edit]

| Front | Central | Back

|
|
|

Close | i |  | u
Close-mid | e | ə | o
Open-mid | (ɛ)  | (ɔ)
Open |  | a |

In closed syllables the vowels /i u e o/ are pronounced [ɪ ʊ ɛ ɔ] respectively.[29][31] In open syllables, /e o/ are also [ɛ ɔ] when the following vowel is /i u/ in an open syllable; otherwise they are /ə/, or identical (/e...e/, /o...o/). In the standard dialect of Surakarta, /a/ is pronounced [ɔ] in word-final open syllables, and in any open penultimate syllable before such an [ɔ].

### Consonants

[edit]

| Labial | Dental/
Alveolar | Retroflex | Palatal | Velar | Glottal

|
|
|
|
|
|

Nasal | m | n |  | ɲ | ŋ |
Plosive/
Affricate | stiff voice | p | t̪ | ʈ | tʃ | k | ʔ
slack voice | b̥ | d̪̥ | ɖ̥ | dʒ̊ | ɡ̊
Fricative |  | s |  |  |  | h
Semivowel |  |  |  | j | w |
Liquid | lateral |  | l |  |  |  |
rhotic |  | r |  |  |  |

The Javanese "voiced" phonemes are not in fact voiced but voiceless, with breathy voice on the following vowel.[29] The relevant distinction in phonation of the plosives is described as stiff voice versus slack voice.[32][30]

A Javanese syllable can have the following form: CSVC, where C = consonant, S = sonorant (/j/, /r/, /l/, /w/, or any nasal consonant), and V = vowel. As with other Austronesian languages, native Javanese roots consist of two syllables; words consisting of more than three syllables are broken up into groups of disyllabic words for pronunciation. In Modern Javanese, a disyllabic root is of the following type: nCsvVnCsvVC.

Apart from Madurese, Javanese is the only language of Western Indonesia to possess a distinction between dental and retroflex phonemes.[29] The latter sounds are transcribed as "th" and "dh" in the modern Roman script, but previously by the use of an underdot: "ṭ" and "ḍ".

## Grammar

[edit]

### Morphology

[edit]

This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (September 2022)

|

Javanese, like many other Austronesian languages, is an agglutinative language, where base words are modified through extensive use of affixes.

#### Personal pronoun

[edit]

Javanese has no specific personal pronoun to express plural except for kita which was influenced by Indonesian’s first person plural inclusive pronoun. Pronoun pluralization can be ignored or expressed by using phrases such as aku kabèh 'we', awaké dhéwé 'us', dhèwèké kabèh 'them' and so on. Personal pronoun in Javanese, especially for the second and third person, are more often replaced by certain nouns or titles. In addition to the pronoun described in the table below, Javanese still has a variety of other pronoun whose use varies depending on the dialect or level of speech.[33][34][35][page needed]

Personal Pronoun[33][34][35][page needed] Gloss  | Freestanding form  | Prefix  | Suffix

|
|
|

Ngoko | Madya | Krama | Krama InggilKrama Andhap
1SG, 1PL.EXCL

| aku | –  | kula | dalem | tak-, dak\-  | -ku
1PL.INCL | kita | –  | –  | –  | –  | –
2SG, 2PL

You

| kowé | samang | sampéyan | panjenengan | ko-, kok\-  | -mu
3SG, 3PL

He, She, It

| dhèwèké | –  | piyambakipun | panjenengané,

panjenenganipun

| di\-  | -(n)é, -(n)ipun

#### Demonstrative

[edit]

Demonstrative  | Proximal | Medial  | Distal

|
|
|

neutral  | iki, kiyi, kiyé | iku, kuwi, kuwé | (ika), kaé
local  | kéné | kono | kana
locative  | mréné, réné | mrono, rono | mrana, rana
modal  | mengkéné, ngéné | mengkono, ngono | mengkana, ngana
quantitative  | seméné, méné | semono, mono | semana, mana
temporal  | sepréné | –  | seprana

#### Noun

[edit]

This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (July 2023)

|

#### Numeral

[edit]

This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (July 2023)

|

#### Verb

[edit]

This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (July 2023)

|

### Syntax

[edit]

Modern Javanese usually employs SVO word order. However, Old Javanese sometimes had VSO and sometimes VOS word order. Even in Modern Javanese, archaic sentences using VSO structure can still be made.

Examples:

* Modern Javanese: "Dhèwèké (S) teka (V) ing (pp.) karaton (O)".[36]
* Old Javanese: "Teka (V) ta (part.) sira (S) ri (pp.) -ng (def. art.) kadhatwan (O)".[h]

Both sentences mean: "He (S) comes (V) into (pp.) the (def. art.) palace (O)". In the Old Javanese sentence, the verb is placed at the beginning and is separated by the particle ta from the rest of the sentence. In Modern Javanese the definite article is lost, and definiteness is expressed by other means if necessary.

Verbs are not inflected for person or number. There is no grammatical tense; time is expressed by auxiliary words meaning "yesterday", "already", etc. There is a complex system of verb affixes to express differences of status in subject and object. However, in general the structure of Javanese sentences both Old and Modern can be described using the topic–comment model, without having to refer to conventional grammatical categories. The topic is the head of the sentence; the comment is the modifier. So the example sentence has a simpler description: Dhèwèké = topic; teka = comment; ing karaton = setting.

## Vocabulary

[edit]

Javanese has many loanwords supplementing those from the native Austronesian base. Sanskrit has had a deep and lasting influence. The Old Javanese–English Dictionary contains approximately 25,500 entries, over 12,600 of which are borrowings from Sanskrit.[37] Such a high number is no measure of usage, but it does suggest the extent to which the language adopted Sanskrit words for formal purposes. In a typical Old Javanese literary work about 25% of the vocabulary is from Sanskrit. Many Javanese personal names also have clearly recognisable Sanskrit roots.

Sanskrit words are still very much in use. Modern speakers may describe Old Javanese and Sanskrit words as kawi (roughly meaning "literary"); but kawi words may also be from Arabic. Dutch and Malay are influential as well; but none of these rivals the position of Sanskrit.

There are far fewer Arabic loanwords in Javanese than in Malay, and they are usually concerned with Islamic religion. Nevertheless, some words have entered the basic vocabulary, such as pikir ("to think", from the Arabic fikr), badan ("body"), mripat ("eye", thought to be derived from the Arabic ma'rifah, meaning "knowledge" or "vision"). However, these Arabic words typically have native Austronesian or Sanskrit alternatives: pikir = galih, idhep (Austronesian) and manah, cipta, or cita (from Sanskrit); badan = awak (Austronesian) and slira, sarira, or angga (from Sanskrit); and mripat = mata (Austronesian) and soca or nétra (from Sanskrit).

Dutch loanwords usually have the same form and meaning as in Indonesian, with a few exceptions such as:

Javanese  | Indonesian  | Dutch  | English

|
|
|

pit | sepeda | fiets | bicycle
pit montor | sepeda motor | motorfiets | motorcycle
sepur | kereta api | spoor, i.e. (rail) track  | train
potelot | pensil | potlood | pencil
bolpen | bolpoin | balpen | pen

The word sepur also exists in Indonesian, but there it has preserved the literal Dutch meaning of "railway tracks", while the Javanese word follows Dutch figurative use, and "spoor" (lit. "rail") is used as metonymy for "trein" (lit. "train"). (Compare a similar metonymic use in English: "to travel by rail" may be used for "to travel by train".)

Malay was the lingua franca of the Indonesian archipelago before the proclamation of Indonesian independence in 1945; and Indonesian, which was based on Malay, is now the official language of Indonesia. As a consequence, there has been an influx of Malay and Indonesian vocabulary into Javanese. Many of these words are concerned with bureaucracy or politics.

### Basic vocabulary

[edit]

English | Ngoko | Krama

|
|

yes | iya | inggih or nggih[38]
no | ora | mboten
what | apa | punapa/menapa
who | sapa | sinten
how | kapriyé or kepiyé | kados pundi or pripun
why | nangapa or ngapa | kènging punapa/menapa
eat | mangan | nedha/dhahar
sleep | turu | saré
read | maca | maos
drink | ngombé | ngunjuk
here | ing kéné  | ing riki or mriki
there | ing kana  | ing rika or mrika
there is (there are) | ana | wonten
there is no (there are no) | ora ana | boten wonten
no! or I don't want it! | emoh | wegah
make a visit for pleasure | dolan | amèng-amèng

### Numbers

[edit]

Main article: Javanese numerals

[Javanese Ngoko is on the left, and Javanese Krama is on the right.]

Numeral | Javanese script | Ngoko | Krama | Notes

|
|
|
|

0 | ꧇꧐꧇ | nul, das | das |
1 | ꧇꧑꧇ | siji | setunggal |
2 | ꧇꧒꧇ | loro | kalih |
3 | ꧇꧓꧇ | telu | tiga | Krama word is derived from Pali tiga, from Sanskrit trika
4 | ꧇꧔꧇ | papat | sekawan |
5 | ꧇꧕꧇ | lima | gangsal |
6 | ꧇꧖꧇ | enem | enem |
7 | ꧇꧗꧇ | pitu | pitu |
8 | ꧇꧘꧇ | wolu | wolu |
9 | ꧇꧙꧇ | sanga | sanga |
10 | ꧇꧑꧐꧇ | sapuluh | sadasa | Krama word is derived from Austronesian prefix sa- "one, a" and Sanskrit word dasa "ten"
11 | ꧇꧑꧑꧇  | sewelas | satunggal welas |
20 | ꧇꧒꧐꧇  | rong puluh | kalih dasa |
21 | ꧇꧒꧑꧇  | selikur | satunggal likur  |
22 | ꧇꧒꧒꧇  | rong likur | kalih likur  |
23 | ꧇꧒꧓꧇  | telu likur | tigang likur  |
24 | ꧇꧒꧔꧇  | pat likur | sakawan likur  |
25 | ꧇꧒꧕꧇  | selawé | salangkung  |
26 | ꧇꧒꧖꧇  | nem likur | enem likur  |
27 | ꧇꧒꧗꧇  | pitu likur | pitung likur  |
28 | ꧇꧒꧘꧇  | wolu likur | wolung likur  |
29 | ꧇꧒꧙꧇  | sangang likur | sangang likur  |
30 | ꧇꧓꧐꧇  | telung puluh | tigang dasa |
31 | ꧇꧓꧑꧇  | telung puluh siji | tigang dasa satunggal |
40 | ꧇꧔꧐꧇  | patang puluh | sakawan dasa |
41 | ꧇꧔꧑꧇  | patang puluh siji | sakawan dasa satunggal |
50 | ꧇꧕꧐꧇ | sèket | sèket |
51 | ꧇꧕꧑꧇  | sèket siji | sèket satunggal |
60 | ꧇꧖꧐꧇  | sewidak | sawidak |
61 | ꧇꧖꧑꧇  | sewidak siji | sawidak satunggal |
70 | ꧇꧗꧐꧇  | pitung puluh | pitung dasa |
80 | ꧇꧘꧐꧇  | wolung puluh | wolung dasa |
90 | ꧇꧙꧐꧇  | sangang puluh | sangang dasa |
100 | ꧇꧑꧐꧐꧇ | satus | satunggal atus |
200 | ꧇꧒꧐꧐꧇ | rong atus | kalih atus |
hundreds  | atusan | atusan |
1000 | ꧇꧑꧐꧐꧐꧇ | sèwu | satunggal èwu |
2000 | ꧇꧒꧐꧐꧐꧇ | rong èwu | kalih èwu |
thousands  | éwon | éwon |

### Registers

[edit]

A Javanese noble lady (left) would address her servant with one vocabulary, and be answered with another. (Studio portrait of painter Raden Saleh's wife and a servant, colonial Batavia, 1860–1872.)

In common with other Austronesian languages, Javanese is spoken differently depending on the social context. In Austronesian there are often three distinct styles or registers.[39] Each employs its own vocabulary, grammatical rules, and even prosody. In Javanese these styles are called:

1. Ngoko (ꦔꦺꦴꦏꦺꦴ): Vernacular or informal speech, used between friends and close relatives. It is also used by persons of higher status (such as elders, or bosses) addressing those of lower status (young people, or subordinates in the workplace).
2. Madya (ꦩꦢꦾ): Intermediate between ngoko and krama. Strangers on the street would use it, where status differences may be unknown and one wants to be neither too formal nor too informal. The term is from Sanskrit madhya ("middle").[40]
3. Krama (ꦏꦿꦩ): The polite, high-register, or formal style. It is used between those of the same status when they do not wish to be informal. It is used by persons of lower status to persons of higher status, such as young people to their elders, or subordinates to bosses; and it is the official style for public speeches, announcements, etc. The term is from Sanskrit krama ("in order").[40]

There are also "meta-style" honorific words, and their converse "humilifics". Speakers use "humble" words concerning themselves, but honorific words concerning anyone of greater age of higher social status. The humilific words are called krama andhap, while the honorifics are called krama inggil. This honorific system is very similar to that of the Japanese keigo, and was likely influenced by it during the Japanese Empire's occupation of Java in World War II.[citation needed] Children typically use the ngoko style, but in talking to the parents they must be competent with both krama inggil and krama andhap.

The most polite word meaning "eat" is dhahar. But it is forbidden to use these most polite words for oneself, except when talking with someone of lower status; and in this case, ngoko style is used. Such most polite words are reserved for addressing people of higher status:

* Mixed usages
* (honorific – addressing someone of high status) Bapak kersa dhahar? ("Do you want to eat?"; literally "Does father want to eat?")
* (reply to a person of lower status, expressing speaker's superiority) Iya, aku kersa dhahar. ("Yes, I want to eat.")
* (reply to a person of lower status, but without expressing superiority) Iya, aku arep mangan.
* (reply to a person of equal status) Inggih, kula badhé nedha.

The use of these different styles is complicated and requires thorough knowledge of Javanese culture, which adds to the difficulty of Javanese for foreigners. The full system is not usually mastered by most Javanese themselves, who might use only the ngoko and a rudimentary form of the krama. People who can correctly use the different styles are held in high esteem.

## Dialects

[edit]

Susuhunan Pakubuwono X of Surakarta. Surakarta has been a center of Javanese culture, and its dialect is regarded as the most "refined".

There are three main groups of Javanese dialects, based on sub-regions: Western Javanese, Central Javanese, and Eastern Javanese. The differences are primarily in pronunciation, but with vocabulary differences also. Javanese dialects are all mutually intelligible.

A preliminary general classification of Javanese dialects given by the Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology's Department of Linguistics is as follows.[41] Pesisir (Tegalan), Banyumas and Tengger are considered to be among the most conservative dialects.[42][43] The Banten, Pesisir Lor, Banyumas and Tengger dialect do not have the vowel raising and vowel harmony features that are innovations of the "standard" Solo and Yogyakarta dialects.

* West Java (Geographically) :
* Banten
* Cirebon
* Central Java (Geographically) :
* Pesisir Lor dialects[42]
* Tegal
* Pemalang
* Pekalongan
* Yogyakarta
* Surakarta/Solo
* Semarang
* Banyumas[44]
* Cilacap
* Purwokerto
* Kebumen
* East Java (Geographically)
* Surabaya
* Malang
* Madiun-Kediri-Nganjuk[45]
* Lumajang
* Osing[46]
* Tengger

### Dialects description

[edit]

#### Standard Javanese

[edit]

Standard Javanese is the variety of the Javanese language that was developed at the Yogyakarta and Surakarta courts (the heirs to the Mataram Sultanate that once dominated the whole of Java and beyond), based on the Central Javanese dialect, and becomes the basis for the Javanese modern writings. It is marked with the strict usage of two speech levels for politeness, i.e. vernacular level called ngoko and high-register level called krama. Other dialects do not contrast the usage of the speech levels.[47]

#### Central Javanese

[edit]

Central Javanese (Jawa Tengahan) is founded on the speech of Surakarta[i] and to a lesser extent of Yogyakarta. It is considered the most "refined" of the regional variants, and serves as a model for the standard language. This variant is used throughout eastern part of Central Java, the Special Region of Yogyakarta, and the western part of East Java provinces. There are many lower-level dialects such as Muria and Semarangan, as well as Surakarta and Yogyakarta themselves. Javanese spoken in the Madiun region (along with Javanese spoken in Blitar, Ponorogo, Pacitan, and Tulungagung, most parts of Kediri) bears a strong influence of Surakarta Javanese. The variations in Central Java are said to be so plentiful that almost every administrative region (or kabupatèn) has its own local slang, in the eastern part of Nganjuk (Kertosono Raya), the northeastern part of Kediri (Pare Raya) and the eastern part of Blitar (Wlingi raya) there is some influence of the Arekan dialect even though the basic vocabulary is still predominantly Mataraman ; but those minor dialects are not seen as distinct by most Javanese speakers.

1. Mataram dialect, Kewu dialect, or Standard dialect is spoken commonly in Yogyakarta, Surakarta, Klaten, Karanganyar, Wonogiri, Sukoharjo, Sragen, and Boyolali.
2. Pekalongan dialect is spoken in Pekalongan, Pekalongan regency, Batang and also in Pemalang.
3. Kedu dialect is spoken in the former Kedu residency, including: Temanggung, eastern part of Kebumen, Magelang, and Wonosobo.
1. Bagelen dialect is sub-dialect of Kedu spoken in Purworejo.
4. Semarang dialect is spoken in Semarang, Semarang regency, and also Salatiga, Grobogan, Demak and Kendal.
5. Muria (Agung) dialect or Eastern North-Coast dialect is spoken in Jepara, Rembang, Kudus, Pati, and also in Tuban and Bojonegoro.
1. Blora dialect is sub-dialect of Muria, spoken in Blora, the eastern part of Grobogan, and the western part of Ngawi.
6. Madiunan dialect or Mataraman dialect is spoken mainly in western part of East Java province, including Madiun, Ngawi, Pacitan, Ponorogo, Magetan, Kediri, Nganjuk, Trenggalek, Tulungagung, and Blitar.

#### Western Javanese

[edit]

Western Javanese (Jawa Kulonan), spoken in the western part of the Central Java province and throughout the West Java and Banten province (particularly on the north coast), includes dialects that are distinct for their Sundanese influences. It retains many archaic words and original pronunciation from Old Javanese.

1. North Banten dialect (Jawa Sérang) is spoken in Serang, Cilegon, and the western part of Tangerang regency.
2. Cirebon dialect (Cirebonan or basa Cerbon) is spoken in Cirebon, Indramayu, and Losari.
3. Tegal dialect, known as Tegalan or dhialèk Pantura (North-Coast dialect), is spoken in Tegal, Brebes, and the western part of Pemalang regency.
4. Banyumas dialect, known as Banyumasan, is spoken in Banyumas, Cilacap, Purbalingga, Banjarnegara, and Bumiayu.

Some Western Javanese dialects such as Banyumasan dialects and Tegal dialect are sometimes referred to as basa ngapak by other Javanese because of the dialectal pronunciation of word apa (what).

#### Eastern Javanese

[edit]

Eastern Javanese (Jawa Wétanan) speakers range from the eastern banks of Brantas River in Kertosono, and from Jombang to Banyuwangi, comprising the second majority of the East Java province excluding Madura island , Situbondo and Bondowoso. However, some variant like Pedalungan has been influenced by Madurese.

The most outlying Eastern Javanese dialect is spoken in Balambangan (or Banyuwangi). It is generally known as basa Using. Using, a local negation word, is a cognate of tusing in Balinese.

1. Arekan dialect is commonly spoken in Surabaya, Malang, Gresik, Mojokerto, Pasuruan, Lumajang, central and south-western part of Jember, eastern part of Lamongan, and Sidoarjo. Many Madurese people also use this dialect as their second language.
1. Pasisir Lor Wétan (Northeastern Coast) dialect is spoken in Mojokerto, eastern part of Lamongan, Sidoarjo, Gresik, and Surabaya.
2. Malang-Pasuruhan dialect is spoken in Malang and Pasuruan.
3. Lumajangan dialect is sub-dialect of arekan spoken in most part of Lumajang (except in north-east which base of madurese people's) and also spoken in southwestern part of Jember like Kencong, Jombang, Umbulsari, Gumukmas, Puger
2. Jombang dialect
3. Tengger dialect used by Tengger people, which is centered in thirty villages in the isolated Tengger mountains (Mount Bromo) within the Bromo Tengger Semeru National Park in East-Central Java.
4. Osing dialect spoken in central part of Banyuwangi.

#### Surinamese-Javanese

[edit]

Surinamese-Javanese is mainly based on Central Javanese, especially from Kedu residency. The number of speakers of Suriname-Javanese in Suriname was estimated at 60,000 as of 2012.[48] Most Surinamese-Javanese are bi- or trilingual. According to the 2004 census, Surinamese-Javanese was the first or second language in 11 percent of households. In a 2012 study of multilingualism in Surinamese education by the Dutch Language Union,[48] 3,497 out of 22,643 pupils (15 percent) in primary education indicated Surinamese-Javanese as a language spoken at home. Most of them were living in Wanica and Paramaribo districts.

Not all immigrants from Indonesia to Suriname were speakers of Javanese. Immigration records show that 90 percent of immigrants were Javanese, with 5 percent Sundanese, 0.5 percent Madurese and 2.5 percent from Batavia. The ethnic composition of this last group was not determinable. Probably Sundanese, Madurese or Malay speaking immigrants were forced to learn Javanese during their stay in Suriname to adapt. In view of the language policies in Netherlands Indies at the time of immigration, it is unlikely the immigrants had knowledge of the Dutch language prior to immigration to Suriname. Dutch today is the official language of Suriname.

Surinamese Javanese is somewhat different from Indonesian Javanese.[49][50] In Surinamese-Javanese there is a difference between formal and informal speech. Surinamese-Javanese took many loanwords from languages like Dutch, Sranantongo, Sarnami and Indonesian. The influence of the latter language, which is not spoken in Suriname, can be attributed to the Indonesian embassy and Islamic teachers from Indonesia. Indonesian movies are popular, and usually shown without subtitles on Surinamese-Javanese television channels.

Surinamese-Javanese[49] | Sranantongo  | Dutch  | English

|
|
|

ngabrah  | abra  | over  | across
bakrah  | bakra  | blanke  | white man
blangkeman  | blakaman  | zwarte man  | black man
pernangsi  | pernasi  | plantage  | plantation
sekaut  | skowtu  | schout (politieagent)  | policeman

In 1986, the Surinamese government adopted an official spelling for Surinamese-Javanese.[51] It is seldom used as a written language, however.

In the 2012 survey, pupils who indicated Surinamese-Javanese as a language spoken at home, reported Dutch (97.9 percent) and Sranantongo (76.9 percent) also being spoken in the household.

Surinamese-Javanese speaking pupils report high proficiency in speaking and understanding, but very low literacy in the language. They report a low preference for the language in interaction with family members, including their parents, with the exception of their grandparents. Pupils where Surinamese-Javanese is spoken at tend at home to speak Dutch (77 percent) rather than Surinamese-Javanese (12 percent).

#### New Caledonian Javanese

[edit]

As expected, New Caledonian Javanese is somewhat different from Indonesian Javanese. New Caledonian Javanese took many loanwords from French. New Caledonian society, in addition to their mastery of the language according to their ethnicity (New Caledonian Javanese), is obliged to be fluent in French that is a medium that is used in all the affairs of the state, economy, and education. French is regarded as a prestigious language because it is the language of the government, an official language in France include New Caledonia, one of the major languages in Europe, and one of the official languages of the United Nations.[52]

### Phonetic differences

[edit]

Phoneme /i/ at closed ultima is pronounced as [ɪ] in Central Javanese (Surakarta–Yogyakarta dialect), as [i] in Western Javanese (Banyumasan dialect), and as [ɛ] in Eastern Javanese.

Phoneme /u/ at closed ultima is pronounced as [ʊ] in Central Javanese, as [u] in Western Javanese, and as [ɔ] in Eastern Javanese.

Phoneme /a/ at closed ultima in Central Javanese is pronounced as [a] and at open ultima as [ɔ]. Regardless of position, it tends toward [a] in Western Javanese and as [ɔ] in Eastern Javanese.

Western Javanese tends to add a glottal stop at the end of word-final vowels, e.g.: Ana apa? [anaʔ apaʔ] "What happened?", Aja kaya kuwè! [adʒaʔ kajaʔ kuwɛʔ] "Don't be like that!".

Dialectal Phonetics  Phoneme  | Orthography  | Central Javanese (standard)  | Western Javanese  | Eastern Javanese  | English

|
|
|
|
|

/i/

| getih  | [g̊ət̪ɪh]  | [g̊ət̪ih]  | [g̊ət̪ɛh]  | blood

/u/

| abuh  | [ab̥ʊh]  | [ab̥uh]  | [ab̥ɔh]  | swollen

/a/

| lenga  | [ləŋɔ]  | [ləŋa]  | [ləŋɔ]  | oil

/a/

| kancamu/kancané kowé  | [kaɲtʃamu]  | [kaɲtʃanɛ kowɛ]  | [kɔɲtʃɔmu]  | your friend

Final consonant devoicing occurs in the standard Central Javanese dialect, but not in Banyumasan. For example, endhog (egg) is pronounced [əɳɖ̥ɔk] in standard Central Javanese, but [əɳɖ̥ɔg] in Banyumasan. The latter is closer to Old Javanese.[44]

### Vocabulary differences

[edit]

The vocabulary of standard Javanese is enriched by dialectal words. For example, to get the meaning of "you", Western Javanese speakers say rika /rikaʔ/, Eastern Javanese use kon /kɔn/ or koen /kɔən/, and Central Javanese speakers say kowé /kowe/. Another example is the expression of "how": the Tegal dialect of Western Javanese uses keprimèn /kəprimen/, the Banyumasan dialect of Western Javanese employs kepriwé /kəpriwe/ or kepribèn /kəpriben/, Eastern Javanese speakers say ya' apa /jɔʔ ɔpɔ/ – originally meaning "like what" (kaya apa in standard Javanese) or kepiyé /kəpije/ – and Central Javanese speakers say piye /pije/ or kepriyé /kəprije/.

Surakarta (standard)  | Northern Banten  | Cirebon-Indramayu  | Tegal-Brebes  | Banyumas  | Surabaya  | English

|
|
|
|
|
|

aku  | kite  | kita, isun  | enyong  | inyong  | aku, awakku  | I, me
kowé, sliramu  | sire  | sira  | koen  | rika, kowè  | koen, riko, awakmu  | you
tenan  | pisan  | pisan  | temen  | temen  | temenan, temen  | truly
kepiyé, piyé  | kepremèn  | kepribèn, kepriwè  | keprimèn, pimen  | kepriwè  | ya'apa  | how
ora, ogak  | ore  | ora, belih  | ora, bléh  | ora  | gak  | not
mlebu  | manjing  | manjing  | manjing, mlebu  | mlebu  | melbu, menjero  | to enter
arep  | arep  | arep, pan, pen  | pan  | arep  | apé, até, katé  | will
saka, seka, saking(king)  | sing  | sing  | sing  | sekang  | teka  | from

The Madiun–Kediri dialect has some idiosyncratic vocabulary, such as panggah 'still' (standard Javanese: pancet), lagèk 'progressive modal' (standard Javanese: lagi), and emphatic particles nda, pèh, and lé.[45]

## Endangerment

[edit]

Several linguists has voiced concerns about the status of Javanese. It is believed that Ngoko Javanese enjoys a stable diglossic status, while Krama Javanese is under more serious threat.[53] The number of Javanese native speakers has significantly dwindled over the years. In a research in Yogyakarta, it was revealed that a significant number of parents do not transmit Javanese to their children.[54] Instead, Javanese speakers typically acquire Javanese through extrafamilial sources, like friend groups.[55] Although Javanese enjoys a large quantity of speaker base, it is not immune from pressures from other languages like Indonesian and English.[53]

## Writing system

[edit]

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|

A modern bilingual text in Portuguese and Javanese in Yogyakarta

Main article: Javanese script

Javanese has been traditionally written with Javanese script. Javanese and the related Balinese script are modern variants of the old Kawi script, a Brahmic script introduced to Java along with Hinduism and Buddhism. Kawi is first attested in a legal document from 804 AD. It was widely used in literature and translations from Sanskrit from the 10th century; by the 17th, the script is identified as carakan.

The Javanese script is an abugida. Each of the twenty letters represents a syllable with a consonant (or a "zero consonant") and the inherent vowel 'a' that is pronounced as /ɔ/ in open position. Various diacritics placed around the letter indicate a different vowel than [ɔ], a final consonant, or a foreign pronunciation.

Letters have subscript forms used to transcribe consonant clusters, though the shapes are relatively straightforward, and not as distinct as conjunct forms of Devanagari. Some letters are only present in old Javanese and became obsolete in modern Javanese. Some of these letters became "capital" forms used in proper names. Punctuation includes a comma; period; a mark that covers the colon, quotations, and indicates numerals; and marks to introduce a chapter, poem, song, or letter.

However, Javanese can also be written with the Arabic script (known as the Pegon script) and today generally uses Latin script instead of Javanese script for practical purposes. A Latin orthography based on Dutch was introduced in 1926, revised in 1972–1973; it has largely supplanted the carakan. The current Latin-based forms:

Majuscule forms (uppercase)

A | Å | B | C | D | Dh | E | É | È | F | G | H | I | J | K | L | M | N | Ng  | Ny | O | P | Q | R | S | T | Th | U | V | W | X | Y | Z
Minuscule forms (lowercase)
a | å | b | c | d  | dh | e | é | è | f | g | h | i | j | k | l | m | n  | ng  | ny | o | p | q | r | s | t  | th | u | v | w | x | y | z
IPA
a  | ɔ  | b̥  | tʃ  | d̪̥  | ɖ̥  | ə, e  | e  | ɛ  | f | g̊  | h  | i  | dʒ̊  | k  | l  | m  | n  | ŋ  | ɲ  | ɔ, o  | p  | q | r  | s  | t̪  | ʈ  | u  | v | w  | x | j  | z

The italic letters are used in loanwords from European languages and Arabic.

Javanese script:

Base consonant letters

ꦲ | ꦤ | ꦕ | ꦫ | ꦏ | ꦢ | ꦠ | ꦱ | ꦮ | ꦭ | ꦥ | ꦝ | ꦗ | ꦪ | ꦚ | ꦩ | ꦒ | ꦧ | ꦛ | ꦔ
ha | na | ca | ra | ka | da | ta | sa | wa | la | pa | dha | ja | ya | nya | ma | ga | ba | tha | nga

## Sample text

[edit]

The following is a sample text in Javanese of Article 1 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights.

Javanese Latin:[56] | "Sabén uwong kalairaké kanthi mardikå lan darbé martabat lan hak-hak kang pådhå. Kabèh pinaringan akal lan kalbu sartå kaajab pasrawungan anggoné mêmitran siji lan sijiné kanthi jiwå sumadulur."

|

Javanese Carakan (Traditional Script)[57] | "꧋ꦱꦧꦼꦤ꧀ꦲꦸꦮꦺꦴꦁꦏꦭꦲꦶꦫꦏꦺꦏꦤ꧀ꦛꦶꦩꦂꦢꦶꦏꦭꦤ꧀ꦢꦂꦧꦺꦩꦂꦠꦧꦠ꧀ꦭꦤ꧀ꦲꦏ꧀ꦲꦏ꧀ꦏꦁꦥꦝ꧉ ꦏꦧꦺꦃꦥꦶꦤꦫꦶꦔꦤ꧀ꦲꦏꦭ꧀ꦭꦤ꧀ꦏꦭ꧀ꦧꦸꦱꦂꦠꦏꦲꦗꦧ꧀ꦥꦱꦿꦮꦸꦔꦤ꧀ꦲꦁꦒꦺꦴꦤꦺꦩꦼꦩꦶꦠꦿꦤ꧀ꦱꦶꦗꦶꦭꦤ꧀ꦱꦶꦗꦶꦤꦺꦏꦤ꧀ꦛꦶꦗꦶꦮꦱꦸꦩꦢꦸꦭꦸꦂ꧉"
Javanese Pegon | «سابَين اووڠ كالايراكي كانڟي مارديکا لان داربَي مرتبة لان حق۲ كاڠ ڤاڎا. كابَيه ڤيناريڠان عقل لان قلبو سارتا كأجاب ڤاسراوڠان اڠڮونَي مميتران سيجي لان سيجيني كانڟي جيوا سومادولور.»
Sound sample: |
English original: | "All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood."

## See also

[edit]

* Indonesia portal

* Java
* Javanese script
* Javanese alphabet
* Javanese literature
* Banyumasan language
* Hans Ras
* Johan Hendrik Caspar Kern

## References

[edit]

### Notes

[edit]

1. ^ Dyen's "Malayic" differs from the modern established concept of "Malayic" (introduced by Alexander Adelaar). Dyen's Malayic includes Madurese, Acehnese, and Malayan (=Malayic in the modern sense).
2. ^ Sukarno has a Javanese father and a Balinese mother, Habibie has a father of Gorontalo descent and a Javanese mother, while Megawati is Sukarno's daughter through his wife, who is from Bengkulu.
3. ^ The data are taken from the census of 1980 as provided by James J. Fox and Peter Gardiner and published by S. A. Wurm and Shiro Hattori, eds. 1983. Language Atlas of the Pacific Area, Part II: (Insular South-East Asia), Canberra.
4. ^ In 1980 this included the now separate Banten province.
5. ^ The distribution of persons living in Javanese-speaking households in East Java and Lampung requires clarification. For East Java, daily-language percentages are as follows: 74.5 Javanese, 23.0 Madurese, and 2.2 Indonesian. For Lampung, the official percentages are 62.4 Javanese, 16.4 Lampungese and other languages, 10.5 Sundanese, and 9.4 Indonesian. The figures are somewhat outdated for some regions, especially Jakarta; but they remain more or less stable for the rest of Java. In Jakarta the number of Javanese has increased tenfold in the last 25 years. On the other hand, because of the conflict the number of Javanese in Aceh might have decreased. It is also relevant that Banten has separated from West Java province in 2000.
6. ^ Many commuters to Jakarta live in the suburbs in Banten, among them also Javanese speakers. Their exact number is unknown.
7. ^ The aspirated phonemes of Madurese are not reproduced in writing. The 19th-century scribes apparently overlooked the fact that Javanese script does possess the required characters.
8. ^ The Old Javanese spelling is modified to suit Modern Javanese spelling.
9. ^ For example Pigeaud's dictionary in 1939 is almost exclusively based on Surakarta speech (1939:viii–xiii).

### Citations

[edit]

1. ^ Javanese at Ethnologue (27th ed., 2024)
Caribbean Javanese at Ethnologue (27th ed., 2024)
New Caledonian Javanese at Ethnologue (27th ed., 2024)
Osing at Ethnologue (27th ed., 2024)
Tenggerese at Ethnologue (27th ed., 2024)
2. ^ a b c Peraturan Daerah Daerah Istimewa Yogyakarta Nomor 2 Tahun 2021 tentang Pemeliharaan dan Pengembangan Bahasa, Sastra, dan Aksara Jawa (Regional Regulation 2) (in Indonesian). Governor of Special Region of Yogyakarta. 2021.
3. ^ Laurie Bauer, 2007, The Linguistics Student's Handbook, Edinburgh
4. ^ "Javanese". Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary. Merriam-Webster. Retrieved 1 February 2022.
5. ^ Kewarganegaraan, Suku Bangsa, Agama dan Bahasa Sehari-hari Penduduk Indonesia - Hasil Sensus Penduduk 2010. Badan Pusat Statistik. 2011. ISBN 978-979-064-417-5. Archived from the original on 10 July 2017.
6. ^ "Javanese language". britannica.com. Encyclopedia Britannica. 2010. Retrieved 17 March 2021.
7. ^ Akhyari Hananto (8 December 2017). "121 Years of Javanese People in New Caledonia". Seasia: Good News from Southeast Asia.
8. ^ Dyen 1965, p. 26.
9. ^ Nothofer 2009, p. 560.
10. ^ Nothofer 1975, p. 1.
11. ^ Blust 1981.
12. ^ a b Adelaar 2005a, pp. 357, 385.
13. ^ a b c d e Ogloblin 2005, p. 590.
14. ^ Blust 2010, p. 97.
15. ^ Smith 2017, pp. 443, 453–454.
16. ^ a b c Wedhawati et al. 2006, p. 1.
17. ^ a b c Wedhawati et al. 2006, p. 2.
18. ^ Wedhawati et al. 2006, p. 8.
19. ^ a b c d Ogloblin 2005, p. 591.
20. ^ a b Wedhawati et al. 2006, p. 11.
21. ^ Peraturan Daerah Provinsi Jawa Tengah Nomor 9 Tahun 2012 tentang Bahasa, Sastra, Dan Aksara Jawa (PDF) (Regional Regulation 9) (in Indonesian). 2012.
22. ^ Anwar, Luthfiatul Azizah Nuril (9 December 2021). "The Role of the Surabaya Javanese Dialect (Suroboyoan Dialect)". Proceeding of Conference on English Language Teaching, Applied Linguistics, and Literature. 1: 125–132.
23. ^ Villerius, Sophie (2016). "Het Surinaams-Javaans anno 2016". Oso (in Dutch). Vol. 35, no. 2\. pp. 276–294 - via Digitale Bibliotheek voor de Nederlandse Letteren.
24. ^ van der Molen 1993, pp. VII–VIII.
25. ^ According to James J. Fox and Peter Gardiner (Wurm & Hattori 1983).
26. ^ Collins Concise Dictionary Plus (1989).
27. ^ Pigeaud 1967, pp. 10–11.
28. ^ Setrowidjojo, Bartje S.; Setrowidjojo, Ruben T. (1994). Het Surinaams-Javaans = Tyoro Jowo-Suriname. Den Haag: Suara Jawa. ISBN 90-802125-1-2.
29. ^ a b c d Brown, Keith; Ogilvie, Sarah (2008). Concise encyclopedia of languages of the world. Elsevier. p. 560\. ISBN 9780080877747. Retrieved 24 May 2010. Madurese also possesses aspirated phonemes, including at least one aspirated retroflex phoneme.
30. ^ a b Suharno, Ignatius (1982). A Descriptive Study of Javanese. Canberra: ANU Asia-Pacific Linguistics / Pacific Linguistics Press. pp. 4–6. doi:10.15144/PL-D45. hdl:1885/145095. ISBN 9780858832589.
31. ^ Perwitasari, Arum; Klamer, Marian; Witteman, Jurriaan; Schiller, Niels O. (2017). "Quality of Javanese and Sundanese Vowels". Journal of the Southeast Asian Linguistics Society. 10 (2): 1–9. hdl:10524/52406.
32. ^ Ladefoged, Peter; Maddieson, Ian (1996). The Sounds of the World's Languages. Oxford: Blackwell. ISBN 0-631-19815-6.
33. ^ a b Wedhawati; Nurlina, Wiwin Emi Siti; Setiyanto, Edi (2001). Tata Bahasa Jawa Mutakhir [Latest Javanese Grammar] (in Indonesian). Jakarta: Pusat Bahasa, Departemen Pendidikan Nasional Indonesia. ISBN 978-9-79-685141-6.
34. ^ a b Robson, Stuart (2014). Javanese Grammar for Students: A Graded Introduction. Melbourne, Victoria, Australia: Monash University Publishing. ISBN 9781922235374.
35. ^ a b Adelaar 2005b.
36. ^ Piwulang Basa Jawa Pepak, S.B. Pramono, hal 148, Babad Hanacaraka, 2013
37. ^ Zoetmulder 1982, p. IX.
38. ^ Piwulang Basa Jawa Pepak, S.B. Pramono, hal 148, 2013
39. ^ Uhlenbeck 1964, p. 57.
40. ^ a b Wolff, John U.; Soepomo Poedjosoedarmo (1982). Communicative Codes in Central Java. Cornell Southeast Asia Program. p. 4\. ISBN 0-87727-116-X.
41. ^ "Jakarta Field Station > Projects > Javanese Dialectology". MPI EVA Jakarta Field Station. Archived from the original on 13 May 2011.
42. ^ a b "Jakarta Field Station > Projects > Javanese Dialectology > Pemalangan Dialect (Pesisir Lor)". MPI EVA Jakarta Field Station. Archived from the original on 14 May 2011.
43. ^ Conners, Thomas J. (26 April 2010). "Standard vs. Peripheral Javanese Dialects: The Lexical Evidence" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 14 May 2011. Retrieved 23 November 2013.
44. ^ a b "Jakarta Field Station > Projects > Javanese Dialectology > Documentation of Banyumasan". MPI EVA Jakarta Field Station. Archived from the original on 14 May 2011.
45. ^ a b "Jakarta Field Station > Projects > Javanese Dialectology > Madiun – Kediri Dialect". MPI EVA Jakarta Field Station. Archived from the original on 14 May 2011.
46. ^ "Jakarta Field Station > Projects > Javanese Dialectology > Osing Dialect". MPI EVA Jakarta Field Station. Archived from the original on 14 May 2011.
47. ^ Adelaar, Alexander (2011). "Javanese -aké and -akən: A Short History". Oceanic Linguistics. 50 (2): 338–350. doi:10.1353/ol.2011.0024. hdl:11343/122871. ISSN 1527-9421.
48. ^ a b Kroon, Sjaak; Yağmur, Kutlay (2012), Meertaligheid in het onderwijs in Suriname [Multilingualism in education in Suriname] (PDF) (in Dutch), Den Haag: Nederlandse Taalunie, ISBN 978-90-70593-19-3
49. ^ a b Gobardhan-Rambocus, Lila; Sarmo, Johan (1993). "Het Surinaams Javaans" [The Javanese Surinamese] (PDF). In Gobardhan-Rambocus, Lila; Hassankhan, Maurits S. (eds.). Immigratie en ontwikkeling : emancipatieproces van contractanten [Immigration and development: emancipation of contractors] (in Dutch). Paramaribo: Anton de Kom Universiteit. pp. 184–201.
50. ^ Villerius, S. E. (2019). Development of Surinamese Javanese: Language contact and change in a multilingual context (Ph.D. thesis). Radboud Universiteit Nijmegen. hdl:2066/199947. ISBN 978-94-6093-313-4.
51. ^ Vruggink, Hein (1990). "De officiële spelling van het Surinaams-Javaans". Oso (in Dutch). Vol. 9, no. 2\. pp. 38–40 - via Digitale Bibliotheek voor de Nederlandse Letteren.
52. ^ Subiyantoro, Subiyantoro; Marsono, Marsono; Udasmoro, Wening (27 February 2017). "Integration of French Lexicons in New Caledonian Javanese". Jurnal Humaniora. 29 (1): 85. doi:10.22146/jh.22568. ISSN 2302-9269. S2CID 151751712.
53. ^ a b Vander Klok, J. M. (2019). "The Javanese language at risk? Perspectives from an East Java village". Language Documentation & Conservation.
54. ^ Kurniasih, Y. (2006). Gender, class and language preference: A case study in Yogyakarta.
55. ^ Udasmoro, W.; Yuwono, J. S. E.; Firmonasari, A. (2023). "The Preservation of the Javanese Language in the Special Region of Yogyakarta". The Indonesian Journal of Geography. 55 (1): 59–68. doi:10.22146/ijg.68183.
56. ^ "OHCHR | Universal Declaration of Human Rights - Javanese". OHCHR. Retrieved 31 January 2023.
57. ^ "Universal Declaration of Human Rights - Javanese (Javanese)". OHCHR. Archived from the original on 8 June 2023. Retrieved 27 May 2023.

## Sources

[edit]

* Adelaar, Karl Alexander (2005a). "Malayo-Sumbawan". Oceanic Linguistics. 44 (2). University of Hawai'i Press: 356–388. doi:10.1353/ol.2005.0027. S2CID 246237112.
* Adelaar, Karl Alexander, ed. (2005b). The Austronesian languages of Asia and Madagascar. Routledge language family series. London: Routledge. ISBN 978-0-7007-1286-1.
* Blust, Robert (1981). "The reconstruction of proto-Malayo-Javanic: an appreciation". Bijdragen tot de Taal-, Land- en Volkenkunde. 137 (4): 456–459. doi:10.1163/22134379-90003492. JSTOR 27863392.
* Blust, Robert (2010). "The Greater North Borneo Hypothesis". Oceanic Linguistics. 49 (1). University of Hawai'i Press: 44–118. doi:10.1353/ol.0.0060. JSTOR 40783586. S2CID 145459318.
* Dyen, Isidore (1965). A lexicostatistical classification of the Austronesian languages. Baltimore: Waverly Press.
* Nothofer, Berndt (1975). The reconstruction of Proto-Malayo-Javanic. Verhandelingen van het Koninklijk Instituut voor Taal-, Land- en Volkenkunde. Vol. 73\. Den Haag: Martinus Nijhoff. ISBN 9024717728.
* Nothofer, Berndt (2009). "Javanese". In Keith Brown; Sarah Ogilvie (eds.). Concise Encyclopedia of Languages of the World. Oxford: Elsevier. pp. 560–561. ISBN 9780080877747.
* Ogloblin, Alexander K. (2005). "Javanese". In K. Alexander Adelaar; Nikolaus Himmelmann (eds.). The Austronesian Languages of Asia and Madagascar. London dan New York: Routledge. pp. 590–624. ISBN 9780700712861.
* Pigeaud, Theodore Gauthier Th (1967). Literature of Java. Nijoff.
* Smith, Alexander D. (2017). "The Western Malayo-Polynesian Problem". Oceanic Linguistics. 56 (2). University of Hawai'i Press: 435–490. doi:10.1353/ol.2017.0021. S2CID 149377092.
* Horne, Elinor C. (1961). Beginning Javanese. New Haven: Yale University Press.
* van der Molen, W. (1993). Javaans schrift. Leiden: Vakgroep Talen en Culturen van Zuidoost-Azië en Oceanië. ISBN 90-73084-09-1.
* Uhlenbeck, E. M (1964), A critical survey of studies on the languages of Java and Madura, Koninklijk Instituut voor Taal-, Land- en Volkenkunde (Netherlands), Martinus Nijhoff, retrieved 18 February 2013
* Wedhawati; Nurlina, W. E. S.; Setiyanto, E.; Sukesti, R.; et al. (2006). Tata bahasa Jawa mutakhir [A contemporary grammar of Javanese] (in Indonesian). Yogyakarta: Kanisius. ISBN 9789792110371.[permanent dead link‍]
* Wurm, S. A.; Hattori, Shiro, eds. (1983). Language Atlas of the Pacific Area, Part II: (Insular South-east Asia). Canberra.`{{cite book}}`: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
* Zoetmulder, P. J. (1982). Old Javanese–English Dictionary. 's-Gravenhage: Martinus Nijhoff. ISBN 90-247-6178-6.

## Further reading

[edit]

* Errington, James Joseph (1991), Language and social change in Java : linguistic reflexes of modernization in a traditional royal polity, Ohio University, Center for International Studies, retrieved 18 February 2013
* Errington, James Joseph (1998), Shifting languages : interaction and identity in Javanese Indonesia, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0-521-63448-9
* Horne, Elinor Clark (1963), Intermediate Javanese, Yale University Press, retrieved 18 February 2013
* Horne, Elinor Clark (1974), Javanese-English dictionary, Yale University Press, ISBN 978-0-300-01689-5
* Keeler, Ward (1984), Javanese, a cultural approach, Ohio University Center for International Studies, ISBN 978-0-89680-121-9
* Robson, S. O. (Stuart Owen); Wibisono, Singgih (2002), Javanese English dictionary, Periplus Editions (HK) ; North Clarendon, VT : Tuttle Pub, ISBN 978-0-7946-0000-6
* Robson, S. O. (Stuart Owen); Monash University. Monash Asia Institute (2002), Javanese grammar for students (Rev. ed.), Monash Asia Institute, Monash University, ISBN 978-1-876924-12-6
* Robson, S. O. (Stuart Owen); Monash University. Centre of Southeast Asian Studies (1991), Patterns of variation in colloquial Javanese, Centre of Southeast Asian Studies, Monash University, ISBN 978-0-7326-0263-5
* Siegel, James T (1986), Solo in the new order : language and hierarchy in an Indonesian city, Princeton University Press, ISBN 978-0-691-00085-5
* Uhlenbeck, E. M; Koninklijk Instituut voor Taal-, Land- en Volkenkunde (Netherlands) (1978), Studies in Javanese morphology, Martinus Nijhoff, ISBN 978-90-247-2162-7

## External links

[edit]

Javanese edition of Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Look up Appendix:Javanese Swadesh list in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.

Wikivoyage has a phrasebook for Javanese.

* International Symposium on The Languages of Java (archived 2 December 2013)
* Javanese in Suriname strive to preserve origins Jakarta Post article (archived 9 February 2005)
* Javanese Writing System
* Javanese Phonation Types, Consonants
* Old Javanese inscriptions

* v
* t
* e

Javanese language

Overviews|

* Language
* History
* Script

Development|

* Old Javanese
* Middle Javanese
* Modern Javanese

Scripts|

* Kawi
* Carakan
* Pegon
* Latin

Notable variant|

| Standardized|

* Kawi
* Modern Standard Javanese

|

Regional dialects|

* Arekan
* Malang
* Surabaya
* Bantenese
* Banyumasan
* Cirebon
* Mataraman
* Madiunan
* Semarangan
* Surakarta
* Yogyakarta
* New Caledonian
* Surinamese
* Osing
* Tenggerese

Related|

* Literature
* Names
* Numerals
* Javanese Language Congress
* Javanese historical texts
* Javanese poetry
* Krama Inggil

Letters of the Aksara Jawa

Nglegena
consonants|

* Ha (ꦲ)
* Na (ꦤ)
* Ca (ꦕ)
* Ra (ꦫ)
* Ka (ꦏ)
* Da (ꦢ)
* Ta (ꦠ)
* Sa (ꦱ)
* Wa (ꦮ)
* La (ꦭ)
* Pa (ꦥ)
* Dha (ꦢ)
* Ja (ꦗ)
* Ya (ꦪ)
* Nya (ꦚ)
* Ma (ꦩ)
* Ga (ꦒ)
* Ba (ꦧ)
* Tha (ꦛ)
* Nga (ꦔ)

Murda
consonants|

* Ka murda (ꦑ)
* Ga murda (ꦓ)
* Na murda (ꦟ)
* Ta murda (ꦡ)
* Pa murda (ꦦ)
* Ba murda (ꦨ)
* Sa murda (ꦯ)
* Seldom used: Ca murda (ꦖ)
* Nya murda (ꦘ)

Extended
consonants|

* Often used: Pa cerek (ꦉ)
* Nga lelet (ꦊ)
* Seldom used: Nga lelet Raswadi (ꦋ)
* Ra agung (ꦬ)
* Ka sasak (ꦐ)
* Ja mahaprana (ꦙ)
* Tha mahaprana (ꦜ)
* Dha mahaprana (ꦞ)
* Da mahaprana (ꦣ)
* Sa mahaprana (ꦰ)

Final and Medial
Consonants|

* Cecak (ꦁ)
* Layar (ꦂ)
* Wignyan/visarga (ꦃ)
* Cakra (ꦿ)
* Cakra keret (ꦽ)
* Pengkal (ꦾ)
* Pangkon/virama (꧀)

Vowels|

* Wulu (ꦶ)
* Suku (ꦸ)
* Pepet (ꦼ)
* Taling (ꦺ)
* Tarung (ꦴ)
* Tolong (ꦵ)
* Dirga mure (ꦻ)
* Wulu melik (ꦷ)
* Suku mendut (ꦹ)
* Foreign: A (ꦄ)
* I (ꦆ)
* U (ꦈ)
* E (ꦌ)
* Ai (ꦍ)
* O (ꦎ)

Numbers|

* 0 (꧐)
* 1 (꧑)
* 2 (꧒)
* 3 (꧓)
* 4 (꧔)
* 5 (꧕)
* 6 (꧖)
* 7 (꧗)
* 8 (꧘)
* 9 (꧙)
* Pada pangkat (꧇)

Punctuations|

* Pada lingsa (꧈)
* Pada lungsi (꧉)
* Pada adeg (꧊)
* Pada adeg-adeg (꧋)
* Pada piseleh (꧌ and ꧍)
* Pada luhur (꧅)
* Pada madya (꧄)
* Pada andhap (꧃)
* Pada tirta tumetes (꧞)
* Pada isen-isen (꧟)
* Pada windu (꧆)
* Pangrangkep (ꧏ)
* Cecak telu (꦳)
* Panyangga (ꦀ)
* Rerenggan (꧁ and ꧂)

Links to related articles

* v
* t
* e

Languages of Indonesia

Western Malayo-Polynesian languages

| Official language|

* Indonesian
* Slang

|

Malayo-Sumbawan|

* Acehnese
* Bakongan
* Anambas-Natuna Malay
* Bacan Malay
* Balinese
* Bali Aga
* Nusa Penida
* Bamayo
* Bangka Malay
* Banjarese
* Batubara Malay
* Belitung Malay
* Bengkulu
* Berau Malay
* Besemah
* Bukit
* Col/Lembak
* Deli Malay
* Duano'
* Enim
* Haji
* Iban
* Mualang
* Seberuang
* Jambi Malay
* Jaring Halus Malay
* Kangean
* Kapuas Hulu Malay
* Kaur
* Kayong Malay
* Kendayan
* Keninjal
* Kerinci
* Ketapang Malay
* Kotawaringin Malay
* Kualuh Malay
* Kubu
* Kutainese
* Kota Bangun
* Tenggarong
* Landak Malay
* Langkat Malay
* Loncong
* Lubu
* Madurese
* Bawean
* Sapudi
* Minangkabau
* Jamee
* Kampar
* Kuantan
* Mukomuko
* Pesisir
* Melawi Malay
* Mempawah Malay
* Musi
* Lematang
* Palembang
* Penesak
* Penukal
* Rawas
* Ogan
* Palu Malay
* Panai Malay
* Pekal
* Pontianak Malay
* Riau Malay
* Coastal Riau
* Pangaraian
* Rokan Hilir
* Siak
* Tembilahan
* Sambas Malay
* Sanggau Malay
* Sasak
* Sekadau Malay
* Serdang Malay
* Semende
* Sintang Malay
* Sumbawa
* Sundanese
* Baduy
* Bantenese
* Brebes
* Priangan
* Tamiang Malay

Javanesic|

* Javanese
* Arekan
* Banyumasan
* Cirebonese
* Indramayu
* Osing
* Serang
* Tenggerese
* Kawi

Celebic|

* Andio
* Bada
* Bahonsuai
* Balaesang
* Balantak
* Banggai
* Batui
* Behoa
* Boano
* Bobongko
* Bonerate
* Bungku
* Busoa
* Cia-Cia
* Dampelas
* Dondo
* Kalao
* Kaili
* Kaimbulawa
* Kamaru
* Kodeoha
* Kulisusu
* Kumbewaha
* Lasalimu
* Laiyolo
* Lauje
* Liabuku
* Mbelala
* Moronene
* Mori Bawah
* Mori Atas
* Moma
* Muna
* Napu
* Padoe
* Pancana
* Pendau
* Rahambuu
* Rampi
* Saluan
* Sarudu
* Sedoa
* Pamona
* Taje
* Tajio
* Tukang Besi
* Tolaki
* Tomadino
* Topoiyo
* Tomini
* Totoli
* Uma
* Waru
* Wawonii
* Wolio
* Wotu

Lampungic|

* Komering
* Kayuagung
* Lampung

Northwest Sumatra–
Barrier Islands|

* Batak
* Alas
* Angkola
* Dairi
* Karo
* Mandailing
* Simalungun
* Toba
* Enggano
* Gayo
* Mentawai
* Nias
* Simeulue
* Sikule

South Sulawesi|

* Aralle-Tabulahan
* Bambam
* Bentong
* Budong-Budong
* Buginese
* Campalagian
* Coastal Konjo
* Dakka
* Duri
* Embaloh
* Enrekang
* Highland Konjo
* Kalumpang
* Lemolang
* Maiwa
* Makassarese
* Malimpung
* Mamasa
* Mamuju
* Mandar
* Panasuan
* Pannei
* Selayar
* Seko Padang
* Seko Tengah
* Tae’
* Talondo’
* Taman
* Toraja-Sa’dan
* Ulumanda’

Barito|

* Ampanang
* Bakumpai
* Bajaw
* Deyah
* Kohin
* Lawangan
* Ma'anyan
* Malang
* Ngaju
* Ot Danum
* Sama
* Ot Siang
* Tunjung
* Witu
* Pakau

Kayan–Murik|

* Aoheng
* Aput
* Bahau
* Hovongan
* Kayan
* Krio
* Modang
* Punan Merah
* Segai

Land Dayak|

* Bakati’
* Biatah
* Bukar Sadong
* Jangkang
* Kembayan
* Laraʼ
* Nyadu’
* Rejangese
* Ribun
* Sanggau
* Sara
* Semandang
* Beginci
* Gerai
* Tringgus

North Bornean|

* Bah-Biau
* Basap
* Bukat
* Bukitan
* Kelabit
* Kenyah
* Mainstream
* Lengilu
* Lun Bawang
* Murut
* Okolod
* Selungai
* Sembakung
* Tagol
* Punan Merap
* Punan Tubu
* Sa'ban
* Sajau
* Tidung
* Burusu
* Kalabakan
* Nonukan

Philippine languages|

| Central Philippine|

* Tausug

|

Gorontalo-Mongondow|

* Bintauna
* Bolango
* Buol
* Gorontaloan
* Kaidipang
* Lolak
* Mongondow
* Ponosakan
* Suwawa

Minahasan|

* Tombulu
* Tondano
* Tonsawang
* Tonsea
* Tontemboan

Sangiric|

* Bantik
* Ratahan
* Sangir
* Talaud

Central–Eastern Malayo-Polynesian languages

| Aru|

* Barakai
* Batuley
* Dobel
* Karey
* Koba
* Kola-Kompane
* Lola
* Lorang
* Manombai
* Mariri
* Tarangan
* Ujir

|

Central Maluku|

* Alune
* Amahai
* Ambelau
* Asilulu
* Banda
* Bati
* Benggoi
* Boano
* Bobot
* Buru
* Geser
* Haruku
* Hulaliu
* Kailolo
* Pelauw
* Rohomoni-Kabauw
* Hitu
* Hoti †
* Huaulu
* Hukumina †
* Hulung †
* Kaibobo
* Kamarian †
* Kayeli
* Kowiai
* Laha
* Larike-Wakasihu
* Latu
* Liana-Seti
* Lisabata-Nuniali
* Lisela
* Loun †
* Luhu
* Mangole
* Manipa
* Manusela
* Masiwang
* Naka'ela
* Nuaulu
* Nusa Laut
* Paulohi
* Salas
* Saleman
* Saparua
* Seit-Kaitetu
* Sepa-Teluti
* Sula
* Taliabo
* Teor-Kur
* Tulehu
* Watubela
* Wemale
* Yalahatan

Flores–Lembata|

* Alorese
* Kedang
* Lamaholot
* Adonara
* Ile Ape
* Lamalera
* Lamatuka
* Levuka
* Lewo Eleng
* Lewotobi
* South Lembata
* West Lembata
* Sika

Halmahera-
Cenderawasih|

* Ambai
* Ambel
* Ansus
* Arguni
* As
* Bedoanas
* Biak
* Biga
* Buli
* Busami
* Dusner
* Erokwanas
* Gane
* Irarutu
* Iresim
* Kuri
* Kurudu
* Maba
* Maden
* Matbat
* Ma'ya
* Munggui
* Marau
* Meoswar
* Mor
* Papuma
* Patani
* Pom
* Roon
* Sawai
* Serui-Laut
* Taba
* Tandia
* Wabo
* Wamesa
* Wandamen
* Waropen
* Woi
* Yaur
* Yeretuar
* Yeresiam

Kei-Tanimbar|

* Fordata
* Kei
* Onin
* Sekar
* Uruangnirin
* Yamdena

Micronesian|

Mapia †

Selaru|

* Selaru
* Seluwasan

Sumba–Flores|

* Anakalangu
* Baliledo
* Bima
* Dhao
* Ende
* Gaura
* Hawu
* Kambera
* Kéo
* Kodi
* Komodo
* Lamboya
* Lio
* Mamboru
* Manggarai
* Nage
* Ngadha
* Palu'e
* Pondok
* Rajong
* Rembong
* Riung
* Rongga
* So'a
* Kepo'
* Wae Rana
* Wanukaka
* Wejewa

Timor–Babar|

* Amarasi
* Bekais
* Bilba
* Dai
* Dawera-Daweloor
* Dela-Oenale
* Dengka
* East Damar
* Emplawas
* Galoli
* Helong
* Imroing
* Kemak
* Kisar
* Leti
* Lole
* Luang
* Masela
* Nila
* North Babar
* Ringgou
* Romang
* Serili
* Serua
* Southeast Babar
* Tela'a
* Termanu
* Tetum
* Te'un
* Tii
* Uab Meto
* West Damar
* Welaun
* Wetar

Western Oceanic|

* Anus
* Bonggo
* Kayupulau
* Liki
* Masimasi
* Ormu
* Podena
* Kaptiau
* Sobei
* Tarpia
* Tobati
* Wakde
* Yamna

Papuan languages

| North Halmahera|

* Galela
* Gamkonora
* Kao
* Loloda
* Modole
* Pagu
* Sahu
* Tabaru
* Ternate
* Tidore
* Tobelo
* Togutil
* Waioli
* West Makian

|

Timor–Alor–Pantar|

* Abui
* Adang
* Blagar
* Bunak
* Kaera
* Kafoa
* Kamang
* Klon
* Kui
* Kula
* Nedebang
* Oirata
* Retta
* Sawila
* Teiwa
* Wersing
* Western Pantar
* Woisika

Asmat–Mombum|

* Buruwai
* Casuarina Coast Asmat
* Central Asmat
* North Asmat
* Citak
* Mombum
* Kamberau
* Kamoro
* Koneraw
* Sempan

West Bird's Head|

* Kalabra
* Kuwani
* Moi
* Moraid
* Seget
* Tehit

South Bird's Head|

* Arandai
* Dombano
* Duriankari
* Inanwatan
* Kaburi
* Kais
* Kemberano
* Kokoda
* Konda
* Kovojab
* Puragi
* Yahadian

East Bird's Head|

* Hatam
* Mansim
* Meyah
* Moskona
* Sougb

West Bomberai|

* Baham
* Iha
* Karas

Dani|

* Grand Valley Dani
* Hupla
* Nduga
* Nggem
* Silimo
* Walak
* Wano
* Western Dani
* Yali

Paniai Lakes|

* Auye
* Dao
* Ekari
* Moni
* Wolani

Digul River|

* Aghu
* Awbono
* Bayono
* Densar
* Edera
* Jair
* Kombai
* Komyandaret
* Korowai
* Mandobo
* Pisa
* Sawi
* Shiaxa
* Tsaukambo
* Wambon

Foja Range|

* Airoran
* Bagusa
* Berik
* Betaf
* Bonerif
* Dabe
* Dineor
* Edwas
* Gresi
* Isirawa
* Itik
* Kapori
* Kauwera
* Keijar
* Kemtuik
* Kwerba
* Kwerba Mamberamo
* Kwesten
* Kwinsu
* Mander
* Massep
* Mawes
* Mekwei
* Mlap
* Namblong
* Nimboran
* Orya
* Sause
* Oksapmin
* Samarokena
* Trimuris
* Vitou

Lakes Plain|

* Awera
* Biritai
* Doutai
* Duvle
* Eritai
* Fayu
* Foau
* Iau
* Kaiy
* Keuw
* Kirikiri
* Kwerisa
* Obokuitai
* Papasena
* Rasawa
* Sikaritai
* Tause
* Taworta
* Waritai

East Cenderawasih Bay|

* Baropasi
* Bauzi
* Burate
* Demisa
* Kofei
* Nisa-Anasi
* Sauri
* Tefaro
* Tunggare
* Woria

Yawa|

* Saweru
* Yawa

Demta–Sentani|

* Demta
* Nafri
* Sentani
* Tabla

Ok|

* Burumakok
* Faiwol
* Iwur
* Kopka
* Muyu
* Nakai
* Ngalum
* Ninggerum
* Tangko
* Tifal
* Yonggom

Momuna–Mek|

* Eipo
* Goliath
* Ketengban
* Kosarek
* Korupun
* Nalca
* Nipsan
* Somahai

Skou|

* Skou

South Pauwasi|

* Biksi-Yetfa
* Kembra
* Kimki
* Lepki
* Murkim

East Pauwasi|

* Emem
* Zorop

West Pauwasi|

* Namla
* Tebi
* Tofanma
* Towei
* Usku

Kaure–Kosare|

* Kaure
* Kosare

Marind–Yaqai|

* Bipim
* Marind
* Yaqay

Bulaka River|

* Maklew
* Yelmek

Kayagar|

* Atohwaim
* Kayagar
* Tamagario

Border|

* Awyi
* Elseng
* Taikat
* Manem
* Sowanda
* Viid
* Waris

Senagi|

* Dera

Mairasi|

* Mairasi
* Mer
* Semimi

Kolopom|

* Kimaghama
* Morori
* Ndom
* Riantana

Yam|

* Ngkolmpu Kanum
* Rema
* Smerki
* Tamer
* Yei

Lower Mamberamo|

* Warembori
* Yoke

Others|

* Abinomn
* Abun
* Amung
* Burmeso
* Dem
* Kanum
* Maklew
* Maybrat
* Molof
* Momina
* Mor
* Mpur
* Pyu
* Sumuri
* Tambora †
* Uhunduni

Other languages

| Creoles and Pidgins|

| Malay-based creoles|

* Alor Malay
* Ambonese Malay
* Banda Malay
* Balinese Malay
* Betawi
* Gorap
* Gorontalo Malay
* Kupang Malay
* Larantuka Malay
* Manado Malay
* Makassar Malay
* Maumere Malay
* North Moluccan Malay
* Sula Malay
* Orang Pulo
* Papuan Malay
* Serui Malay
* Peranakan
* Surabayan

|

Other creoles and pidgins|

* Bidau Creole Portuguese †
* Flores Creole Portuguese †
* Javindo
* Mardijker †
* Petjo
* Pidgin Iha
* Pidgin Onin
* Portugis †
* Tansi
* Pidgin Tukang Besi

|

Immigrant languages|

| Chinese|

* Cantonese
* Fuqing
* Fuzhounese
* Hainanese
* Hakka
* Haklau
* Hokkien
* Medan
* Riau
* Hinghwa
* Mandarin
* Teochew

|

European|

* Dutch
* English
* Portuguese

Indian|

* Bengali
* Gujarati
* Odia
* Pali
* Punjabi
* Sanskrit
* Sindhi
* Tamil
* Telugu
* Urdu

Middle Eastern|

* Arabic
* Indonesian Arabic
* Hadhrami Arabic
* Modern Standard Arabic

Others|

* Tagalog
* Filipino
* Japanese
* Korean

Sign languages|

* Indonesian Sign Languages
* Kata Kolok

† indicate extinct languages

* v
* t
* e

Languages of Malaysia

Main|

| Official|

* Malaysian
* English
* comparison with British English
* Arabic

|

Families|

* Austroasiatic
* Aslian
* Austronesian
* North Bornean
* Kayan–Murik
* Land Dayak
* Malayic
* Philippine
* Sama–Bajaw
* Tai-Kadai
* Tai

Natives &
Indigenous|

| Nationwide|

* Malay

|

Peninsular
Malaysia|

* Batek
* Cheq Wong
* Duanoʼ
* Jah Hut
* Jahai
* Jakun
* Jedek
* Judeo-Malay2
* Kedah Malay
* Kelantan-Pattani Malay
* Kenaboi1
* Kensiu
* Kintaq
* Kristang
* Lanoh
* Mah Meri
* Minriq
* Mintil
* Negeri Sembilan Malay
* Mos
* Orang Kanaq
* Orang Seletar
* Pahang Malay
* Perak Malay
* Reman Malay
* Sabüm1
* Semai
* Semaq Beri
* Semelai
* Semnam
* Southern Thai
* Temiar
* Temoq2
* Temuan
* Terengganu Malay
* Wila'1

East
Malaysia|

* Abai
* Bahau
* Bajau
* Belait
* Berawan
* Biatah
* Bintulu
* Bonggi
* Bookan
* Bruneian/Kedayan Malay
* Brunei Bisaya
* Bukar–Sadong
* Bukitan
* Coastal Kadazan
* Daro-Matu
* Dumpas
* Dusun
* Eastern Kadazan
* Ganaʼ
* Iban
* Ida'an
* Jagoi
* Jangkang
* Kajaman
* Kalabakan
* Kanowit
* Kayan
* Kelabit
* Kendayan
* Keningau Murut
* Kinabatangan
* Kiput
* Klias River Kadazan
* Kota Marudu Talantang
* Kuijau
* Lahanan
* Lelak1
* Lengilu1
* Lotud
* Lun Bawang
* Mainstream Kenyah
* Melanau
* Momogun
* Murik Kayan
* Narom
* Nonukan Tidong
* Okolod
* Paluan
* Papar
* Punan Bah-Biau
* Punan Batu2
* Penan
* Remun
* Sa'ban
* Sabah Bisaya
* Sama
* Sarawak Malay
* Sebop
* Sekapan
* Selungai Murut
* Sembakung
* Seru1
* Serudung
* Sian
* Sungai
* Tagol
* Timugon
* Tombonuwo
* Tring
* Tringgus
* Tutoh
* Ukit2
* Umaʼ Lasan

Significant
minority|

| Chinese|

* Sino-Tibetan
* Yue
* Cantonese
* Malaysian Cantonese
* Hakka
* Min
* Eastern Min
* Fuqing
* Fuzhou
* Hainanese
* Pu-Xian Min
* Southern Min
* Hokkien
* Southern Peninsular Malaysian Hokkien
* Penang Hokkien
* Chaoshan Min
* Teochew
* Mandarin Chinese
* Malaysian Mandarin

|

Indian|

* Dravidian
* Malayalam
* Tamil
* Malaysian Tamil
* Telugu
* Indo-European
* Gujarati
* Hindi
* Punjabi
* Urdu

Indonesian
archipelago|

* Acehnese
* Banjar
* Madurese
* Bawean
* Buginese
* Javanese
* Kerinci
* Mandailing
* Minangkabau
* Rawa

Philippine|

* Philippine
* Iranun
* Maranao
* Molbog
* Suluk

Others|

* Cham

Creoles|

* Chavacano
* Kristang
* Manglish
* Malay trade and creole languages
* Baba Malay
* Chetty Malay
* Cocos Malay
* Sabah Malay

Mixed & Others|

* Rojak
* Tanglish
* Esperanto

Immigrants|

* African
* Arabic
* Bengali
* Burmese
* Khmer
* East Timorese
* Filipino
* Indonesian
* comparison with Malaysian
* Persian
* Japanese
* Korean
* Lao
* Nepalese
* Urdu
* Sri Lankan
* Thai
* Vietnamese

Signs|

| Main|

* Malaysian Sign Language
* Manually Coded Malay

|

By states|

* Penang Sign Language
* Selangor Sign Language

* 1 Extinct languages
* 2 Nearly extinct languages

* v
* t
* e

Languages of the Netherlands

Official|

* Dutch (national)
* English
* West Frisian
* Papiamento

Recognised|

* Limburgish
* Low Saxon
* Romani
* Yiddish

Non-official|

* Ambonese
* Arabic
* Indonesian
* Javanese
* Minangkabau
* Ripuarian

Sign language|

* Dutch Sign Language

* v
* t
* e

Languages of New Caledonia

Official language|

* French

Indigenous
languages|

| New
Caledonian|

| Northern|

* Caac
* Cèmuhî
* Drehu
* Fwâi
* Haveke
* Iaai
* Jawe
* Kumak
* Nemi
* Nengone
* Nyâlayu
* Paicî
* Pije
* Pwaamei
* Pwapwâ
* Vamale
* Yuanga

|

Southern|

* Ajië
* Arhâ
* Arhö
* Ndrumbea
* Neku
* Numèè
* Orowe
* Sîchë
* Tîrî
* Xârâcùù
* Xârâgurè

Other|

* Haeke

Polynesian|

* West Uvean

Non-indigenous
language|

* Javanese

* v
* t
* e

Languages of Singapore

Main languages|

| National|

* Malay

|

Official|

* English
* Malay
* Mandarin
* Tamil

Indigenous languages|

* Johor-Riau Malay
* Orang Seletar

Creole languages|

* Baba Malay
* Bazaar Malay
* Chitty Malay
* Kristang
* Singlish
* Singdarin

Immigrant languages|

| Chinese|

* Sinitic
* Cantonese
* Hainanese
* Hakka
* Henghwa
* Hokchew
* Hokkien
* Teochew

|

Indian|

* Dravidian
* Malayalam
* Telugu
* Indo-Aryan
* Bengali
* Gujarati
* Hindi
* Punjabi
* Sindhi
* Sinhala

Indonesian|

* Acehnese
* Banjarese
* Batak
* Angkola
* Mandailing
* Toba
* Baweanese
* Buginese
* Javanese
* Minangkabau

Other|

* Arabic
* Armenian
* Burmese
* Filipino
* Japanese
* Korean
* Nepali
* Thai
* Vietnamese

Sign languages|

* Singaporean Sign Language

* v
* t
* e

Languages of Sri Lanka

Official languages|

* Sinhala
* Tamil

Others|

* Sri Lankan Tamil
* Sri Lankan English1
* Sri Lankan Malay
* Pali2
* Sri Lankan Portuguese Creole
* Vedda
* Sri Lankan sign languages

Formerly spoken and extinct|

* Arwi
* Ceylon Creole Dutch
* Rodiya3

1Recognized as a "link" language 2a liturgical language 3a dialect of Sinhala

* v
* t
* e

Languages of Suriname

Official language|

* Dutch

Regional languages|

* Aukan
* Caribbean Hindustani
* Chinese
* English
* Javanese
* Kwinti
* Saramaccan
* Sranan Tongo

Indigenous languages|

* Akurio
* Arawak
* Carib
* Mawayana
* Sikiana
* Trió
* Waiwai
* Warao
* Wayana

* v
* t
* e

Austronesian languages

Formosan|

* Rukai
* Tsouic
* Northern Formosan
* East Formosan

Malayo-Polynesian|

| Western|

* Sumatran*
* Northwest Sumatra–Barrier Islands
* Nasal?
* Lampung
* Javanese
* Madurese
* Bali–Sasak–Sumbawa

Philippine|

* Batanic
* Northern Luzon
* Central Luzon
* Northern Mindoro
* Greater Central Philippine
* Kalamian
* South Mindanao
* Sangiric
* Minahasan

Greater Barito*|

* Barito
* Basap*

Greater North Borneo*|

* North Borneo *
* Sabahan
* North Sarawakan
* Melanau–Kajang
* Kayan–Murik
* Land Dayak
* Malayo–Chamic *
* Sundanese
* Rejang?
* Moklenic?

Celebic|

* Bungku–Tolaki
* Muna–Buton
* Saluan–Banggai
* Tomini–Tolitoli*
* Kaili–Wolio*

South Sulawesi|

* Makassar
* Seko–Badaic*
* Northern South Sulawesi

Central|

* Bima
* Sumba–Flores
* Flores–Lembata
* Selaru
* Kei–Tanimbar
* Aru
* Timoric
* Kowiai?
* Central Maluku*

Eastern|

| SHWNG|

* Halmahera Sea
* Cenderawasih

|

Oceanic|

* Admiralty
* St. Matthias
* Temotu
* Southeast Solomonic
* Micronesian
* Central Pacific

Western|

* Meso-Melanesian
* North New Guinea
* Papuan Tip

Southern|

* Vanuatu
* North
* Central
* South
* Loyalties–New Caledonia

* * indicates proposed status
* ? indicates classification dispute
* † indicates extinct status

Authority control databases: National |

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* Japan
* Czech Republic
* Latvia
* Israel

|

*[1SG]: first person, singular
*[1PL.EXCL]: First person plural exclusive
*[1PL.INCL]: First person plural inclusive
*[2SG]: second person, singular
*[2PL]: second person, plural
*[3SG]: third person, singular
*[3PL]: third person, plural
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